THE

C
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

1
C HOME C Intro
C Get Started C Syntax
C Output C Comments
C Variables C Data Types
C Constants C Operators
C Booleans C If...Else
C Switch C While Loop
C For Loop C Break/Continue
C Arrays C Strings
C User Input C Memory Address
C Pointers

C Functions
C Function Parameters C Function Declaration
C Recursion C Math Functions

C Structures
C Structures

C Enums
C Enums

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Learn C
C is a general-purpose programming language, developed in 1972, and still
quite popular.
C is very powerful; it has been used to develop operating systems,
databases, applications, etc.

Examples in Each Chapter

Our Try it Yourself tool makes it easy to learn C. You can edit code and view
the result in your browser:
Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

C Introduction
What is C?
C is a general-purpose programming language created by Dennis Ritchie at
the Bell Laboratories in 1972.
It is a very popular language, despite being old.
C is strongly associated with UNIX, as it was developed to write the UNIX
operating system.

Why Learn C?
 It is one of the most popular programming language in the world
 If you know C, you will have no problem learning other popular
programming languages such as Java, Python, C++, C#, etc, as the
syntax is similar
 C is very fast, compared to other programming languages,
like Java and Python
 C is very versatile; it can be used in both applications and technologies

Difference between C and C++

 C++ was developed as an extension of C, and both languages have
almost the same syntax
 The main difference between C and C++ is that C++ support classes
and objects, while C does not

3
Get Started
This tutorial will teach you the very basics of C.
It is not necessary to have any prior programming experience.

C Get Started
Get Started With C
To start using C, you need two things:

 A text editor, like Notepad, to write C code

 A compiler, like GCC, to translate the C code into a language that the
computer will understand

There are many text editors and compilers to choose from. In this tutorial,
we will use an IDE (see below).

C Install IDE
An IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is used to edit AND compile
the code.

Popular IDE's include Code::Blocks, Eclipse, and Visual Studio. These are all
free, and they can be used to both edit and debug C code.

Note: Web-based IDE's can work as well, but functionality is limited.

We will use Code::Blocks in our tutorial, which we believe is a good place to

start.

You can find the latest version of Codeblocks at http://www.codeblocks.org/.

Download the mingw-setup.exe file, which will install the text editor with a
compiler.

C Quickstart
Let's create our first C file.
Open Codeblocks and go to File > New > Empty File.

Write the following C code and save the file as myfirstprogram.c (File >
Save File as):

4
myfirstprogram.c
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

Congratulations! You have now written and executed your first C program.

myfirstprogram.c
Code:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

Result:

Hello World!

C Syntax
Syntax
You have already seen the following code a couple of times in the first
chapters. Let's break it down to understand it better:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

Example explained
Line 1: #include <stdio.h> is a header file library that lets us work with
input and output functions, such as printf() (used in line 4). Header files
add functionality to C programs.

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Don't worry if you don't understand how #include <stdio.h> works. Just
think of it as something that (almost) always appears in your program.
Line 2: A blank line. C ignores white space. But we use it to make the code
more readable.
Line 3: Another thing that always appear in a C program, is main(). This is
called a function. Any code inside its curly brackets {} will be executed.
Line 4: printf() is a function used to output/print text to the screen. In
our example it will output "Hello World".
Note that: Every C statement ends with a semicolon ;
Note: The body of int main() could also been written as:
int main(){printf("Hello World!");return 0;}
Remember: The compiler ignores white spaces. However, multiple lines
makes the code more readable.
Line 5: return 0 ends the main() function.
Line 6: Do not forget to add the closing curly bracket } to actually end the
main function.

C Output (Print Text)

Output (Print Text)
To output values or print text in C, you can use the printf() function:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

You can use as many printf() functions as you want. However, note that it
does not insert a new line at the end of the output:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
printf("I am learning C.");
return 0;
}

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C New Lines
New Lines
To insert a new line, you can use the \n character:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!\n");
printf("I am learning C.");
return 0;
}

You can also output multiple lines with a single printf() function. However,
be aware that this will make the code harder to read:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!\nI am learning C.\nAnd it is awesome!");
return 0;
}

Tip: Two \n characters after each other will create a blank line:

Example
#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
printf("Hello World!\n\n");
printf("I am learning C.");
return 0;
}

What is \n exactly?
The newline character (\n) is called an escape sequence, and it forces the
cursor to change its position to the beginning of the next line on the screen.
This results in a new line.

Examples of other valid escape sequences are:

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 Escape Sequence Description

\t Creates a horizontal tab

\\ Inserts a backslash character (\)

\" Inserts a double quote character

C Comments
Comments in C
Comments can be used to explain code, and to make it more readable. It can
also be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code.

Comments can be singled-lined or multi-lined.

Single-line Comments
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes ( //).
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by the compiler (will
not be executed).

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

Example
// This is a comment
printf("Hello World!");

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

Example
printf("Hello World!"); // This is a comment

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C Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the compiler:

Example
/* The code below will print the words Hello World!
to the screen, and it is amazing */
printf("Hello World!");

Single or multi-line comments?

It is up to you which you want to use. Normally, we use // for short
comments, and /* */ for longer.

Good to know: Before version C99 (released in 1999), you could only use
multi-line comments in C.

C Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values, like numbers and characters.
In C, there are different types of variables (defined with different keywords),
for example:

 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such

as 123 or -123
 float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such
as 19.99 or -19.99
 char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are
surrounded by single quotes

Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable, specify the type and assign it a value:

Syntax
type variableName = value;

Where type is one of C types (such as int), and variableName is the name of
the variable (such as x or myName). The equal sign is used to assign a
value to the variable.

So, to create a variable that should store a number, look at the following
example:

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Example
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign the value 15 to it:

int myNum = 15;

You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the
value later:

Example
// Declare a variable
int myNum;

// Assign a value to the variable

myNum = 15;

Output Variables
You learned from the output chapter that you can output values/print text
with the printf() function:

Example
printf("Hello World!");

In many other programming languages (like Python, Java, and C++), you
would normally use a print function to display the value of a variable.
However, this is not possible in C:

Example
int myNum = 15;
printf(myNum); // Nothing happens

To output variables in C, you must get familiar with something called "format
specifiers".

Format Specifiers
Format specifiers are used together with the printf() function to tell the
compiler what type of data the variable is storing. It is basically a placeholder
for the variable value.

A format specifier starts with a percentage sign %, followed by a character.

For example, to output the value of an int variable, you must use the format
specifier %d or %i surrounded by double quotes, inside the printf() function:

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Example
int myNum = 15;
printf("%d", myNum); // Outputs 15

To print other types, use %c for char and %f for float:

Example
// Create variables
int myNum = 15; // Integer (whole number)
float myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character

// Print variables
printf("%d\n", myNum);
printf("%f\n", myFloatNum);
printf("%c\n", myLetter);

To combine both text and a variable, separate them with a comma inside
the printf() function:

Example
int myNum = 15;
printf("My favorite number is: %d", myNum);

To print different types in a single printf() function, you can use the
following:

Example
int myNum = 15;
char myLetter = 'D';
printf("My number is %d and my letter is %c", myNum, myLetter);

You will learn more about Data Types in the next chapter.

Change Variable Values

Note: If you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the
previous value:

Example
int myNum = 15; // myNum is 15
myNum = 10; // Now myNum is 10

You can also assign the value of one variable to another:

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Example
int myNum = 15;

int myOtherNum = 23;

// Assign the value of myOtherNum (23) to myNum

myNum = myOtherNum;

// myNum is now 23, instead of 15

printf("%d", myNum);

Or copy values to empty variables:

Example
// Create a variable and assign the value 15 to it
int myNum = 15;
// Declare a variable without assigning it a value
int myOtherNum;
// Assign the value of myNum to myOtherNum
myOtherNum = myNum;
// myOtherNum now has 15 as a value
printf("%d", myOtherNum);

Add Variables Together

To add a variable to another variable, you can use the + operator:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int sum = x + y;
printf("%d", sum);

Declare Multiple Variables

To declare more than one variable of the same type, use a comma-
separated list:

Example
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
printf("%d", x + y + z);

You can also assign the same value to multiple variables of the same type:

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Example
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 50;
printf("%d", x + y + z);

C Variable Names
All C variables must be identified with unique names.

These unique names are called identifiers.

Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names
(age, sum, totalVolume).
Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create
understandable and maintainable code:

Example
// Good
int minutesPerHour = 60;

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;

The general rules for naming variables are:

 Names can contain letters, digits and underscores

 Names must begin with a letter or an underscore (_)
 Names are case sensitive (myVar and myvar are different variables)
 Names cannot contain whitespaces or special characters like !, #, %,
etc.
 Reserved words (such as int) cannot be used as names

You can also assign the same value to multiple variables of the same type:

Real-Life Example
Often in our examples, we tend to simplify variable names to match their
data type (myInt or myNum for int types, myChar for char types etc). This is
done to avoid confusion.

However, if you want a real-life example on how variables can be used, take
a look at the following, where we have made a program that stores different
data of a college student:

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 Example
// Student data
int studentID = 15;
int studentAge = 23;
float studentFee = 75.25;
char studentGrade = 'B';

// Print variables
printf("Student id: %d\n", studentID);
printf("Student age: %d\n", studentAge);
printf("Student fee: %f\n", studentFee);
printf("Student grade: %c", studentGrade);

C Data Types
Data Types
As explained in the Variables chapter, a variable in C must be a
specified data type, and you must use a format specifier inside
the printf() function to display it:

Example
// Create variables
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)
float myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character

// Print variables
printf("%d\n", myNum);
printf("%f\n", myFloatNum);
printf("%c\n", myLetter);

Basic Data Types

The data type specifies the size and type of information the variable will
store.

In this tutorial, we will focus on the most basic ones:

Data Type Size Description

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Int 2 or 4 bytes Stores whole numbers, without decimals

Float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more decimals. Sufficient for storing 6-7
decimal digits

Double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more decimals. Sufficient for storing 15
decimal digits

Char 1 byte Stores a single character/letter/number, or ASCII values

Basic Format Specifiers

Format Specifier Data Type

%d or %i Int

%f Float

%lf Double

%c Char

%s Used for strings (text), which you will learn more about in a
later chapter

There are different format specifiers for each data type. Here are some of
them:

Set Decimal Precision

You have probably already noticed that if you print a floating point number,
the output will show 6 digits after the decimal point:

15
Example
float myFloatNum = 3.5;
double myDoubleNum = 19.99;

printf("%f\n", myFloatNum); // Outputs 3.500000

printf("%lf", myDoubleNum); // Outputs 19.990000

If you want to remove the extra zeros (set decimal precision), you can use a
dot (.) followed by a number that specifies how many digits that should be
shown after the decimal point:

Example
float myFloatNum = 3.5;

printf("%f\n", myFloatNum); // Default will show 6 digits after the

decimal point
printf("%.1f\n", myFloatNum); // Only show 1 digit
printf("%.2f\n", myFloatNum); // Only show 2 digits
printf("%.4f", myFloatNum); // Only show 4 digits

C Type Conversion
Type Conversion
Sometimes, you have to convert the value of one data type to another type.
This is known as type conversion.

For example, if you try to divide two integers, 5 by 2, you would expect the
result to be 2.5. But since we are working with integers (and not floating-
point values), the following example will just output 2:

Example
int x = 5;
int y = 2;
int sum = 5 / 2;

printf("%d", sum); // Outputs 2

To get the right result, you need to know how type conversion works.

There are two types of conversion in C:

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  Implicit Conversion (automatically)
 Explicit Conversion (manually)

Implicit Conversion
Implicit conversion is done automatically by the compiler when you assign a
value of one type to another.

For example, if you assign an int value to a float type:

Example
// Automatic conversion: int to float
float myFloat = 9;

printf("%f", myFloat); // 9.000000

As you can see, the compiler automatically converts the int value 9 to a float
value of 9.000000.

This can be risky, as you might lose control over specific values in certain
situations.

Especially if it was the other way around - the following example

automatically converts the float value 9.99 to an int value of 9:

Example
// Automatic conversion: float to int
int myInt = 9.99;

printf("%d", myInt); // 9

What happened to .99? We might want that data in our program! So be

careful. It is important that you know how the compiler work in these
situations, to avoid unexpected results.

As another example, if you divide two integers: 5 by 2, you know that the
sum is 2.5. And as you know from the beginning of this page, if you store the
sum as an integer, the result will only display the number 2. Therefore, it
would be better to store the sum as a float or a double, right?

Example
float sum = 5 / 2;

printf("%f", sum); // 2.000000

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Why is the result 2.00000 and not 2.5? Well, it is because 5 and 2 are still
integers in the division. In this case, you need to manually convert the
integer values to floating-point values. (see below).

Explicit Conversion
Explicit conversion is done manually by placing the type in parentheses () in
front of the value.
Considering our problem from the example above, we can now get the right
result:

Example
// Manual conversion: int to float
float sum = (float) 5 / 2;

printf("%f", sum); // 2.500000

You can also place the type in front of a variable:

Example
int num1 = 5;
int num2 = 2;
float sum = (float) num1 / num2;

printf("%f", sum); // 2.500000

And since you learned about "decimal precision" in the previous chapter, you
could make the output even cleaner by removing the extra zeros (if you
like):

Example
int num1 = 5;
int num2 = 2;
float sum = (float) num1 / num2;

printf("%.1f", sum); // 2.5

C Constants
Constants
If you don't want others (or yourself) to change existing variable values, you
can use the const keyword.

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This will declare the variable as "constant", which
means unchangeable and read-only:

Example
const int myNum = 15; // myNum will always be 15
myNum = 10; // error: assignment of read-only variable 'myNum'

You should always declare the variable as constant when you have values
that are unlikely to change:

Example
const int minutesPerHour = 60;
const float PI = 3.14;

Notes On Constants
When you declare a constant variable, it must be assigned with a value:

Example
Like this:
const int minutesPerHour = 60;

This however, will not work:

const int minutesPerHour;

minutesPerHour = 60; // error

Another thing about constant variables, is that it is considered good practice

to declare them with uppercase. It is not required, but useful for code
readability and common for C programmers:

Example
const int BIRTHYEAR = 1980;

C Operators
Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:

19
Example
int myNum = 100 + 50;
Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the
example above, it can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or
a variable and another variable:

Example
int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)
int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)

C divides the operators into the following groups:

 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Bitwise operators

Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.

Operator Name Description Example

+ Addition Adds together two values x+y

- Subtraction subtracts one value from another x–y

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y

/ Division Divides one value by another x/y

% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y

++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x

-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x

Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the
value 10 to a variable called x:

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Example
int x = 10;

The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:

Example
int x = 10;
x += 5;

A list of all assignment operators:

Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5

+= x += 3 x=x+3

-= x -= 3 x=x–3

*= x *= 3 x=x*3

/= x /= 3 x=x/3

%= x %= 3 x=x%3

&= x &= 3 x=x&3

|= x |= 3 x=x|3

^= x ^= 3 x=x^3

>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3

<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is
important in programming, because it helps us to find answers and make
decisions.

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The return value of a comparison is either 1 or 0, which means true (1)
or false (0). These values are known as Boolean values, and you will learn
more about them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter.

In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if
5 is greater than 3:

Example
int x = 5;
int y = 3;
printf("%d", x > y); // returns 1 (true) because 5 is greater than 3

A list of all comparison operators:

Operator Name Example

== Equal to x == y

!= Not equal x != y

> Greater than x>y

< Less than x<y

>= Greater than or equal to x >= y

<= Less than or equal to x <= y

Logical Operators
You can also test for true or false values with logical operators.

Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or

values:

Operator Name Description Example

&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are true x < 5 && x < 10

|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true x < 5 || x < 4

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 ! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true !(x < 5 && x < 10)

Sizeof Operator
The memory size (in bytes) of a data type or a variable can be found with
the sizeof operator:

Example
int myInt;
float myFloat;
double myDouble;
char myChar;

printf("%lu\n", sizeof(myInt));
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(myFloat));
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(myDouble));
printf("%lu\n", sizeof(myChar));

Note that we use the %lu format specifer to print the result, instead of %d. It is
because the compiler expects the sizeof operator to return a long unsigned
int (%lu), instead of int (%d). On some computers it might work with %d, but it
is safer to use %lu.

C Booleans
Boolean
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have
one of two values, like:

 YES / NO
 ON / OFF
 TRUE / FALSE

For this, C has a bool data type, which is known as booleans.

Booleans represent values that are either true or false.

Boolean Variables
In C, the bool type is not a built-in data type, like int or char.
It was introduced in C99, and you must import the following header file to
use it:

23
#include <stdbool.h>
A boolean variable is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the
values true or false:
bool isProgrammingFun = true;
bool isFishTasty = false;

Before trying to print the boolean variables, you should know that boolean
values are returned as integers:

 1 (or any other number that is not 0) represents true

 0 represents false

Therefore, you must use the %d format specifier to print a boolean value:
Example
// Create boolean variables
bool isProgrammingFun = true;
bool isFishTasty = false;
// Return boolean values
printf("%d", isProgrammingFun); // Returns 1 (true)
printf("%d", isFishTasty); // Returns 0 (false)

However, it is more common to return a boolean value by comparing values

and variables.

Comparing Values and Variables

Comparing values are useful in programming, because it helps us to find
answers and make decisions.

For example, you can use a comparison operator, such as the greater
than (>) operator, to compare two values:

Example
printf("%d", 10 > 9); // Returns 1 (true) because 10 is greater than 9
From the example above, you can see that the return value is a boolean
value.
You can also compare two variables:

Example
int x = 10;
int y = 9;
printf("%d", x > y);

24
In the example below, we use the equal to (==) operator to compare
different values:

Example
printf("%d", 10 == 10); // Returns 1 (true), because 10 is equal to 10
printf("%d", 10 == 15); // Returns 0 (false), because 10 is not equal
to 15
printf("%d", 5 == 55); // Returns 0 (false) because 5 is not equal to
55
You are not limited to only compare numbers. You can also compare boolean
variables, or even special structures, like arrays (which you will learn more
about in a later chapter):

Example
bool isHamburgerTasty = true;
bool isPizzaTasty = true;

// Find out if both hamburger and pizza is tasty

printf("%d", isHamburgerTasty == isPizzaTasty);

Remember to include the <stdbool.h> header file when working

with bool variables.

Real Life Example

Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is
old enough to vote.

In the example below, we use the >= comparison operator to find out if the
age (25) is greater than OR equal to the voting age limit, which is set to 18:

Example
int myAge = 25;
int votingAge = 18;

printf("%d", myAge >= votingAge); // Returns 1 (true), meaning 25 year

olds are allowed to vote!

Cool, right? An even better approach (since we are on a roll now), would be
to wrap the code above in an if...else statement, so we can perform
different actions depending on the result:

Example

25
Output "Old enough to vote!" if myAge is greater than or equal to 18.
Otherwise output "Not old enough to vote.":

int myAge = 25;

int votingAge = 18;

if (myAge >= votingAge) {

printf("Old enough to vote!");
} else {
printf("Not old enough to vote.");
}

Booleans are the basis for all comparisons and conditions.

You will learn more about conditions (if...else) in the next chapter.

C If ... Else
Conditions and If Statements
You have already learned that C supports the usual logical conditions from
mathematics:

 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
 Equal to a == b
 Not Equal to: a != b

You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different
decisions.
C has the following conditional statements:

 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified

condition is true
 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same
condition is false
 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition
is false
 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed

The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of code to be executed if a condition
is true.

26
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}

Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate
an error.
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18.
If the condition is true, print some text:

Example
if (20 > 18) {
printf("20 is greater than 18");
}

We can also test variables:

Example
int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
printf("x is greater than y");
}

Example explained
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is
greater than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know
that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y".

The else Statement

Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the
condition is false.

Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}

Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
printf("Good day.");

27
} else {
printf("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained

In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition
is false. Because of this, we move on to the else condition and print to the
screen "Good evening". If the time was less than 18, the program would
print "Good day".

The else if Statement

Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition
is false.

Syntax
if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and
condition2 is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and
condition2 is false
}

Example
int time = 22;
if (time < 10) {
printf("Good morning.");
} else if (time < 20) {
printf("Good day.");
} else {
printf("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."

Example explained

In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first
condition is false. The next condition, in the else if statement, is
also false, so we move on to the else condition

28
since condition1 and condition2 is both false - and print to the screen
"Good evening".

However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."

Another Example
This example shows how you can use if..else to find out if a number is
positive or negative:

Example
int myNum = 10; // Is this a positive or negative number?

if (myNum > 0) {
printf("The value is a positive number.");
} else if (myNum < 0) {
printf("The value is a negative number.");
} else {
printf("The value is 0.");
}

C Short Hand If Else

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)
There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary
operator because it consists of three operands. It can be used to replace
multiple lines of code with a single line. It is often used to replace simple if
else statements:

Syntax
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;

Instead of writing:

Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
printf("Good day.");

29
} else {
printf("Good evening.");
}
You can simply write:

Example
int time = 20;
(time < 18) ? printf("Good day.") : printf("Good evening.");
It is completely up to you if you want to use the traditional if...else
statement or the ternary operator.

C Switch
Switch Statement
Instead of writing many if..else statements, you can use
the switch statement.
The switch statement selects one of many code blocks to be executed:

Syntax
switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}
This is how it works:

 The switch expression is evaluated once

 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case
 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed
 The break statement breaks out of the switch block and stops the
execution
 The default statement is optional, and specifies some code to run if
there is no case match

The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday
name:
Example
int day = 4;

30
switch (day) {
case 1:
printf("Monday");
break;
case 2:
printf("Tuesday");
break;
case 3:
printf("Wednesday");
break;
case 4:
printf("Thursday");
break;
case 5:
printf("Friday");
break;
case 6:
printf("Saturday");
break;
case 7:
printf("Sunday");
break;
}

// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)

The break Keyword

When C reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.

This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.

When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no
need for more testing.

A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of
all the rest of the code in the switch block.

The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {

31
 case 6:
printf("Today is Saturday");
break;
case 7:
printf("Today is Sunday");
break;
default:
printf("Looking forward to the Weekend");
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"
Note: The default keyword must be used as the last statement in the switch,
and it does not need a break.

C While Loop
Loops
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code
more readable.

While Loop
The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition
is true:

Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}

In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as
long as a variable (i) is less than 5:
Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}

Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition ( i++),
otherwise the loop will never end!

The Do/While Loop

The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code

32
block once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the
loop as long as the condition is true.

Syntax
do {
// code block to be executed
}
while (condition);

The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at
least once, even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed
before the condition is tested:

Example
int i = 0;

do {
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}
while (i < 5);

Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the
loop will never end!

C For Loop
For Loop
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of
code, use the for loop instead of a while loop:

Syntax
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
// code block to be executed
}

Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.

Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.

33
Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been
executed.
The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:

Example
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

printf("%d\n", i);
}

Example explained

Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).

Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5).
If the condition is true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop
will end.

Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has
been executed.

Another Example
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:

Example
for (i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {
printf("%d\n", i);
}

Nested Loops
It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested
loop.

The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer
loop":

Example
int i, j;

// Outer loop

34
for (i = 1; i <= 2; ++i) {
printf("Outer: %d\n", i); // Executes 2 times

// Inner loop
for (j = 1; j <= 3; ++j) {
printf(" Inner: %d\n", j); // Executes 6 times (2 * 3)
}
}

C Break and Continue

Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this
tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a switch statement.

The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.

This example jumps out of the for loop when i is equal to 4:

Example
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if (i == 4) {
break;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}

Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified
condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.

This example skips the value of 4:

Example
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

35
 if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}

Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:

Break Example
int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

if (i == 4) {
break;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}

Continue Example
int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
i++;
}

C Arrays
Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of
declaring separate variables for each value.

To create an array, define the data type (like int) and specify the name of
the array followed by square brackets [].

36
To insert values to it, use a comma-separated list, inside curly braces:

int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};

We have now created a variable that holds an array of four integers.

Access the Elements of an Array

To access an array element, refer to its index number.
Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second
element, etc.
This statement accesses the value of the first element [0] in myNumbers:

Example
int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};
printf("%d", myNumbers[0]);

// Outputs 25

Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:

Example
myNumbers[0] = 33;

Example
int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};
myNumbers[0] = 33;
printf("%d", myNumbers[0]);

// Now outputs 33 instead of 25

Loop Through an Array

You can loop through the array elements with the for loop.

The following example outputs all elements in the myNumbers array:

Example
int myNumbers[] = {25, 50, 75, 100};
int i;

37
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {
printf("%d\n", myNumbers[i]);
}

Set Array Size

Another common way to create arrays, is to specify the size of the array, and
add elements later:

Example
// Declare an array of four integers:
int myNumbers[4];

// Add elements
myNumbers[0] = 25;
myNumbers[1] = 50;
myNumbers[2] = 75;
myNumbers[3] = 100;

Using this method, you should know the size of the array, in order for
the program to store enough memory.

You are not able to change the size of the array after creation.

C Multidimensional Arrays
Multidimensional Arrays
In the previous chapter, you learned about arrays, which is also known
as single dimension arrays. These are great, and something you will use a
lot while programming in C. However, if you want to store data as a tabular
form, like a table with rows and columns, you need to get familiar
with multidimensional arrays.

A multidimensional array is basically an array of arrays.

Arrays can have any number of dimensions. In this chapter, we will introduce
the most common; two-dimensional arrays (2D).

Two-Dimensional Arrays

38
A 2D array is also known as a matrix (a table of rows and columns).

To create a 2D array of integers, take a look at the following example:

int matrix[2][3] = { {1, 4, 2}, {3, 6, 8} };

The first dimension represents the number of rows [2], while the second
dimension represents the number of columns [3]. The values are placed in
row-order, and can be visualized like this:

Access the Elements of a 2D Array

To access an element of a two-dimensional array, you must specify the index
number of both the row and column.

This statement accesses the value of the element in the first row
(0) and third column (2) of the matrix array.

Example
int matrix[2][3] = { {1, 4, 2}, {3, 6, 8} };

printf("%d", matrix[0][2]); // Outputs 2

Remember that: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is
the second element, etc.

Change Elements in a 2D Array

To change the value of an element, refer to the index number of the element
in each of the dimensions:

The following example will change the value of the element in the first row
(0) and first column (0):

Example

39
int matrix[2][3] = { {1, 4, 2}, {3, 6, 8} };
matrix[0][0] = 9;

printf("%d", matrix[0][0]); // Now outputs 9 instead of 1

Loop Through a 2D Array

To loop through a multi-dimensional array, you need one loop for each of the
array's dimensions.

The following example outputs all elements in the matrix array:

Example
int matrix[2][3] = { {1, 4, 2}, {3, 6, 8} };

int i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d\n", matrix[i][j]);
}
}

C Strings
Strings
Strings are used for storing text/characters.
For example, "Hello World" is a string of characters.

Unlike many other programming languages, C does not have a String

type to easily create string variables. Instead, you must use the char type
and create an array of characters to make a string in C:

char greetings[] = "Hello World!";

Note that you have to use double quotes ("").

To output the string, you can use the printf() function together with the
format specifier %s to tell C that we are now working with strings:

Example
char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
printf("%s", greetings);

40
Access Strings
Since strings are actually arrays in C, you can access a string by referring to
its index number inside square brackets [].

This example prints the first character (0) in greetings:

Example
char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
printf("%c", greetings[0]);
Note that we have to use the %c format specifier to print a single character.

Modify Strings
To change the value of a specific character in a string, refer to the index
number, and use single quotes:

Example
char greetings[] = "Hello World!";
greetings[0] = 'J';
printf("%s", greetings);
// Outputs Jello World! instead of Hello World!

Loop Through a String

You can also loop through the characters of a string, using a for loop:
Example
char carName[] = "Volvo";
int i;

for (i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {

printf("%c\n", carName[i]);
}

Another Way Of Creating Strings

In the examples above, we used a "string literal" to create a string variable.
This is the easiest way to create a string in C.

You should also note that you can create a string with a set of characters.
This example will produce the same result as the example in the beginning of
this page:

Example

41
char greetings[] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '
', 'W', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd', '!', '\0'};
printf("%s", greetings);

Why do we include the \0 character at the end? This is known as the

"null terminating character", and must be included when creating strings
using this method. It tells C that this is the end of the string.

Differences
The difference between the two ways of creating strings, is that the first
method is easier to write, and you do not have to include the \0 character, as
C will do it for you.
You should note that the size of both arrays is the same: They both have 13
characters (space also counts as a character by the way), including the \
0 character:

Example
char greetings[] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '
', 'W', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd', '!', '\0'};
char greetings2[] = "Hello World!";

printf("%lu\n", sizeof(greetings)); // Outputs 13

printf("%lu\n", sizeof(greetings2)); // Outputs 13

C Special Characters
Strings - Special Characters
Because strings must be written within quotes, C will misunderstand this
string, and generate an error:
char txt[] = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";

The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape

character.

The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string
characters:

Escape character Result Description

\' ' Single quote

\" " Double quote

42
 \\ \ Backslash

The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:

Example
char txt[] = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";

The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:

Example
char txt[] = "It\'s alright.";

The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:

Example
char txt[] = "The character \\ is called backslash.";

Other popular escape characters in C are:

Escape Character Result

\n New Line

\t Tab

\0 Null

C String Functions
String Functions
C also has many useful string functions, which can be used to perform
certain operations on strings.
To use them, you must include the <string.h> header file in your program:
#include <string.h>

String Length
For example, to get the length of a string, you can use the strlen() function:

43
Example
char alphabet[] = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
printf("%d", strlen(alphabet));
In the Strings chapter, we used sizeof to get the size of a string/array. Note
that sizeof and strlen behaves differently, as sizeof also includes the \
0 character when counting:

Example
char alphabet[] = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
printf("%d", strlen(alphabet)); // 26
printf("%d", sizeof(alphabet)); // 27
It is also important that you know that sizeof will always return the memory
size (in bytes), and not the actual string length:

Example
char alphabet[50] = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
printf("%d", strlen(alphabet)); // 26
printf("%d", sizeof(alphabet)); // 50

Concatenate Strings
To concatenate (combine) two strings, you can use the strcat() function:

Example
char str1[20] = "Hello ";
char str2[] = "World!";
// Concatenate str2 to str1 (result is stored in str1)
strcat(str1, str2);
// Print str1
printf("%s", str1);

Note that the size of str1 should be large enough to store the result of the
two strings combined (20 in our example).

Copy Strings
To copy the value of one string to another, you can use the strcpy() function:

Example
char str1[20] = "Hello World!";
char str2[20];
// Copy str1 to str2
strcpy(str2, str1);
// Print str2
printf("%s", str2);

Note that the size of str2 should be large enough to store the copied string
(20 in our example).

44
Compare Strings
To compare two strings, you can use the strcmp() function.
It returns 0 if the two strings are equal, otherwise a value that is not 0:

Example
char str1[] = "Hello";
char str2[] = "Hello";
char str3[] = "Hi";
// Compare str1 and str2, and print the result
printf("%d\n", strcmp(str1, str2)); // Returns 0 (the strings are
equal)
// Compare str1 and str3, and print the result
printf("%d\n", strcmp(str1, str3)); // Returns -4 (the strings are not
equal)

C User Input
User Input
You have already learned that printf() is used to output values in C.

To get user input, you can use the scanf() function:

Example
Output a number entered by the user:

// Create an integer variable that will store the number we get from
the user
int myNum;

// Ask the user to type a number

printf("Type a number: \n");

// Get and save the number the user types

scanf("%d", &myNum);

45
// Output the number the user typed
printf("Your number is: %d", myNum);

The scanf() function takes two arguments: the format specifier of the variable
(%d in the example above) and the reference operator ( &myNum), which stores
the memory address of the variable.

Tip: You will learn more about memory addresses and functions in the next
chapter.

Multiple Inputs
The scanf() function also allow multiple inputs (an integer and a character in
the following example):

Example
// Create an int and a char variable
int myNum;
char myChar;

// Ask the user to type a number AND a character

printf("Type a number AND a character and press enter: \n");

// Get and save the number AND character the user types
scanf("%d %c", &myNum, &myChar);

// Print the number

printf("Your number is: %d\n", myNum);

// Print the character

printf("Your character is: %c\n", myChar);

Take String Input

You can also get a string entered by the user:

Example
Output the name of a user:

// Create a string
char firstName[30];

// Ask the user to input some text

46
printf("Enter your first name: \n");

// Get and save the text

scanf("%s", firstName);

// Output the text

printf("Hello %s", firstName);

Note that you must specify the size of the string/array (we used a very high
number, 30, but atleast then we are certain it will store enough characters
for the first name), and you don't have to specify the reference operator ( &)
when working with strings in scanf().

However, the scanf() function has some limitations: it considers space

(whitespace, tabs, etc) as a terminating character, which means that it can
only display a single word (even if you type many words). For example:

Example
char fullName[30];

printf("Type your full name: \n");

scanf("%s", &fullName);

printf("Hello %s", fullName);

// Type your full name: John Doe

// Hello John

From the example above, you would expect the program to print "John Doe",
but it only prints "John".

That's why, when working with strings, we often use the fgets() function
to read a line of text. Note that you must include the following arguments:
the name of the string variable, sizeof(string_name), and stdin:

Example
char fullName[30];

printf("Type your full name: \n");

fgets(fullName, sizeof(fullName), stdin);

printf("Hello %s", fullName);

// Type your full name: John Doe

// Hello John Doe

47
Use the scanf() function to get a single word as input, and use fgets() for
multiple words.

C Memory Address
Memory Address
When a variable is created in C, a memory address is assigned to the
variable.

The memory address is the location of where the variable is stored on the
computer.

When we assign a value to the variable, it is stored in this memory address.

To access it, use the reference operator (&), and the result represents where
the variable is stored:

Example
int myAge = 43;
printf("%p", &myAge); // Outputs 0x7ffe5367e044

Note: The memory address is in hexadecimal form (0x..). You will probably
not get the same result in your program, as this depends on where the
variable is stored on your computer.

You should also note that &myAge is often called a "pointer". A pointer basically
stores the memory address of a variable as its value. To print pointer values,
we use the %p format specifier.

You will learn much more about pointers in the next chapter.

Why is it useful to know the memory address?

Pointers are important in C, because they allow us to manipulate the data in
the computer's memory - this can reduce the code and improve the
performance.

Pointers are one of the things that make C stand out from other
programming languages, like Python and Java.

48
C Pointers
Creating Pointers
You learned from the previous chapter, that we can get the memory
address of a variable with the reference operator &:

Example
int myAge = 43; // an int variable

printf("%d", myAge); // Outputs the value of myAge (43)

printf("%p", &myAge); // Outputs the memory address of myAge
(0x7ffe5367e044)

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another

variable as its value.

A pointer variable points to a data type (like int) of the same type, and is
created with the * operator.

The address of the variable you are working with is assigned to the pointer:

Example
int myAge = 43; // An int variable
int* ptr = &myAge; // A pointer variable, with the name ptr, that
stores the address of myAge

// Output the value of myAge (43)

printf("%d\n", myAge);
// Output the memory address of myAge (0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p\n", &myAge);
// Output the memory address of myAge with the pointer (0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p\n", ptr);

Example explained

Create a pointer variable with the name ptr, that points to an int variable
(myAge). Note that the type of the pointer has to match the type of the
variable you're working with (int in our example).

Use the & operator to store the memory address of the myAge variable, and
assign it to the pointer.

49
Now, ptr holds the value of myAge's memory address.

Dereference
In the example above, we used the pointer variable to get the memory
address of a variable (used together with the & reference operator).

You can also get the value of the variable the pointer points to, by using
the * operator (the dereference operator):

Example
int myAge = 43; // Variable declaration
int* ptr = &myAge; // Pointer declaration

// Reference: Output the memory address of myAge with the pointer

(0x7ffe5367e044)
printf("%p\n", ptr);

// Dereference: Output the value of myAge with the pointer (43)

printf("%d\n", *ptr);

Note that the * sign can be confusing here, as it does two different things in
our code:

 When used in declaration (int* ptr), it creates a pointer variable.

 When not used in declaration, it act as a dereference operator.

Good To Know: There are two ways to declare pointer variables, but the
first way is recommended:

int* myNum; // Recommended

int *myNum;

Why Should I Learn About Pointers?

Pointers are one of the things that make C stand out from other
programming languages, like Python and Java.

They are important in C, because they allow us to manipulate the data in the
computer's memory. This can reduce the code and improve the performance.

50
If you are familiar with data structures like lists, trees and graphs, you
should know that pointers are especially useful for implementing those. And
sometimes you even have to use pointers, for example when working with
file handling or memory management.

But do be careful; pointers must be handled with care, since it is possible

to damage data stored in other memory addresses.

C Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.

Functions are used to perform certain actions, and they are important for
reusing code: Define the code once, and use it many times.

Predefined Functions
So it turns out you already know what a function is. You have been using it
the whole time while studying this tutorial!

For example, main() is a function, which is used to execute code,

and printf() is a function; used to output/print text to the screen:

Example
int main() {
printf("Hello World!");
return 0;
}

Create a Function
To create (often referred to as declare) your own function, specify the name
of the function, followed by parentheses () and curly brackets {}:

Syntax
void myFunction() {
// code to be executed
}

51
Example Explained

 myFunction() is the name of the function

 void means that the function does not have a return value. You will
learn more about return values later in the next chapter
 Inside the function (the body), add code that defines what the function
should do

Call a Function
Declared functions are not executed immediately. They are "saved for later
use", and will be executed when they are called.

To call a function, write the function's name followed by two

parentheses () and a semicolon ;

In the following example, myFunction() is used to print a text (the action),

when it is called:

Example
Inside main, call myFunction():

// Create a function
void myFunction() {
printf("I just got executed!");
}

int main() {
myFunction(); // call the function
return 0;
}

// Outputs "I just got executed!"

A function can be called multiple times:

Example
void myFunction() {
printf("I just got executed!");
}

52
int main() {
myFunction();
myFunction();
myFunction();
return 0;
}

// I just got executed!

// I just got executed!
// I just got executed!

C Function Parameters
Parameters and Arguments
Information can be passed to functions as a parameter. Parameters act as
variables inside the function.

Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses.
You can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a
comma:

Syntax
returnType functionName(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) {
// code to be executed
}

The following function that takes a string of characters with name as

parameter. When the function is called, we pass along a name, which is used
inside the function to print "Hello" and the name of each person.

Example
void myFunction(char name[]) {
printf("Hello %s\n", name);
}

int main() {
myFunction("Liam");
myFunction("Jenny");
myFunction("Anja");
return 0;
}

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// Hello Liam
// Hello Jenny
// Hello Anja

When a parameter is passed to the function, it is called an argument. So,

from the example above: name is a parameter,
while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.

Multiple Parameters
Inside the function, you can add as many parameters as you want:

Example
void myFunction(char name[], int age) {
printf("Hello %s. You are %d years old.\n", name, age);
}
int main() {
myFunction("Liam", 3);
myFunction("Jenny", 14);
myFunction("Anja", 30);
return 0;
}
// Hello Liam. You are 3 years old.
// Hello Jenny. You are 14 years old.
// Hello Anja. You are 30 years old.
Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the function call
must have the same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the
arguments must be passed in the same order.

Pass Arrays as Function Parameters

You can also pass arrays to a function:
Example
void myFunction(int myNumbers[5]) {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d\n", myNumbers[i]);
}
}
int main() {
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
myFunction(myNumbers);
return 0;
}

Example Explained
The function (myFunction) takes an array as its parameter (int myNumbers[5]),
and loops through the array elements with the for loop.

54
When the function is called inside main(), we pass along the myNumbers array,
which outputs the array elements.

Note that when you call the function, you only need to use the name of the
array when passing it as an argument myFunction(myNumbers). However, the full
declaration of the array is needed in the function parameter ( int
myNumbers[5]).

Return Values
The void keyword, used in the previous examples, indicates that the function
should not return a value. If you want the function to return a value, you can
use a data type (such as int or float, etc.) instead of void, and use
the return keyword inside the function:

Example
int myFunction(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}

int main() {
printf("Result is: %d", myFunction(3));
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

This example returns the sum of a function with two parameters:

Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

int main() {
printf("Result is: %d", myFunction(5, 3));
return 0;
}

// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

You can also store the result in a variable:

Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) {

55
 return x + y;
}
int main() {
int result = myFunction(5, 3);
printf("Result is = %d", result);
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

C Function Declaration and

Definition
Function Declaration and Definition
You just learned from the previous chapters that you can create and call a
function in the following way:

Example
// Create a function
void myFunction() {
printf("I just got executed!");
}
int main() {
myFunction(); // call the function
return 0;
}
A function consist of two parts:

 Declaration: the function's name, return type, and parameters (if

any)
 Definition: the body of the function (code to be executed)

void myFunction() { // declaration

// the body of the function (definition)
}
For code optimization, it is recommended to separate the declaration and the
definition of the function.

You will often see C programs that have function declaration above main(),
and function definition below main(). This will make the code better
organized and easier to read:

Example

56
// Function declaration
void myFunction();

// The main method

int main() {
myFunction(); // call the function
return 0;
}
// Function definition
void myFunction() {
printf("I just got executed!");
}

Another Example
If we use the example from the previous chapter regarding function
parameters and return values:

Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
int main() {
int result = myFunction(5, 3);
printf("Result is = %d", result);
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)

It is considered good practice to write it like this instead:

Example
// Function declaration
int myFunction(int, int);

// The main method

int main() {
int result = myFunction(5, 3); // call the function
printf("Result is = %d", result);
return 0;
}
// Function definition
int myFunction(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

57
C Recursion
Recursion
Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique
provides a way to break complicated problems down into simple problems
which are easier to solve.

Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out
how it works is to experiment with it.

Recursion Example
Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is
more complicated. In the following example, recursion is used to add a range
of numbers together by breaking it down into the simple task of adding two
numbers:

Example
int sum(int k);

int main() {
int result = sum(10);
printf("%d", result);
return 0;
}

int sum(int k) {
if (k > 0) {
return k + sum(k - 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}

Example Explained
When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all
numbers smaller than k and returns the result. When k becomes 0, the
function just returns 0. When running, the program follows these steps:

Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops there
and returns the result.

58
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to
programming.

C Math Functions
Math Functions
There is also a list of math functions available, that allows you to perform
mathematical tasks on numbers.

To use them, you must include the math.h header file in your program:

#include <math.h>

Square Root
To find the square root of a number, use the sqrt() function:

Example
printf("%f", sqrt(16));

Round a Number
The ceil() function rounds a number upwards to its nearest integer, and
the floor() method rounds a number downwards to its nearest integer, and
returns the result:

Example
printf("%f", ceil(1.4));
printf("%f", floor(1.4));

Power
The pow() function returns the value of x to the power of y (xy):

Example
printf("%f", pow(4, 3));

59
Other Math Functions
A list of other popular math functions (from the <math.h> library) can be found
in the table below:

Function Description

abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x

acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x

asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x

atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x

cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x

cos(x) Returns the cosine of x

exp(x) Returns the value of Ex

sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in

radians)

tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle

C Structures (structs)
C Structures (structs)
Structures (also called structs) are a way to group several related variables
into one place. Each variable in the structure is known as a member of the
structure.

Unlike an array, a structure can contain many different data types (int, float,
char, etc.).

60
Create a Structure
You can create a structure by using the struct keyword and declare each of
its members inside curly braces:

struct MyStructure { // Structure declaration

int myNum; // Member (int variable)
char myLetter; // Member (char variable)
}; // End the structure with a semicolon

To access the structure, you must create a variable of it.

Use the struct keyword inside the main() method, followed by the name of the
structure and then the name of the structure variable:
Create a struct variable with the name "s1":

struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
};
int main() {
struct myStructure s1;
return 0;
}

Access Structure Members

To access members of a structure, use the dot syntax ( .):
Example
// Create a structure called myStructure
struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
};
int main() {
// Create a structure variable of myStructure called s1
struct myStructure s1;
// Assign values to members of s1
s1.myNum = 13;
s1.myLetter = 'B';

// Print values
printf("My number: %d\n", s1.myNum);
printf("My letter: %c\n", s1.myLetter);

61
 return 0;
}

Now you can easily create multiple structure variables with different values,
using just one structure:

Example
// Create different struct variables
struct myStructure s1;
struct myStructure s2;

// Assign values to different struct variables

s1.myNum = 13;
s1.myLetter = 'B';

s2.myNum = 20;
s2.myLetter = 'C';

What About Strings in Structures?

Remember that strings in C are actually an array of characters, and
unfortunately, you can't assign a value to an array like this:

Example
struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
char myString[30]; // String
};

int main() {
struct myStructure s1;

// Trying to assign a value to the string

s1.myString = "Some text";

// Trying to print the value

printf("My string: %s", s1.myString);

return 0;
}

An error will occur:

62
prog.c:12:15: error: assignment to expression with array type

However, there is a solution for this! You can use the strcpy() function and
assign the value to s1.myString, like this:

Example
struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
char myString[30]; // String
};

int main() {
struct myStructure s1;

// Assign a value to the string using the strcpy function

strcpy(s1.myString, "Some text");

// Print the value

printf("My string: %s", s1.myString);

return 0;
}

Result:

Simpler Syntax
You can also assign values to members of a structure variable at declaration
time, in a single line.

Just insert the values in a comma-separated list inside curly braces {}. Note
that you don't have to use the strcpy() function for string values with this
technique:

Example
// Create a structure
struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
char myString[30];
};
int main() {
// Create a structure variable and assign values to it
struct myStructure s1 = {13, 'B', "Some text"};

63
 // Print values
printf("%d %c %s", s1.myNum, s1.myLetter, s1.myString);

return 0;
}

Note: The order of the inserted values must match the order of the variable
types declared in the structure (13 for int, 'B' for char, etc).

Copy Structures
You can also assign one structure to another.

In the following example, the values of s1 are copied to s2:

Example
struct myStructure s1 = {13, 'B', "Some text"};
struct myStructure s2;

s2 = s1;

Modify Values
If you want to change/modify a value, you can use the dot syntax ( .).
And to modify a string value, the strcpy() function is useful again:
Example
struct myStructure {
int myNum;
char myLetter;
char myString[30];
};
int main() {
// Create a structure variable and assign values to it
struct myStructure s1 = {13, 'B', "Some text"};
// Modify values
s1.myNum = 30;
s1.myLetter = 'C';
strcpy(s1.myString, "Something else");
// Print values
printf("%d %c %s", s1.myNum, s1.myLetter, s1.myString);

return 0;
}
Modifying values are especially useful when you copy structure values:

64
Example
// Create a structure variable and assign values to it
struct myStructure s1 = {13, 'B', "Some text"};
// Create another structure variable
struct myStructure s2;
// Copy s1 values to s2
s2 = s1;
// Change s2 values
s2.myNum = 30;
s2.myLetter = 'C';
strcpy(s2.myString, "Something else");
// Print values
printf("%d %c %s\n", s1.myNum, s1.myLetter, s1.myString);
printf("%d %c %s\n", s2.myNum, s2.myLetter, s2.myString);

Ok, so, how are structures useful?

Imagine you have to write a program to store different information about
Cars, such as brand, model, and year. What's great about structures is that
you can create a single "Car template" and use it for every cars you make.
See below for a real life example.

Real Life Example

Use a structure to store different information about Cars:
Example
struct Car {
char brand[50];
char model[50];
int year;
};
int main() {
struct Car car1 = {"BMW", "X5", 1999};
struct Car car2 = {"Ford", "Mustang", 1969};
struct Car car3 = {"Toyota", "Corolla", 2011};
printf("%s %s %d\n", car1.brand, car1.model, car1.year);
printf("%s %s %d\n", car2.brand, car2.model, car2.year);
printf("%s %s %d\n", car3.brand, car3.model, car3.year);

return 0;
}

65
C Enumeration (enum)
C Enums
An enum is a special type that represents a group of constants
(unchangeable values).

To create an enum, use the enum keyword, followed by the name of the enum,
and separate the enum items with a comma:

enum Level {
LOW,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
};

Note that the last item does not need a comma.

It is not required to use uppercase, but often considered as good practice.
Enum is short for "enumerations", which means "specifically listed".
To access the enum, you must create a variable of it.
Inside the main() method, specify the enum keyword, followed by the name of
the enum (Level) and then the name of the enum variable (myVar in this
example):

enum Level myVar;

Now that you have created an enum variable (myVar), you can assign a value
to it.
The assigned value must be one of the items inside the enum
(LOW, MEDIUM or HIGH):
enum Level myVar = MEDIUM;

By default, the first item (LOW) has the value 0, the second (MEDIUM) has the
value 1, etc.
If you now try to print myVar, it will output 1, which represents MEDIUM:

int main() {
// Create an enum variable and assign a value to it
enum Level myVar = MEDIUM;
// Print the enum variable
printf("%d", myVar);

return 0;
}

66
Change Values
As you know, the first item of an enum has the value 0. The second has the
value 1, and so on.
To make more sense of the values, you can easily change them:
enum Level {
LOW = 25,
MEDIUM = 50,
HIGH = 75
};
printf("%d", myVar); // Now outputs 50
Note that if you assign a value to one specific item, the next items will
update their numbers accordingly:
enum Level {
LOW = 5,
MEDIUM, // Now 6
HIGH // Now 7
};

Enum in a Switch Statement

Enums are often used in switch statements to check for corresponding
values:
enum Level {
LOW = 1,
MEDIUM,
HIGH
};
int main() {
enum Level myVar = MEDIUM;

switch (myVar) {
case 1:
printf("Low Level");
break;
case 2:
printf("Medium level");
break;
case 3:
printf("High level");
break;
}
return 0;
}

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Why And When To Use Enums?
Enums are used to give names to constants, which makes the code easier to
read and maintain.

Use enums when you have values that you know aren't going to change, like
month days, days, colors, deck of cards, etc.

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