Soil Mechanics

Chapter 8

Geosynthetics

Chapter 8
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO
Geosynthetics

Introduction
In general, geosynthetics are fabric-like material made from polymers such as polyester,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), nylon, chlorinated polyethylene, and
others.

Specific Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to understand:
§ the importance and uses of geosynthetics in soil mechanics,
§ the different types of geosynthetics which include geotextiles, geomembranes, geonets
and geocomposites.

Duration
Chapter/Lesson 8: Geosynthetics = 6 hours
(5 hours discussion; 1 hour assessment)

Lesson Proper
1 GEOSYNTHETICS
The term geosynthetics includes the following
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO
• Geotextiles
• Geomembranes
• Geogrids
• Geonets
• Geocomposites

Each type of geosynthetic performs one or more of the following five major functions:

1. Separation
2. Reinforcement
3. Filtration
4. Drainage
5. Moisture barrier

Geosynthetics have been used in civil engineering construction since the late 1970s, and their
use currently is growing rapidly. In this chapter, it is not possible to provide detailed descriptions
of manufacturing procedures, properties, and uses of all types of geosynthetics. However, an
overview of geotextiles, geomembranes, and geonets is given. For further information, refer to
a geosynthetics text, such as that by Koerner (1994).

2 GEOTEXTILES
Geotextiles are textiles in the traditional sense; however, the fabrics usually are made from
petroleum products such as polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene. They also may be
made from fiberglass. Geotextiles are not prepared from natural fabrics, which decay too
quickly. They may be woven, knitted, or nonwoven.

Woven geotextiles are made of two sets of parallel filaments or strands of yarn systematically
interlaced to form a planar structure. Knitted geotextiles are formed by interlocking a series of
loops of one or more filaments or strands of yarn to form a planar structure. Nonwoven
geotextiles are formed from filaments or short fibers arranged in an oriented or a random pattern
in a planar structure. These filaments or short fibers first are arranged into a loose web. They then
are bonded by using one or a combination of the following processes:

• Chemical bonding- by glue, rubber, latex, cellulose derivative, and so forth

• Thermal bonding- by heat for partial melting of filaments
• Mechanical bonding- by needle punching

The needle-punched nonwoven geotextiles are thick and have high in-plane hydraulic
conductivity.

Geotextiles have four major uses:

1. Drainage: The fabrics can channel water rapidly from soil to various outlets.
2. Filtration: When placed between two soil layers, one coarse grained and the other
fine grained, the fabric allows free seepage of water from one layer to the other. At the same
time, it protects the fine-grained soil from being washed into the coarse
grained soil.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO

3. Separation: Geotextiles help keep various soil layers separate after construction. For
example, in the construction of highways, a clayey subgrade can be kept separate
from a granular base course.
4. Reinforcement: The tensile strength of geotextiles increases the load-bearing capacity of the
soil.

Geotextiles currently available commercially have thicknesses that vary from about 0.25 to 7.6
mm (0.01 to 0.3 in.). The mass per unit area of these geotextiles ranges from about 150 to 700
𝑔/𝑐𝑚! .

One of the major functions of geotextiles is filtration. For this purpose, water must be able to
flow freely through the fabric of the geotextile (Figure 17.4). Hence, the cross-plane hydraulic
conductivity is an important parameter for design purposes. It should be realized that geotextile
fabrics are compressible, however, and their thickness may change depending on the effective
normal stress to which they are being subjected. The change in thickness under normal stress
also changes the cross-plane hydraulic conductivity of a geotextile.

When a geotextile is being considered for use in the design and construction of landfill liners,
certain properties must be measured by tests on the geotextile to determine its applicability. A
partial list of these tests follows.

1. Mass per unit area

2. Percentage of open area
3. Equivalent opening size
4. Thickness
5. Ultraviolet resistivity
6. Permittivity
7. Transmissivity
8. Puncture resistance
9. Resistance to abrasion
10. Compressibility
11. Tensile strength and elongation properties
12. Chemical resistance

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO

3 GEOMEMBRANES
Geomembranes are impermeable liquid or vapor barriers made primarily from continuous
polymeric sheets that are flexible. The type of polymeric material used for geomembranes may
be thermoplastic or thermoset. The thermoplastic polymers include PVC, polyethylene,
chlorinated polyethylene, and polyamide. The thermoset polymers include ethylene vinyl
acetate, polychloroprene, and isoprene-isobutylene. Although geomembranes are thought to
be impermeable, they are not. Water vapor transmission tests show that the hydraulic
conductivity of geomembranes is in the range of 10"#$ 𝑡𝑜 10"#% cm/sec; hence, they are only
“essentially impermeable."

Many scrim-reinforced geomembranes manufactured in single piles have thicknesses that

range from 0.25 to about 0.4 mm (0.01 to 0.016 in.). These single piles of geomembranes can be
laminated together to make thicker geomembranes. Some geomembranes made from PVC
and polyethylene may be as thick as 4.5 to 5 mm (0.18 to 0.2 in.).

The following is a partial list of tests that should be conducted on geomembranes when they
are to be used as landfill liners.

1. Density
2. Mass per unit area
3. Water vapor transmission capacity
4. Tensile behavior
5. Tear resistance
6. Resistance to impact
7. Puncture resistance
8. Stress cracking
9. Chemical resistance
10. Ultraviolet light resistance
11. Thermal properties
12. Behavior of seams

The most important aspect of construction with geomembranes is the preparation of seams.
Otherwise, the basic reason for using geomembranes as a liquid or vapor barrier will be
defeated. Geomembrane sheets generally are seamed together in the factory to prepare
larger sheets. These larger sheets are field seamed into their final position. There are several types
of seams, some of which are described briefly.

Lap Seam with Adhesive

• A solvent adhesive is used for this type of seam (Figure 17.6a). After application of the solvent,
the two sheets of geomembrane are overlapped, then roller pressure is applied.

Lap Seam with Gum Tape

• This type of seam (Figure 17.6b) is used mostly in dense thermoset material, such as
isoprene-isobutylene.

Tongue-and-Groove Splice
• A schematic diagram of the tongue-and-groove splice is shown in Figure 17.6c. The
tapes used for the splice are double sided.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO

Extrusion Weld Lap Seam
• Extrusion or fusion welding is done on geomembranes made from polyethylene. A
ribbon of molten polymer is extruded between the two surfaces to be joined (Figure
17.6d).

Fillet Weld Lap Seam

• This seam is similar to an extrusion weld lap seam; however, for fillet welding, the
extrudate is placed over the edge of the seam (Figure 17.6e).

Double Hot Air or Wedge Seam

• In the hot air seam, hot air is blown to melt the two opposing surfaces. For melting,
the temperatures should rise to about 500°F or more. After the opposite surfaces are melted,
pressure is applied to form the seam (Figure 17.6f). For hot wedge seams, an electrically
heated element like a blade is passed between the two opposing surfaces of the
geomembrane. The heated element helps to melt the geomembrane, after which pressure
is applied by a roller to form the seam.

4 GEONETS
Geonets are formed by the continuous extrusion of polymeric ribs at acute angles to each other.
They have large openings in a netlike configuration. The primary function of geonets is drainage.
Figure 17.7 is a photograph of a typical piece of geonet. Most geonets currently available are
PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO
made of medium-density and high-density polyethylene. They are available in rolls with widths
of 1.8 to 2.1 m (≈6 to 7 ft) and lengths of 30 to 90 m (≈100 to 300 ft). The approximate aperture
sizes vary from 30 mm x 30 mm (≈1.2 in. X 1.2 in.) to about 6 mm X 6 mm (≈0.25 in. X 2.5 in.). The
thickness of geonets available commercially can vary from 3.8 to 7.6 mm (≈0.15 to 0.3 in.).

Seaming of geonets is somewhat more difficult. For this purpose, staples, threaded loops,
and wire sometimes are used.

REFERENCES
1. Das, Braja M. 2010. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 7th Edition.

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MA. THEREZA R. VICHO