Programming Language

THE
C++
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
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1. C++ Intro
2. C++ Get Started
3. C++ Syntax
4. C++ Output
5. C++ Comments
6. C++ Variables
7. C++ User Input
8. C++ Data Types
9. C++ Operators
10. C++ Strings
11. C++ Math
12. C++ Booleans
13. C++ Conditions
14. C++ Switch
15. C++ While Loop
16. C++ For Loop
17. C++ Break/Continue
18. C++ Arrays
19. C++ Structures
20. C++ References
21. C++ Pointers
C++ Functions
1. C++ Functions 2. C++ Function Parameters
2. C++ Function Overloading 4. C++ Recursion
C++ Classes
1. C++ OOP 2. C++ Classes/Objects
3. C++ Class Methods 4. C++ Constructors
5. C++ Access Specifiers 6. C++ Encapsulation
7. C++ Inheritance 8. C++ Polymorphism
9. C++ Files 10. C++ Exceptions
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C++ Introduction
What is C++?
C++ is a cross-platform language that can be used to create high-
performance applications.
C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, as an extension to the C

language.
C++ gives programmers a high level of control over system resources and
memory.
The language was updated 4 major times in 2011, 2014, 2017, and 2020 to
C++11, C++14, C++17, C++20.
Why Use C++

C++ is one of the world's most popular programming languages.
C++ can be found in today's operating systems, Graphical User Interfaces,

and embedded systems.
C++ is an object-oriented programming language which gives a clear

structure to programs and allows code to be reused, lowering development
costs.
C++ is portable and can be used to develop applications that can be adapted
to multiple platforms.
C++ is fun and easy to learn!
As C++ is close to C, C# and Java, it makes it easy for programmers to

switch to C++ or vice versa.
Difference between C and C++

C++ was developed as an extension of C, and both languages have almost
the same syntax.
The main difference between C and C++ is that C++ support classes and
objects, while C does not.
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Get Started
This tutorial will teach you the basics of C++.
It is not necessary to have any prior programming experience.
C++ Getting Started

C++ Get Started
To start using C++, you need two things:
 A text editor, like Notepad, to write C++ code

 A compiler, like GCC, to translate the C++ code into a language that
the computer will understand
There are many text editors and compilers to choose from. In this tutorial,
we will use an IDE (see below).
C++ Install IDE

An IDE (Integrated Development Environment) is used to edit AND compile
the code.
Popular IDE's include Code::Blocks, Eclipse, and Visual Studio. These are all
free, and they can be used to both edit and debug C++ code.
Note: Web-based IDE's can work as well, but functionality is limited.
We will use Code::Blocks in our tutorial, which we believe is a good place to

start.
You can find the latest version of Codeblocks at http://www.codeblocks.org/.

Download the mingw-setup.exe file, which will install the text editor with a
compiler.
C++ Quickstart
Let's create our first C++ file.
Open Codeblocks and go to File > New > Empty File.
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Write the following C++ code and save the file as myfirstprogram.cpp (File >
Save File as):
myfirstprogram.cpp
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
Congratulations! You have now written and executed your first C++
program.
Learning C++ At W3Schools

When learning C++ at W3Schools.com, you can use our "Try it Yourself"
tool, which shows both the code and the result. This will make it easier for
you to understand every part as we move forward:
myfirstprogram.cpp
Code:
#include <iostream>
int main() {
return 0;
}
Result:
Hello World!
C++ Syntax
C++ Syntax
Let's break up the following code to understand it better:
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Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
return 0;
}
Example explained
Line 1: #include <iostream> is a header file library that lets us work with
input and output objects, such as cout (used in line 5). Header files add
functionality to C++ programs.
Line 2: using namespace std means that we can use names for objects and
variables from the standard library.
Don't worry if you don't understand how #include <iostream> and using
namespace std works. Just think of it as something that (almost) always
appears in your program.
Line 3: A blank line. C++ ignores white space. But we use it to make the
code more readable.
Line 4: Another thing that always appear in a C++ program, is int main().
This is called a function. Any code inside its curly brackets {} will be
executed.
Line 5: cout (pronounced "see-out") is an object used together with

the insertion operator (<<) to output/print text. In our example it will output
"Hello World".
Note: Every C++ statement ends with a semicolon ;.
Note: The body of int main() could also been written as:
int main () { cout << "Hello World! "; return 0; }
Remember: The compiler ignores white spaces. However, multiple lines

makes the code more readable.
Line 6: return 0 ends the main function.
Line 7: Do not forget to add the closing curly bracket } to actually end the
main function.
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Omitting Namespace
You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard
namespace library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and
replaced with the std keyword, followed by the :: operator for some objects:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
std::cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not.
C++ Output (Print Text)

C++ Output (Print Text)
The cout object, together with the << operator, is used to output values/print
text:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
return 0;
}
You can add as many cout objects as you want. However, note that it does
not insert a new line at the end of the output:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
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cout << "I am learning C++";
return 0;
}
C++ New Lines

New Lines
To insert a new line, you can use the \n character:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
cout << "Hello World! \n";
return 0;
}
Tip: Two \n characters after each other will create a blank line:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
cout << "Hello World! \n\n";
return 0;
}
Another way to insert a new line, is with the endl manipulator:
Example
#include <iostream>
int main() {
cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
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return 0;
}
Both \n and endl are used to break lines. However, \n is most used.
But what is \n exactly?

The newline character (\n) is called an escape sequence, and it forces the
cursor to change its position to the beginning of the next line on the screen.
This results in a new line.
Examples of other valid escape sequences are:
Escape Sequence Description
\t Creates a horizontal tab
\\ Inserts a backslash character (\)
\" Inserts a double quote character
C++ Comments
C++ Comments
Comments can be used to explain C++ code, and to make it more readable.
It can also be used to prevent execution when testing alternative code.
Comments can be singled-lined or multi-lined.
Single-line Comments
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes ( //).
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by the compiler (will
not be executed).
This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:
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Example
// This is a comment
This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:
Example
cout << "Hello World!"; // This is a comment
C++ Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the compiler:
Example
/* The code below will print the words Hello World!
to the screen, and it is amazing */
Single or multi-line comments?

It is up to you which you want to use. Normally, we use // for short
comments, and /* */ for longer.
C++ Variables
C++ Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.
In C++, there are different types of variables (defined with different

keywords), for example:
 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123

or -123
 double - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99
or -19.99
 char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are
surrounded by single quotes
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 string - stores text, such as "Hello World". String values are
surrounded by double quotes
 bool - stores values with two states: true or false
Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable, specify the type and assign it a value:
Syntax
type variableName = value;
Where type is one of C++ types (such as int), and variableName is the name
of the variable (such as x or myName). The equal sign is used to assign
values to the variable.
To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following

example:
Example
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:
int myNum = 15;

cout << myNum;
You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the
value later:
Example
int myNum;
myNum = 15;
cout << myNum;
Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite
the previous value:
Example
int myNum = 15; // myNum is 15
myNum = 10; // Now myNum is 10
cout << myNum; // Outputs 10
Other Types
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A demonstration of other data types:
Example
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number without decimals)
double myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number (with decimals)
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
string myText = "Hello"; // String (text)
bool myBoolean = true; // Boolean (true or false)
You will learn more about the individual types in the Data Types chapter.
Display Variables
The cout object is used together with the << operator to display variables.
To combine both text and a variable, separate them with the << operator:
Example
int myAge = 35;
cout << "I am " << myAge << " years old.";
Add Variables Together

To add a variable to another variable, you can use the + operator:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int sum = x + y;
cout << sum;
C++ Declare Multiple Variables

Declare Many Variables
To declare more than one variable of the same type, use a comma-
separated list:
Example
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
cout << x + y + z;
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One Value to Multiple Variables
You can also assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 50;
cout << x + y + z;
C++ Identifiers
C++ Identifiers
All C++ variables must be identified with unique names.
These unique names are called identifiers.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names

(age, sum, totalVolume).
Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create

understandable and maintainable code:
Example
// Good
int minutesPerHour = 60;
// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;
The general rules for naming variables are:
 Names can contain letters, digits and underscores

 Names must begin with a letter or an underscore (_)
 Names are case sensitive (myVar and myvar are different variables)
 Names cannot contain whitespaces or special characters like !, #, %,
etc.
 Reserved words (like C++ keywords, such as int) cannot be used as
names
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C++ Constants
Constants
When you do not want others (or yourself) to change existing variable
values, use the const keyword (this will declare the variable as "constant",
which means unchangeable and read-only):
Example
const int myNum = 15; // myNum will always be 15
myNum = 10; // error: assignment of read-only variable 'myNum'
You should always declare the variable as constant when you have values
that are unlikely to change:
Example
const int minutesPerHour = 60;
const float PI = 3.14;
C++ User Input

C++ User Input
You have already learned that cout is used to output (print) values. Now we
will use cin to get user input.
cin is a predefined variable that reads data from the keyboard with the
extraction operator (>>).
In the following example, the user can input a number, which is stored in the
variable x. Then we print the value of x:
Example
int x;
cout << "Type a number: "; // Type a number and press enter
cin >> x; // Get user input from the keyboard
cout << "Your number is: " << x; // Display the input value
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Good To Know
cout is pronounced "see-out". Used for output, and uses the insertion
operator (<<)
cin is pronounced "see-in". Used for input, and uses the extraction operator
(>>)
Creating a Simple Calculator

In this example, the user must input two numbers. Then we print the sum by
calculating (adding) the two numbers:
Example
int x, y;
int sum;
cout << "Type a number: ";
cin >> x;
cout << "Type another number: ";
cin >> y;
sum = x + y;
cout << "Sum is: " << sum;
There you go! You just built a basic calculator!
C++ Data Types

C++ Data Types
As explained in the Variables chapter, a variable in C++ must be a specified
data type:
Example
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)
float myFloatNum = 5.99; // Floating point number
double myDoubleNum = 9.98; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
bool myBoolean = true; // Boolean
string myText = "Hello"; // String
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Basic Data Types
Data Type Size Description
Boolean 1 byte Stores true or false values
Char 1 byte Stores a single character/letter/number, or ASCII values
Int 2 or 4 Stores whole numbers, without decimals

bytes
float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more decimals. Sufficient for storing 6-7
decimal digits
double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers, containing one or more decimals. Sufficient for storing 15
decimal digits
The data type specifies the size and type of information the variable will
store:
You will learn more about the individual data types in the next chapters.
C++ Numeric Data Types

Numeric Types
Use int when you need to store a whole number without decimals, like 35 or
1000, and float or double when you need a floating point number (with
decimals), like 9.99 or 3.14515.
Int
int myNum = 1000;
cout << myNum;
Float
float myNum = 5.75;
cout << myNum;
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Double
double myNum = 19.99;
cout << myNum;
float vs. double
The precision of a floating point value indicates how many digits the value
can have after the decimal point. The precision of float is only six or seven
decimal digits, while double variables have a precision of about 15 digits.
Therefore it is safer to use double for most calculations.
Scientific Numbers
A floating point number can also be a scientific number with an "e" to
indicate the power of 10:
Example
float f1 = 35e3;
double d1 = 12E4;
cout << f1;
cout << d1;
C++ Boolean Data Types

Boolean Types
A boolean data type is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the
values true or false.
When the value is returned, true = 1 and false = 0.
Example
bool isCodingFun = true;
bool isFishTasty = false;
cout << isCodingFun; // Outputs 1 (true)
cout << isFishTasty; // Outputs 0 (false)
Boolean values are mostly used for conditional testing, which you will learn
more about in a later chapter.
C++ Character Data Types

Character Types
The char data type is used to store a single character. The character must be
surrounded by single quotes, like 'A' or 'c':
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Example
char myGrade = 'B';
cout << myGrade;
Alternatively, you can use ASCII values to display certain characters:
Example
char a = 65, b = 66, c = 67;
cout << a;
cout << b;
cout << c;
Tip: A list of all ASCII values can be found in our ASCII Table Reference.
C++ String Data Types

String Types
The string type is used to store a sequence of characters (text). This is not a
built-in type, but it behaves like one in its most basic usage. String values
must be surrounded by double quotes:
Example
string greeting = "Hello";
cout << greeting;
To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code,
the <string> library:
Example
// Include the string library
#include <string>
// Create a string variable

// Output string value

cout << greeting;
You will learn more about strings, in our C++ Strings Chapter.
C++ Operators
C++ Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
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Example
int x = 100 + 50;
Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the
example above, it can also be used to add together a variable and a value, or
a variable and another variable:
Example
int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)
int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)
C++ divides the operators into the following groups:
 Arithmetic operators
 Assignment operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Bitwise operators
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.
Operator Name Description Example
+ Addition Adds together two values x+y
- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x–y
* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y
/ Division Divides one value by another x/y
% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y
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++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x
-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x
C++ Assignment Operators

Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the
value 10 to a variable called x:
Example
int x = 10;
The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:
Example
int x = 10;
x += 5;
A list of all assignment operators:
Operator Example Same As
= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x–3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
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/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
C++ Comparison Operators

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is
important in programming, because it helps us to find answers and make
decisions. The return
value of a comparison is either 1 or 0, which means true (1) or false (0).
These values are known as Boolean values, and you will learn more about
them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter.
In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if
5 is greater than 3:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 3;
cout << (x > y); // returns 1 (true) because 5 is greater than 3
A list of all comparison operators:
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Operator Name Example
== Equal to x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
You will learn much more about comparison operators and how to use them
in a later chapter.
C++ Logical Operators

Logical Operators
As with comparison operators, you can also test for true (1) or false (0)
values with logical operators.
Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or

values:
Operator Name Description Example
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&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are true x < 5 && x < 10
|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is x < 5 || x < 4

true
! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the !(x < 5 && x < 10)
result is true
You will learn much more about true and false values in a later chapter.
C++ Strings
C++ Strings
Strings are used for storing text.
A string variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double
quotes:
Example
Create a variable of type string and assign it a value:
To use strings, you must include an additional header file in the source code,
the <string> library:
Example
// Include the string library
#include <string>
// Create a string variable
C++ String Concatenation

String Concatenation
The + operator can be used between strings to add them together to make a
new string. This is called concatenation:
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Example
string firstName = "John ";
string lastName = "Doe";
string fullName = firstName + lastName;
cout << fullName;
In the example above, we added a space after firstName to create a space
between John and Doe on output. However, you could also add a space with
quotes (" " or ' '):
Example
string firstName = "John";
string fullName = firstName + " " + lastName;
cout << fullName;
Append
A string in C++ is actually an object, which contain functions that can
perform certain operations on strings. For example, you can also concatenate
strings with the append() function:
Example
string firstName = "John ";
string fullName = firstName.append(lastName);
cout << fullName;
C++ Numbers and Strings

Adding Numbers and Strings
WARNING!
C++ uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.
Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.
If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer)
If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:
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Example
string x = "10";
string y = "20";
string z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a string)
If you try to add a number to a string, an error occurs:
Example
string x = "10";
int y = 20;
string z = x + y;
C++ String Length

String Length
To get the length of a string, use the length() function:
Example
string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.length();
Tip: You might see some C++ programs that use the size() function to get
the length of a string. This is just an alias of length(). It is completely up to
you if you want to use length() or size():
Example
string txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
cout << "The length of the txt string is: " << txt.size();
C++ Access Strings

Access Strings
You can access the characters in a string by referring to its index number
inside square brackets [].
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This example prints the first character in myString:
Example
string myString = "Hello";
cout << myString[0];
// Outputs H
Note: String indexes start with 0: [0] is the first character. [1] is the second
character, etc.
This example prints the second character in myString:
Example
cout << myString[1];
// Outputs e
Change String Characters

To change the value of a specific character in a string, refer to the index
number, and use single quotes:
Example
myString[0] = 'J';
cout << myString;
// Outputs Jello instead of Hello
C++ Special Characters

Strings - Special Characters
Because strings must be written within quotes, C++ will misunderstand this
string, and generate an error:
string txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";
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The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape
character.
The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string
characters:
Escape character Result Description
\' ' Single quote
\" " Double quote
\\ \ Backslash
The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:
Example
string txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";
The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:
string txt = "It\'s alright.";
The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:
Example
string txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";
Other popular escape characters in C++ are:
Escape Character Result
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\n New Line
\t Tab
C++ User Input Strings

User Input Strings
It is possible to use the extraction operator >> on cin to display a string
entered by a user:
Example
string firstName;
cout << "Type your first name: ";
cin >> firstName; // get user input from the keyboard
cout << "Your name is: " << firstName;
// Type your first name: John

// Your name is: John
However, cin considers a space (whitespace, tabs, etc) as a terminating

character, which means that it can only display a single word (even if you
type many words):
Example
string fullName;
cout << "Type your full name: ";
cin >> fullName;
cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;
// Type your full name: John Doe

// Your name is: John
From the example above, you would expect the program to print "John Doe",
but it only prints "John".
That's why, when working with strings, we often use the getline() function to
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read a line of text. It takes cin as the first parameter, and the string variable
as second:
Example
string fullName;
cout << "Type your full name: ";
getline (cin, fullName);
cout << "Your name is: " << fullName;
// Type your full name: John Doe
// Your name is: John Doe
C++ String Namespace

Omitting Namespace
You might see some C++ programs that runs without the standard
namespace library. The using namespace std line can be omitted and replaced
with the std keyword, followed by the :: operator for string (and cout)
objects:
Example
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
int main() {
std::string greeting = "Hello";
std::cout << greeting;
return 0;
}
It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not.
C++ Math
C++ Math
C++ has many functions that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on
numbers.
Max and min

The max(x,y) function can be used to find the highest value of x and y:
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Example
cout << max(5, 10);
And the min(x,y) function can be used to find the lowest value of x and y:
Example
cout << min(5, 10);
C++ <cmath> Header

Other functions, such as sqrt (square root), round (rounds a number)
and log (natural logarithm), can be found in the <cmath> header file:
Example
// Include the cmath library
#include <cmath>
cout << sqrt(64);
cout << round(2.6);
cout << log(2);
Other Math Functions

A list of other popular Math functions (from the <cmath> library) can be found
in the table below:
Function Description
abs(x) Returns the absolute value of x
acos(x) Returns the arccosine of x
asin(x) Returns the arcsine of x
atan(x) Returns the arctangent of x
cbrt(x) Returns the cube root of x
ceil(x) Returns the value of x rounded up to its nearest integer
cos(x) Returns the cosine of x
cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x
exp(x) Returns the value of Ex
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expm1(x) Returns ex -1
fabs(x) Returns the absolute value of a floating x
fdim(x, y) Returns the positive difference between x and y
floor(x) Returns the value of x rounded down to its nearest integer
hypot(x, y) Returns sqrt(x2 +y2) without intermediate overflow or underflow
fma(x, y, z) Returns x*y+z without losing precision
fmax(x, y) Returns the highest value of a floating x and y
fmin(x, y) Returns the lowest value of a floating x and y
fmod(x, y) Returns the floating point remainder of x/y
pow(x, y) Returns the value of x to the power of y
sin(x) Returns the sine of x (x is in radians)
sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of a double value
tan(x) Returns the tangent of an angle
tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a double value
C++ Booleans
C++ Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have
one of two values, like:
 YES / NO
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 ON / OFF
 TRUE / FALSE
For this, C++ has a bool data type, which can take the values true (1)
or false (0).
Boolean Values
A boolean variable is declared with the bool keyword and can only take the
values true or false:
Example
bool isCodingFun = true;
bool isFishTasty = false;
cout << isCodingFun; // Outputs 1 (true)
cout << isFishTasty; // Outputs 0 (false)
From the example above, you can read that a true value returns 1,
and false returns 0.
However, it is more common to return a boolean value by comparing values

and variables (see next page).
C++ Boolean Expressions

Boolean Expression
A Boolean expression returns a boolean value that is either 1 (true)
or 0 (false).
This is useful to build logic, and find answers.
You can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator,
to find out if an expression (or variable) is true or false:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 9;
cout << (x > y); // returns 1 (true), because 10 is higher than 9
Or even easier:
32
Example
cout << (10 > 9); // returns 1 (true), because 10 is higher than 9
In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an

expression:
Example
int x = 10;
cout << (x == 10); // returns 1 (true), because the value of x is
equal to 10
Example
cout << (10 == 15); // returns 0 (false), because 10 is not equal to
15
Real Life Example

Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is
old enough to vote. In the example below, we use the >= comparison
operator to find out if the age (25) is greater than OR equal to the voting
age limit, which is set to 18:
Example
int myAge = 25;
int votingAge = 18;
cout << (myAge >= votingAge); // returns 1 (true), meaning 25 year olds
are allowed to vote!
Cool, right? An even better approach (since we are on a roll now), would be
to wrap the code above in an if...else statement, so we can perform
different actions depending on the result:
Example
Output "Old enough to vote!" if myAge is greater than or equal to 18.
Otherwise output "Not old enough to vote.":
int myAge = 25;
int votingAge = 18;
if (myAge >= votingAge) {

cout << "Old enough to vote!";
} else {
cout << "Not old enough to vote.";
33
}
// Outputs: Old enough to vote!
Booleans are the basis for all C++ comparisons and conditions.
You will learn more about conditions (if...else) in the next chapter.
C++ If ... Else

C++ Conditions and If Statements
You already know that C++ supports the usual logical conditions from
mathematics:
 Less than: a < b

 Less than or equal to: a <= b
 Greater than: a > b
 Greater than or equal to: a >= b
 Equal to a == b
 Not Equal to: a != b
You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different
decisions.
C++ has the following conditional statements:
 Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified

condition is true
 Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same
condition is false
 Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is
false
 Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed
The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of C++ code to be executed if a
condition is true.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}
34
Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate
an error.
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18.
If the condition is true, print some text:
Example
if (20 > 18) {
cout << "20 is greater than 18";
}
We can also test variables:
Example
int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
cout << "x is greater than y";
}
Example explained
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is
greater than y (using the > operator). As x is 20, and y is 18, and we know
that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y".
C++ Else
The else Statement
Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the
condition is false.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
35
cout << "Good day.";
} else {
cout << "Good evening.";
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
Example explained
In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false.
Because of this, we move on to the else condition and print to the screen
"Good evening". If the time was less than 18, the program would print "Good
day".
C++ Else If
The else if Statement
Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition
is false.
Syntax
if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and
condition2 is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and
condition2 is false
}
Example
int time = 22;
if (time < 10) {
cout << "Good morning.";
} else if (time < 20) {
} else {
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
36
Example explained
In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first
condition is false. The next condition, in the else if statement, is also false,
so we move on to the else condition since condition1 and condition2 is
both false - and print to the screen "Good evening".
However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."
C++ Short Hand If Else

Short Hand If...Else (Ternary Operator)
There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary
operator because it consists of three operands. It can be used to replace
multiple lines of code with a single line. It is often used to replace simple if
else statements:
Syntax
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;
Instead of writing:
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
} else {
}
You can simply write:
Example
int time = 20;
string result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";
cout << result;
C++ Switch
37
C++ Switch Statements
Use the switch statement to select one of many code blocks to be executed.
Syntax
switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}
This is how it works:
 The switch expression is evaluated once

 The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case
 If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed
 The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described
later in this chapter
The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday
name:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
cout << "Monday";
break;
case 2:
cout << "Tuesday";
break;
case 3:
cout << "Wednesday";
break;
case 4:
cout << "Thursday";
break;
case 5:
cout << "Friday";
38
break;
case 6:
cout << "Saturday";
break;
case 7:
cout << "Sunday";
break;
}
// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)
The break Keyword

When C++ reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no
need for more testing.
A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of
all the rest of the code in the switch block.
The default Keyword

The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 6:
cout << "Today is Saturday";
break;
case 7:
cout << "Today is Sunday";
break;
default:
cout << "Looking forward to the Weekend";
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"
C++ While Loop

C++ Loops
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
39
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code
more readable.
C++ While Loop

The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition
is true:
Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}
In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as
long as a variable (i) is less than 5:
Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
cout << i << "\n";
i++;
}
Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise
the loop will never end!
C++ Do/While Loop

The Do/While Loop
The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code
block once, before checking if the condition is true, then it will repeat the
loop as long as the condition is true.
Syntax
do {
}
while (condition);
The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at
least once, even if the condition is false, because the code block is executed
before the condition is tested:
40
Example
int i = 0;
do {
cout << i << "\n";
i++;
}
while (i < 5);
Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the
loop will never end!
C++ For Loop

C++ For Loop
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of
code, use the for loop instead of a while loop:
Syntax
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
}
Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.
Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.
Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been
executed.
The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << i << "\n";
}
Example explained
Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).
41
Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5).
If the condition is true, the loop will start over again, if it is false, the loop
will end.
Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has
been executed.
Another Example
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:
Example
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {
cout << i << "\n";
}
Nested Loops
It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested
loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer
loop":
Example
// Outer loop
for (int i = 1; i <= 2; ++i) {
cout << "Outer: " << i << "\n"; // Executes 2 times
// Inner loop
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; ++j) {
cout << " Inner: " << j << "\n"; // Executes 6 times (2 * 3)
}
}
The foreach Loop

There is also a "for-each loop" (introduced in C++ version 11 (2011), which
is used exclusively to loop through elements in an array (or other data sets):
Syntax
42
for (type variableName : arrayName) {
}
The following example outputs all elements in an array, using a "for-

each loop":
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for (int i : myNumbers) {
cout << i << "\n";
}
Note: Don't worry if you don't understand the example above. You will learn
more about arrays in the C++ Arrays chapter.
C++ Break and Continue

C++ Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this
tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a switch statement.
The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
This example jumps out of the loop when i is equal to 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
cout << i << "\n";
}
C++ Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified
condition occurs, and continues with the next iteration in the loop.
This example skips the value of 4:
43
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
cout << i << "\n";
}
Break and Continue in While Loop

You can also use break and continue in while loops:
Break Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
cout << i << "\n";
i++;
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}
Continue Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
cout << i << "\n";
i++;
}
C++ Arrays
C++ Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of
declaring separate variables for each value.
44
To declare an array, define the variable type, specify the name of the array
followed by square brackets and specify the number of elements it should
store:
string cars[4];
We have now declared a variable that holds an array of four strings. To insert
values to it, we can use an array literal - place the values in a comma-
separated list, inside curly braces:
string cars[4] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
To create an array of three integers, you could write:
int myNum[3] = {10, 20, 30};
Access the Elements of an Array

You access an array element by referring to the index number inside square
brackets [].
This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:
Example
cout << cars[0];
// Outputs Volvo
Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second
element, etc.
Change an Array Element

To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
cars[0] = "Opel";
Example
cars[0] = "Opel";
cout << cars[0];
// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo
45
C++ Arrays and Loops
Loop Through an Array
You can loop through the array elements with the for loop.
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:
Example
string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda", "Tesla"};
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << cars[i] << "\n";
}
This example outputs the index of each element together with its value:
Example
string cars[5] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda", "Tesla"};
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << i << " = " << cars[i] << "\n";
}
And this example shows how to loop through an array of integers:
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
cout << myNumbers[i] << "\n";
}
The foreach Loop

There is also a "for-each loop" (introduced in C++ version 11 (2011), which
is used exclusively to loop through elements in an array:
Syntax
for (type variableName : arrayName) {
}
46
The following example outputs all elements in an array, using a "for-
each loop":
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
cout << i << "\n";
}
C++ Omit Array Size

Omit Array Size
In C++, you don't have to specify the size of the array. The compiler is
smart enough to determine the size of the array based on the number of
inserted values:
string cars[] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // Three arrays
The example above is equal to:
string cars[3] = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford"}; // Also three arrays
However, the last approach is considered as "good practice", because it will

reduce the chance of errors in your program.
Omit Elements on Declaration

It is also possible to declare an array without specifying the elements on
declaration, and add them later:
Example
string cars[5];
cars[0] = "Volvo";
cars[1] = "BMW";
...
C++ Array Size

Get the Size of an Array
47
To get the size of an array, you can use the sizeof() operator:
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
cout << sizeof(myNumbers);
Result: 20
Why did the result show 20 instead of 5, when the array contains 5 elements?
It is because the sizeof() operator returns the size of a type in bytes.
You learned from the Data Types chapter that an int type is usually 4 bytes,
so from the example above, 4 x 5 (4 bytes x 5 elements) = 20 bytes.
To find out how many elements an array has, you have to divide the
size of the array by the size of the data type it contains:
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int getArrayLength = sizeof(myNumbers) / sizeof(int);
cout << getArrayLength;
Result: 55
Loop Through an Array with sizeof()

In the Arrays and Loops Chapter, we wrote the size of the array in the loop
condition (i < 5). This is not ideal, since it will only work for arrays of a
specified size.
However, by using the sizeof() approach from the example above, we can
now make loops that work for arrays of any size, which is more sustainable.
Instead of writing:
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
}
It is better to write:
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for (int i = 0; i < sizeof(myNumbers) / sizeof(int); i++) {
48
}
Note that, in C++ version 11 (2011), you can also use the "for-each" loop:
Example
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
cout << i << "\n";
}
It is good to know the different ways to loop through an array, since you
may encounter them all in different programs.
C++ Multi-Dimensional Arrays

Multi-Dimensional Arrays
A multi-dimensional array is an array of arrays.
To declare a multi-dimensional array, define the variable type, specify the
name of the array followed by square brackets which specify how many
elements the main array has, followed by another set of square brackets
which indicates how many elements the sub-arrays have:
string letters[2][4];
As with ordinary arrays, you can insert values with an array literal - a
comma-separated list inside curly braces. In a multi-dimensional array, each
element in an array literal is another array literal.
string letters[2][4] = {
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" },
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" }
};
Each set of square brackets in an array declaration adds

another dimension to an array. An array like the one above is said to have
two dimensions.
Arrays can have any number of dimensions. The more dimensions an array
has, the more complex the code becomes. The following array has three
dimensions:
string letters[2][2][2] = {
{
{ "A", "B" },
{ "C", "D" }
},
{
{ "E", "F" },
49
{ "G", "H" }
}
};
Access the Elements of a Multi-

Dimensional Array
To access an element of a multi-dimensional array, specify an index number
in each of the array's dimensions.
This statement accesses the value of the element in the first row
(0) and third column (2) of the letters array.
Example
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" },
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" }
};
cout << letters[0][2]; // Outputs "C"
Remember that: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is
the second element, etc.
Change Elements in a Multi-Dimensional

Array
To change the value of an element, refer to the index number of the element
in each of the dimensions:
Example
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" },
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" }
};
letters[0][0] = "Z";
cout << letters[0][0]; // Now outputs "Z" instead of "A"
Loop Through a Multi-Dimensional Array

To loop through a multi-dimensional array, you need one loop for each of the
50
array's dimensions.
The following example outputs all elements in the letters array:
Example
{ "A", "B", "C", "D" },
{ "E", "F", "G", "H" }
};
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) {
cout << letters[i][j] << "\n";
}
}
This example shows how to loop through a three-dimensional array:
Example
string letters[2][2][2] = {
{
{ "A", "B" },
{ "C", "D" }
},
{
{ "E", "F" },
{ "G", "H" }
}
};
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {

for (int j = 0; j < 2; j++) {
for (int k = 0; k < 2; k++) {
cout << letters[i][j][k] << "\n";
}
}
}
Why Multi-Dimensional Arrays?

Multi-dimensional arrays are great at representing grids. This example shows
a practical use for them. In the following example we use a multi-
dimensional array to represent a small game of Battleship:
51
Example
// We put "1" to indicate there is a ship.
bool ships[4][4] = {
{ 0, 1, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0 }
};
// Keep track of how many hits the player has and how many turns they
have played in these variables
int hits = 0;
int numberOfTurns = 0;
// Allow the player to keep going until they have hit all four ships
while (hits < 4) {
int row, column;
cout << "Selecting coordinates\n";
// Ask the player for a row

cout << "Choose a row number between 0 and 3: ";
cin >> row;
// Ask the player for a column

cout << "Choose a column number between 0 and 3: ";
cin >> column;
// Check if a ship exists in those coordinates

if (ships[row][column]) {
// If the player hit a ship, remove it by setting the value to
zero.
ships[row][column] = 0;
// Increase the hit counter

hits++;
// Tell the player that they have hit a ship and how many ships are
left
cout << "Hit! " << (4-hits) << " left.\n\n";
} else {
// Tell the player that they missed
cout << "Miss\n\n";
}
// Count how many turns the player has taken
52
numberOfTurns++;
}
cout << "Victory!\n";

cout << "You won in " << numberOfTurns << " turns";
C++ Structures (struct)

C++ Structures
Structures (also called structs) are a way to group several related variables
into one place. Each variable in the structure is known as a member of the
structure.
Unlike an array, a structure can contain many different data types (int,
string, bool, etc.).
Create a Structure
To create a structure, use the struct keyword and declare each of its
members inside curly braces.
After the declaration, specify the name of the structure variable

(myStructure in the example below):
struct { // Structure declaration

int myNum; // Member (int variable)
string myString; // Member (string variable)
} myStructure; // Structure variable
Access Structure Members

To access members of a structure, use the dot syntax ( .):
Example
Assign data to members of a structure and print it:
// Create a structure variable called myStructure
struct {
int myNum;
string myString;
} myStructure;
// Assign values to members of myStructure

myStructure.myNum = 1;
53
myStructure.myString = "Hello World!";
// Print members of myStructure

cout << myStructure.myNum << "\n";
cout << myStructure.myString << "\n";
One Structure in Multiple Variables

You can use a comma (,) to use one structure in many variables:
struct {
int myNum;
string myString;
} myStruct1, myStruct2, myStruct3; // Multiple structure variables
separated with commas
This example shows how to use a structure in two different variables:
Example
Use one structure to represent two cars:
struct {
string brand;
string model;
int year;
} myCar1, myCar2; // We can add variables by separating them with a
comma here
// Put data into the first structure

myCar1.brand = "BMW";
myCar1.model = "X5";
myCar1.year = 1999;
// Put data into the second structure

myCar2.brand = "Ford";
myCar2.model = "Mustang";
myCar2.year = 1969;
// Print the structure members

cout << myCar1.brand << " " << myCar1.model << " " << myCar1.year << "\
n";
cout << myCar2.brand << " " << myCar2.model << " " << myCar2.year << "\
n";
Named Structures
By giving a name to the structure, you can treat it as a data type. This
means that you can create variables with this structure anywhere in the
program at any time.
54
To create a named structure, put the name of the structure right after
the struct keyword:
struct myDataType { // This structure is named "myDataType"

int myNum;
string myString;
};
To declare a variable that uses the structure, use the name of the structure
as the data type of the variable:
myDataType myVar;
Example
Use one structure to represent two cars:
// Declare a structure named "car"
struct car {
string brand;
string model;
int year;
};
int main() {
// Create a car structure and store it in myCar1;
car myCar1;
myCar1.brand = "BMW";
myCar1.model = "X5";
myCar1.year = 1999;
// Create another car structure and store it in myCar2;

car myCar2;
myCar2.brand = "Ford";
myCar2.model = "Mustang";
myCar2.year = 1969;
// Print the structure members

cout << myCar1.brand << " " << myCar1.model << " " <<
myCar1.year << "\n";
cout << myCar2.brand << " " << myCar2.model << " " <<
myCar2.year << "\n";
return 0;
}
C++ References
55
Creating References
A reference variable is a "reference" to an existing variable, and it is created
with the & operator:
string food = "Pizza"; // food variable

string &meal = food; // reference to food
Now, we can use either the variable name food or the reference name meal to
refer to the food variable:
Example
string food = "Pizza";
string &meal = food;
cout << food << "\n"; // Outputs Pizza

cout << meal << "\n"; // Outputs Pizza
C++ Memory Address

Memory Address
In the example from the previous page, the & operator was used to create a
reference variable. But it can also be used to get the memory address of a
variable; which is the location of where the variable is stored on the
computer.
When a variable is created in C++, a memory address is assigned to the

variable. And when we assign a value to the variable, it is stored in this
memory address.
To access it, use the & operator, and the result will represent where the
variable is stored:
Example
cout << &food; // Outputs 0x6dfed4
Note: The memory address is in hexadecimal form (0x..). Note that you may
not get the same result in your program.
56
And why is it useful to know the memory address?
References and Pointers (which you will learn about in the next chapter)
are important in C++, because they give you the ability to manipulate the
data in the computer's memory - which can reduce the code and
improve the performance.
These two features are one of the things that make C++ stand out from
other programming languages, like Python and Java.
C++ Pointers
Creating Pointers
You learned from the previous chapter, that we can get the memory
address of a variable by using the & operator:
Example
string food = "Pizza"; // A food variable of type string
cout << food; // Outputs the value of food (Pizza)

cout << &food; // Outputs the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)
A pointer however, is a variable that stores the memory address as its

value.
A pointer variable points to a data type (like int or string) of the same type,
and is created with the * operator. The address of the variable you're
working with is assigned to the pointer:
Example
string food = "Pizza"; // A food variable of type string
string* ptr = &food; // A pointer variable, with the name ptr, that
stores the address of food
// Output the value of food (Pizza)

cout << food << "\n";
// Output the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)

cout << &food << "\n";
// Output the memory address of food with the pointer (0x6dfed4)

cout << ptr << "\n";
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Example explained
Create a pointer variable with the name ptr, that points to a string variable,
by using the asterisk sign * (string* ptr). Note that the type of the pointer
has to match the type of the variable you're working with.
Use the & operator to store the memory address of the variable called food,
and assign it to the pointer.
Now, ptr holds the value of food's memory address.
Tip: There are three ways to declare pointer variables, but the first way is
preferred:
string* mystring; // Preferred

string *mystring;
string * mystring;
C++ Dereference
Get Memory Address and Value
In the example from the previous page, we used the pointer variable to get
the memory address of a variable (used together with
the & reference operator). However, you can also use the pointer to get the
value of the variable, by using the * operator (the dereference operator):
Example
string food = "Pizza"; // Variable declaration
string* ptr = &food; // Pointer declaration
// Reference: Output the memory address of food with the pointer

(0x6dfed4)
cout << ptr << "\n";
// Dereference: Output the value of food with the pointer (Pizza)

cout << *ptr << "\n";
Note that the * sign can be confusing here, as it does two different things in
our code:
 When used in declaration (string* ptr), it creates a pointer variable.

 When not used in declaration, it act as a dereference operator.
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C++ Modify Pointers
Modify the Pointer Value
You can also change the pointer's value. But note that this will also change
the value of the original variable:
Example
string* ptr = &food;
// Output the value of food (Pizza)

// Output the memory address of food (0x6dfed4)

cout << &food << "\n";
// Access the memory address of food and output its value (Pizza)
cout << *ptr << "\n";
// Change the value of the pointer

*ptr = "Hamburger";
// Output the new value of the pointer (Hamburger)

cout << *ptr << "\n";
// Output the new value of the food variable (Hamburger)

C++ Functions
A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
Functions are used to perform certain actions, and they are important for
reusing code: Define the code once, and use it many times.
Create a Function
C++ provides some pre-defined functions, such as main(), which is used to
execute code. But you can also create your own functions to perform certain
actions.
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To create (often referred to as declare) a function, specify the name of the
function, followed by parentheses ():
Syntax
void myFunction() {
// code to be executed
}
Example Explained
 myFunction() is the name of the function

 void means that the function does not have a return value. You will
learn more about return values later in the next chapter
 inside the function (the body), add code that defines what the function
should do
Call a Function
Declared functions are not executed immediately. They are "saved for later
use", and will be executed later, when they are called.
To call a function, write the function's name followed by two

parentheses () and a semicolon ;
In the following example, myFunction() is used to print a text (the action),

when it is called:
Example
Inside main, call myFunction():
// Create a function
void myFunction() {
cout << "I just got executed!";
}
int main() {
myFunction(); // call the function
return 0;
}
// Outputs "I just got executed!"
A function can be called multiple times:
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Example
void myFunction() {
cout << "I just got executed!\n";
}
int main() {
myFunction();
myFunction();
myFunction();
return 0;
}
// I just got executed!

Function Declaration and Definition

A C++ function consist of two parts:
 Declaration: the return type, the name of the function, and

parameters (if any)
 Definition: the body of the function (code to be executed)
void myFunction() { // declaration

// the body of the function (definition)
}
Note: If a user-defined function, such as myFunction() is declared after

the main() function, an error will occur:
Example
int main() {
myFunction();
return 0;
}
void myFunction() {
}
// Error
However, it is possible to separate the declaration and the definition of the

function - for code optimization.
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You will often see C++ programs that have function declaration above main(),
and function definition below main(). This will make the code better organized
and easier to read:
Example // F
unction declaration
void myFunction();
// The main method

int main() {
myFunction(); // call the function
return 0;
}
// Function definition
void myFunction() {
}
C++ Function Parameters

Parameters and Arguments
Information can be passed to functions as a parameter. Parameters act as
variables inside the function.
Parameters are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses.
You can add as many parameters as you want, just separate them with a
comma:
Syntax
void functionName(parameter1, parameter2, parameter3) {
// code to be executed
}
The following example has a function that takes a string called fname as
parameter. When the function is called, we pass along a first name, which is
used inside the function to print the full name:
Example
void myFunction(string fname) {
cout << fname << " Refsnes\n";
}
int main() {
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myFunction("Liam");
myFunction("Jenny");
myFunction("Anja");
return 0;
}
// Liam Refsnes
// Jenny Refsnes
// Anja Refsnes
When a parameter is passed to the function, it is called an argument. So,

from the example above: fname is a parameter,
while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.
C++ Default Parameters

Default Parameter Value
You can also use a default parameter value, by using the equals sign ( =).
If we call the function without an argument, it uses the default value
("Norway"):
Example
void myFunction(string country = "Norway") {
cout << country << "\n";
}
int main() {
myFunction("Sweden");
myFunction("India");
myFunction();
myFunction("USA");
return 0;
}
// Sweden
// India
// Norway
// USA
A parameter with a default value, is often known as an "optional
parameter". From the example above, country is an optional parameter
and "Norway" is the default value.
C++ Multiple Parameters
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Multiple Parameters
Inside the function, you can add as many parameters as you want:
Example
void myFunction(string fname, int age) {
cout << fname << " Refsnes. " << age << " years old. \n";
}
int main() {
myFunction("Liam", 3);
myFunction("Jenny", 14);
myFunction("Anja", 30);
return 0;
}
// Liam Refsnes. 3 years old.
// Jenny Refsnes. 14 years old.
// Anja Refsnes. 30 years old.
Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the function call
must have the same number of arguments as there are parameters, and the
arguments must be passed in the same order.
C++ The Return Keyword

Return Values
The void keyword, used in the previous examples, indicates that the function
should not return a value. If you want the function to return a value, you can
use a data type (such as int, string, etc.) instead of void, and use
the return keyword inside the function:
Example
int myFunction(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}
int main() {
cout << myFunction(3);
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
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This example returns the sum of a function with two parameters:
Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
int main() {
cout << myFunction(5, 3);
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
You can also store the result in a variable:
Example
int myFunction(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
int main() {
int z = myFunction(5, 3);
cout << z;
return 0;
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
C++ Functions - Pass By

Reference
Pass By Reference
In the examples from the previous page, we used normal variables when we
passed parameters to a function. You can also pass a reference to the
function. This can be useful when you need to change the value of the
arguments:
65
Example
void swapNums(int &x, int &y) {
int z = x;
x = y;
y = z;
}
int main() {
int firstNum = 10;
int secondNum = 20;
cout << "Before swap: " << "\n";

cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n";
// Call the function, which will change the values of firstNum and
secondNum
swapNums(firstNum, secondNum);
cout << "After swap: " << "\n";
cout << firstNum << secondNum << "\n";
return 0;
}
C++ Pass Array to a Function

Pass Arrays as Function Parameters
You can also pass arrays to a function:
Example
void myFunction(int myNumbers[5]) {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
}
}
int main() {
int myNumbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
myFunction(myNumbers);
return 0;
}
66
Example Explained
The function (myFunction) takes an array as its parameter (int
myNumbers[5]), and loops through the array elements with the for loop.
When the function is called inside main(), we pass along

the myNumbers array, which outputs the array elements.
Note that when you call the function, you only need to use the name of the
array when passing it as an argument myFunction(myNumbers). However, the
full declaration of the array is needed in the function parameter ( int
myNumbers[5]).
C++ Function Overloading

Function Overloading
With function overloading, multiple functions can have the same name
with different parameters:
Example
int myFunction(int x)
float myFunction(float x)
double myFunction(double x, double y)
Consider the following example, which have two functions that add numbers
of different type:
Example
int plusFuncInt(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
double plusFuncDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}
int main() {
int myNum1 = plusFuncInt(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusFuncDouble(4.3, 6.26);
cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n";
cout << "Double: " << myNum2;
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return 0;
}
Instead of defining two functions that should do the same thing, it is better
to overload one.
In the example below, we overload the plusFunc function to work for

both int and double:
Example
int plusFunc(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
double plusFunc(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}
int main() {
int myNum1 = plusFunc(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusFunc(4.3, 6.26);
cout << "Int: " << myNum1 << "\n";
cout << "Double: " << myNum2;
return 0;
}
Note: Multiple functions can have the same name as long as the number
and/or type of parameters are different.
C++ Recursion
Recursion
Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique
provides a way to break complicated problems down into simple problems
which are easier to solve.
Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out
how it works is to experiment with it.
Recursion Example
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Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is
more complicated. In the following example, recursion is used to add a range
of numbers together by breaking it down into the simple task of adding two
numbers:
Example
int sum(int k) {
if (k > 0) {
return k + sum(k - 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}
int main() {
int result = sum(10);
cout << result;
return 0;
}
Example Explained
When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all
numbers smaller than k and returns the result. When k becomes 0, the
function just returns 0. When running, the program follows these steps:+ 9
+ 83 + 2 + 1 + 0Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the
program stops there and returns the result.
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to
slip into writing a function which never terminates, or one that uses excess
amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to
programming.
C++ OOP
C++ What is OOP?
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.
Procedural programming is about writing procedures or functions that

perform operations on the data, while object-oriented programming is about
creating objects that contain both data and functions.
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Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural
programming:
 OOP is faster and easier to execute

 OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
 OOP helps to keep the C++ code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and
makes the code easier to maintain, modify and debug
 OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less
code and shorter development time
Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the
repetition of code. You should extract out the codes that are common for the
application, and place them at a single place and reuse them instead of
repeating it.
C++ What are Classes and Objects?

Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented
programming.
Look at the following illustration to see the difference between class and
objects:
Class objects
Fruit Apple
Banana
Mango
Another example:
Class objects
Car Audi
Volvo
Toyota
So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class.

When the individual objects are created, they inherit all the variables and
functions from the class.
You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapter.
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C++ Classes and Objects
C++ Classes/Objects
C++ is an object-oriented programming language.
Everything in C++ is associated with classes and objects, along with its
attributes and methods. For example: in real life, a car is an object. The car
has attributes, such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and
brake.
Attributes and methods are basically variables and functions that belongs
to the class. These are often referred to as "class members".
A class is a user-defined data type that we can use in our program, and it
works as an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.
Create a Class
To create a class, use the class keyword:
Example
Create a class called "MyClass":
class MyClass { // The class

public: // Access specifier
int myNum; // Attribute (int variable)
string myString; // Attribute (string variable)
};
Example explained
 The class keyword is used to create a class called MyClass.
 The public keyword is an access specifier, which specifies that
members (attributes and methods) of the class are accessible from
outside the class. You will learn more about access specifiers later.
 Inside the class, there is an integer variable myNum and a string
variable myString. When variables are declared within a class, they are
called attributes.
 At last, end the class definition with a semicolon ;.
Create an Object
In C++, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class
named MyClass, so now we can use this to create objects.
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To create an object of MyClass, specify the class name, followed by the object
name.
To access the class attributes (myNum and myString), use the dot syntax (.) on
the object:
Example
Create an object called "myObj" and access the attributes:

int myNum; // Attribute (int variable)
string myString; // Attribute (string variable)
};
int main() {
MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass
// Access attributes and set values

myObj.myNum = 15;
myObj.myString = "Some text";
// Print attribute values

cout << myObj.myNum << "\n";
cout << myObj.myString;
return 0;
}
Multiple Objects
You can create multiple objects of one class:
Example
// Create a Car class with some attributes
class Car {
public:
string brand;
string model;
int year;
};
int main() {
// Create an object of Car
Car carObj1;
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carObj1.brand = "BMW";
carObj1.model = "X5";
carObj1.year = 1999;
// Create another object of Car

Car carObj2;
carObj2.brand = "Ford";
carObj2.model = "Mustang";
carObj2.year = 1969;
// Print attribute values

cout << carObj1.brand << " " << carObj1.model << " " <<
carObj1.year << "\n";
return 0;
}
C++ Class Methods

Class Methods
Methods are functions that belongs to the class.
There are two ways to define functions that belongs to a class:
 Inside class definition

 Outside class definition
In the following example, we define a function inside the class, and we name
it "myMethod".
Note: You access methods just like you access attributes; by creating an
object of the class and using the dot syntax (.):
Inside Example
void myMethod() { // Method/function defined inside the class
}
};
int main() {
myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method
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return 0;
}
To define a function outside the class definition, you have to declare it inside
the class and then define it outside of the class. This is done by specifiying
the name of the class, followed the scope resolution :: operator, followed by
the name of the function:
Outside Example
void myMethod(); // Method/function declaration
};
// Method/function definition outside the class

void MyClass::myMethod() {
}
int main() {
myObj.myMethod(); // Call the method
return 0;
}
Parameters
You can also add parameters:
Example
#include <iostream>
class Car {
public:
int speed(int maxSpeed);
};
int Car::speed(int maxSpeed) {
return maxSpeed;
}
int main() {
Car myObj; // Create an object of Car
cout << myObj.speed(200); // Call the method with an argument
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return 0;
}
C++ Constructors
Constructors
A constructor in C++ is a special method that is automatically called when
an object of a class is created.
To create a constructor, use the same name as the class, followed by
parentheses ():
Example
MyClass() { // Constructor
}
};
int main() {
MyClass myObj; // Create an object of MyClass (this will call the
constructor)
return 0;
}
Note: The constructor has the same name as the class, it is always public,
and it does not have any return value.
Constructor Parameters
Constructors can also take parameters (just like regular functions), which
can be useful for setting initial values for attributes.
The following class have brand, model and year attributes, and a constructor
with different parameters. Inside the constructor we set the attributes equal
to the constructor parameters (brand=x, etc). When we call the constructor
(by creating an object of the class), we pass parameters to the constructor,
which will set the value of the corresponding attributes to the same:
Example
class Car { // The class
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string brand; // Attribute
string model; // Attribute
int year; // Attribute
Car(string x, string y, int z) { // Constructor with parameters
brand = x;
model = y;
year = z;
}
};
int main() {
// Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values
Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999);
Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969);
// Print values
return 0;
}
Just like functions, constructors can also be defined outside the class. First,
declare the constructor inside the class, and then define it outside of the
class by specifying the name of the class, followed by the scope
resolution :: operator, followed by the name of the constructor (which is the
same as the class):
Example
class Car { // The class
string brand; // Attribute
string model; // Attribute
int year; // Attribute
Car(string x, string y, int z); // Constructor declaration
};
// Constructor definition outside the class
Car::Car(string x, string y, int z) {
brand = x;
model = y;
year = z;
}
int main() {
// Create Car objects and call the constructor with different values
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Car carObj1("BMW", "X5", 1999);
Car carObj2("Ford", "Mustang", 1969);
// Print values
return 0;
}
C++ Access Specifiers

Access Specifiers
By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in all of
our class examples:
Example
// class members goes here
};
The public keyword is an access specifier. Access specifiers define how the
members (attributes and methods) of a class can be accessed. In the
example above, the members are public - which means that they can be
accessed and modified from outside the code.
However, what if we want members to be private and hidden from the

outside world?
In C++, there are three access specifiers:
 public - members are accessible from outside the class

 private - members cannot be accessed (or viewed) from outside the
class
 protected - members cannot be accessed from outside the class,
however, they can be accessed in inherited classes. You will learn more
about Inheritance later.
In the following example, we demonstrate the differences

between public and private members:
77
Example
class MyClass {
public: // Public access specifier
int x; // Public attribute
private: // Private access specifier
int y; // Private attribute
};
int main() {
MyClass myObj;
myObj.x = 25; // Allowed (public)
myObj.y = 50; // Not allowed (private)
return 0;
}
If you try to access a private member, an error occurs:or: y is private
Note: It is possible to access private members of a class using a public

method inside the same class. See the next chapter (Encapsulation) on how
to do this.
Tip: It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as private

(as often as you can). This will reduce the possibility of yourself (or others)
to mess up the code. This is also the main ingredient of
the Encapsulation concept, which you will learn more about in the next
chapter.
Note: By default, all members of a class are private if you don't specify an
access specifier:
Example
class MyClass {
int x; // Private attribute
int y; // Private attribute
};
C++ Encapsulation
Encapsulation
The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is
hidden from users. To achieve this, you must declare class
variables/attributes as private (cannot be accessed from outside the class). If
you want others to read or modify the value of a private member, you can
provide public get and set methods.
78
Access Private Members
To access a private attribute, use public "get" and "set" methods:
Example
#include <iostream>
class Employee {
private:
// Private attribute
int salary;
public:
// Setter
void setSalary(int s) {
salary = s;
}
// Getter
int getSalary() {
return salary;
}
};
int main() {
Employee myObj;
myObj.setSalary(50000);
cout << myObj.getSalary();
return 0;
}
Example explained
The salary attribute is private, which have restricted access.
The public setSalary() method takes a parameter (s) and assigns it to

the salary attribute (salary = s).
The public getSalary() method returns the value of the

private salary attribute.
Inside main(), we create an object of the Employee class. Now we can use
the setSalary() method to set the value of the private attribute to 50000. Then
we call the getSalary() method on the object to return the value.
Why Encapsulation?
 It is considered good practice to declare your class attributes as
private (as often as you can). Encapsulation ensures better control of
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your data, because you (or others) can change one part of the code
without affecting other parts
 Increased security of data
C++ Inheritance
Inheritance
In C++, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to
another. We group the "inheritance concept" into two categories:
 derived class (child) - the class that inherits from another class
 base class (parent) - the class being inherited from
To inherit from a class, use the : symbol.
In the example below, the Car class (child) inherits the attributes and
methods from the Vehicle class (parent):
Example
// Base class
class Vehicle {
public:
string brand = "Ford";
void honk() {
cout << "Tuut, tuut! \n" ;
}
};
// Derived class
class Car: public Vehicle {
public:
string model = "Mustang";
};
int main() {
Car myCar;
myCar.honk();
cout << myCar.brand + " " + myCar.model;
return 0;
}
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Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing
class when you create a new class.
C++ Multilevel Inheritance

Multilevel Inheritance
A class can also be derived from one class, which is already derived from
another class.
In the following example, MyGrandChild is derived from class MyChild (which is

derived from MyClass).
Example
// Base class (parent)
class MyClass {
public:
void myFunction() {
cout << "Some content in parent class." ;
}
};
// Derived class (child)

class MyChild: public MyClass {
};
// Derived class (grandchild)

class MyGrandChild: public MyChild {
};
int main() {
MyGrandChild myObj;
myObj.myFunction();
return 0;
}
C++ Multiple Inheritance

Multiple Inheritance
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A class can also be derived from more than one base class, using a comma-
separated list:
Example
// Base class
class MyClass {
public:
void myFunction() {
cout << "Some content in parent class." ;
}
};
// Another base class

class MyOtherClass {
public:
void myOtherFunction() {
cout << "Some content in another class." ;
}
};
// Derived class
class MyChildClass: public MyClass, public MyOtherClass {
};
int main() {
MyChildClass myObj;
myObj.myFunction();
myObj.myOtherFunction();
return 0;
}
C++ Inheritance Access

Access Specifiers
You learned from the Access Specifiers chapter that there are three specifiers
available in C++. Until now, we have only used public (members of a class
are accessible from outside the class) and private (members can only be
accessed within the class). The third specifier, protected, is similar to private,
but it can also be accessed in the inherited class:
Example
// Base class
class Employee {
protected: // Protected access specifier
int salary;
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};
// Derived class
class Programmer: public Employee {
public:
int bonus;
void setSalary(int s) {
salary = s;
}
int getSalary() {
return salary;
}
};
int main() {
Programmer myObj;
myObj.setSalary(50000);
myObj.bonus = 15000;
cout << "Salary: " << myObj.getSalary() << "\n";
cout << "Bonus: " << myObj.bonus << "\n";
return 0;
}
C++ Polymorphism
Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many
classes that are related to each other by inheritance.
Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit
attributes and methods from another class. Polymorphism uses those
methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to perform a single action
in different ways.
For example, think of a base class called Animal that has a method
called animalSound(). Derived classes of Animals could be Pigs, Cats, Dogs,
Birds - And they also have their own implementation of an animal sound (the
pig oinks, and the cat meows, etc.):
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Example
// Base class
class Animal {
public:
void animalSound() {
cout << "The animal makes a sound \n";
}
};
// Derived class
class Pig : public Animal {
public:
cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n";
}
};
// Derived class
class Dog : public Animal {
public:
cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n";
}
};
Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the : symbol to inherit
from a class.
Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and override the animalSound() method:
Example
// Base class
class Animal {
public:
cout << "The animal makes a sound \n";
}
};
// Derived class
class Pig : public Animal {
public:
cout << "The pig says: wee wee \n";
}
};
// Derived class
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class Dog : public Animal {
public:
cout << "The dog says: bow wow \n";
}
};
int main() {
Animal myAnimal;
Pig myPig;
Dog myDog;
myAnimal.animalSound();
myPig.animalSound();
myDog.animalSound();
return 0;
}
Why And When To Use "Inheritance" and "Polymorphism"?

- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing
class when you create a new class.
C++ Files
C++ Files
The fstream library allows us to work with files.
To use the fstream library, include both the

standard <iostream> AND the <fstream> header file:
Example
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
There are three classes included in the fstream library, which are used to
create, write or read files:
Class Description
85
Ofstream Creates and writes to files
Ifstream Reads from files
Fstream A combination of ofstream and ifstream: creates, reads, and writes to files
Create and Write To a File

To create a file, use either the ofstream or fstream class, and specify the name
of the file.
To write to the file, use the insertion operator ( <<).
Example
#include <iostream>
#include <fstream>
int main() {
// Create and open a text file
ofstream MyFile("filename.txt");
// Write to the file

MyFile << "Files can be tricky, but it is fun enough!";
// Close the file

MyFile.close();
}
Why do we close the file?

It is considered good practice, and it can clean up unnecessary memory
space.
Read a File
To read from a file, use either the ifstream or fstream class, and the name of
the file.
86
Note that we also use a while loop together with the getline() function (which
belongs to the ifstream class) to read the file line by line, and to print the
content of the file:
Example
// Create a text string, which is used to output the text file
string myText;
// Read from the text file

ifstream MyReadFile("filename.txt");
// Use a while loop together with the getline() function to read the
file line by line
while (getline (MyReadFile, myText)) {
// Output the text from the file
cout << myText;
}
// Close the file

MyReadFile.close();
C++ Exceptions
C++ Exceptions
When executing C++ code, different errors can occur: coding errors made by
the programmer, errors due to wrong input, or other unforeseeable things.
When an error occurs, C++ will normally stop and generate an error
message. The technical term for this is: C++ will throw an exception (throw
an error).
C++ try and catch

Exception handling in C++ consist of three keywords: try, throw and catch:
The try statement allows you to define a block of code to be tested for errors
while it is being executed.
The throw keyword throws an exception when a problem is detected, which

lets us create a custom error.
87
The catch statement allows you to define a block of code to be executed, if an
error occurs in the try block.
The try and catch keywords come in pairs:
Example
try {
// Block of code to try
throw exception; // Throw an exception when a problem arise
}
catch () {
// Block of code to handle errors
}
Consider the following example:
Example
try {
int age = 15;
if (age >= 18) {
cout << "Access granted - you are old enough.";
} else {
throw (age);
}
}
catch (int myNum) {
cout << "Access denied - You must be at least 18 years old.\n";
cout << "Age is: " << myNum;
}
Example explained
We use the try block to test some code: If the age variable is less than 18, we
will throw an exception, and handle it in our catch block.
In the catch block, we catch the error and do something about it.
The catch statement takes a parameter: in our example we use
an int variable (myNum) (because we are throwing an exception of int type in
the try block (age)), to output the value of age.
If no error occurs (e.g. if age is 20 instead of 15, meaning it will be be greater

than 18), the catch block is skipped:
88
Example
int age = 20;
You can also use the throw keyword to output a reference number, like a
custom error number/code for organizing purposes:
Example
try {
int age = 15;
if (age >= 18) {
} else {
throw 505;
}
}
catch (int myNum) {
cout << "Error number: " << myNum;
}
Handle Any Type of Exceptions (...)

If you do not know the throw type used in the try block, you can use the
"three dots" syntax (...) inside the catch block, which will handle any type of
exception:
Example
try {
int age = 15;
if (age >= 18) {
} else {
throw 505;
}
}
catch (...) {
}
89

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THE

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup, as an extension to the C

Why Use C++

C++ can be found in today's operating systems, Graphical User Interfaces,

C++ is an object-oriented programming language which gives a clear

C++ is fun and easy to learn!

As C++ is close to C, C# and Java, it makes it easy for programmers to

Difference between C and C++

It is not necessary to have any prior programming experience.

C++ Getting Started

 A text editor, like Notepad, to write C++ code

C++ Install IDE

Note: Web-based IDE's can work as well, but functionality is limited.

We will use Code::Blocks in our tutorial, which we believe is a good place to

You can find the latest version of Codeblocks at http://www.codeblocks.org/.

Open Codeblocks and go to File > New > Empty File.

Learning C++ At W3Schools

Line 5: cout (pronounced "see-out") is an object used together with

Note: Every C++ statement ends with a semicolon ;.

Remember: The compiler ignores white spaces. However, multiple lines

Line 6: return 0 ends the main function.

It is up to you if you want to include the standard namespace library or not.

C++ Output (Print Text)

C++ New Lines

Another way to insert a new line, is with the endl manipulator:

But what is \n exactly?

Examples of other valid escape sequences are:

Escape Sequence Description

\t Creates a horizontal tab

\\ Inserts a backslash character (\)

\" Inserts a double quote character

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:

C++ Multi-line Comments

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by the compiler:

Single or multi-line comments?

In C++, there are different types of variables (defined with different

 int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123

Declaring (Creating) Variables

To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following

int myNum = 15;

Add Variables Together

C++ Declare Multiple Variables

These unique names are called identifiers.

Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names

Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

The general rules for naming variables are:

 Names can contain letters, digits and underscores

C++ User Input

Creating a Simple Calculator

There you go! You just built a basic calculator!

C++ Data Types

Boolean 1 byte Stores true or false values

Char 1 byte Stores a single character/letter/number, or ASCII values

Int 2 or 4 Stores whole numbers, without decimals

C++ Numeric Data Types

float vs. double

C++ Boolean Data Types