Assignment cover sheet

Assessment Title Project: Design of Passive Notch Filter

Programme Title: Bachelor of Engineering Technology

Course No: EN6080

Course Title: AC Circuits Theory

Student Name: Sayed Qassim Fadhul, Rahim Alrahim, Omar Althawadi

Student ID:

Tutor: Dr. Ayman Alaiwi, Mr. Hussain Habib, Mr. Byjumon Nair

Date:
By submitting this assessment for marking, either electronically or as hard copy, I confirm
the following:
 This assignment is my own work.
 Any information used has been properly referenced.
 I understand that a copy of my work may be used for moderation.
 I have kept a copy of this assignment.
Do not write below this line. For Polytechnic use only

Assessor: Date of Marking:

Grade/Mark: Assessment weight: 30% of total mark

Comments:

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Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................4
Applications of notch filter.............................................................................................................................4
Theory.............................................................................................................................................................5
First circuit:...................................................................................................................................................6
For the second circuit:..................................................................................................................................7
For the third circuit:.....................................................................................................................................8
Simulation results...........................................................................................................................................9
First frequency (2kHz, 200Hz bandwidth):.................................................................................................11
Second frequency (20kHz, 2kHz bandwidth):.............................................................................................13
Third frequency (200kHz, 20kHz bandwidth):............................................................................................15
Practical results............................................................................................................................................17
Altium.........................................................................................................................................................18
PCB configuration:......................................................................................................................................19
NI Elvis:.......................................................................................................................................................20
NI Elvis (2KHz):........................................................................................................................................21
NI Elvis (20KHz):......................................................................................................................................23
NI Elvis (200KHz):....................................................................................................................................25
Cost consideration........................................................................................................................................26
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................................26
References.....................................................................................................................................................27

Table 1. Summarizing the components values.................................................................................................8

Table 2. Comparison between simulation and theoretical results (cut off frequencies):...............................15
Table 3. Comparison between simulation and theoretical results (bandwidths):..........................................15
Table 4. The parameters values used for each circuit:...................................................................................16

Figure 1. The notch filter circuit.......................................................................................................................4

Figure 2. The circuit in Multisim.......................................................................................................................9
Figure 3. All frequencies graph.......................................................................................................................10
Figure 4. first frequency (2kHz cutoff frequency)...........................................................................................10
Figure 5. first frequency (200khz bandwidth).................................................................................................11
Figure 6. Second frequency (20Khz cutoff frequency)....................................................................................12
Figure 7. second frequency (2Khz bandwidth)...............................................................................................12
Figure 8. Third frequency (200kHz cutoff frequency).....................................................................................14
Figure 9. Third frequency (20Khz bandwidth)................................................................................................14
Figure 10. the circuit drawn schematically in Altium Designer.......................................................................17
Figure 11. PCB Design.....................................................................................................................................18
Figure 12. The Notch filter after soldering the components to the PCB.........................................................18
Figure 13. The graph using NI Elvis.................................................................................................................19
Figure 14. First circuit graph...........................................................................................................................20
Figure 15. Bandwidth (200Hz)........................................................................................................................21
Figure 16. Second circuit graph......................................................................................................................22

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Figure 17. Bandwidth (2000Hz)......................................................................................................................23
Figure 18. Third circuit graph.........................................................................................................................24

Introduction

A filter is a type of electrical circuit that modifies an electrical signal's amplitude and occasionally
its phase regarding frequency. They are made to attenuate signals outside of the intended
frequency range while passing signals within that range or containing a certain harmonica of the
signal. There are many types of filters, and each type of filter allows a certain frequency to pass
and rejects the other frequencies. This report is focusing on a Notch Filter also known as Band
Stop Filter (BSF), a band stop filter permits lower and higher frequencies to pass with minor
attenuation while blocking a certain range of frequencies from reaching the output. Resonance
and frequency response are the foundation of a band-stop filter's design. A circuit's impedance is
at its lowest when it is resonant at a certain frequency, allowing signals at that frequency to pass
through with the least amount of attenuation. The band-stop filter can efficiently attenuate signals
within a given frequency range by creating a circuit with a resonant frequency that matches the
range to be blocked, based on the components the resonant frequency and the bandwidth will be
determined. The report is going to discuss the applications of Band stop filter, and a comparison
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between theoretical, simulation and practical results will take place as well.

This experiment aims to design three band stop filters. There are many ways to design band stop
filter, however the RLC version of it was applied. The circuit contains an Ac source, 3 resistors, 6
inductors and 3 capacitors, to get three cutoff frequencies (2kHz, 20kHz, 200kHz) while the
bandwidth is 10% of the cutoff frequency in all cases. Then, calculating the parameters to build the
filter circuit and introducing the results of the filter at the given frequencies by simulating the
circuit in Multisim. At the end, designing a PCB using Altium Designer and soldering the
components to it is required in this experiment.

Applications of notch filter

As known that notch filter is used to reject unwanted frequencies and passing a certain frequency,
here is some applications of the notch filter:
1- Audio system, as it removes unwanted frequencies from the signal.
2- Telecommunications, as it removes interfering signals.
3- Instrumentation system, as it removes known interference signals to adjust sensors.
4- Control system, for removing frequencies that cause unsteadiness.

Theory

The theoretical calculations were done according to cutoff frequencies and bandwidths provided
by the tutor. Three circuits were required for this project, the first circuit had a cutoff frequency
2kHz and bandwidth 200Hz, the second circuit had a cutoff frequency 20kHz and bandwidth 2kHz,
the third circuit had a cutoff frequency 200k and its bandwidth is 20kHz. At the end all circuits
were joined to be one circuit, here is the final circuit:

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 Figure 1. The notch filter circuit

The components values were calculated by fixing the value of the capacitor to a standard value
then calculating the inductor and resistor values. Fixing the value of the capacitor was chosen
because it was the hardest component to get.

First circuit:
The first circuit is parallel so specific formulas were used.
The formula below was used to calculate the value of the inductor:
1
ω °=
√ LC
Rearranging the formula to make L the subject.

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 1
L= 2
(C ×ω ° )

Where ω °is the angular frequency and it is equivalent to 2 π multiplied by the cutoff frequency
ω °=2 π × f °
ω °=2 π × 2000
The capacitor value was assumed to be 100nF.
1
L= −9 2
100 ×10 × ( 2 π ×2000 )

L=63.3 mH
As the first circuit was parallel, to calculate the resistor value the below formula was used:
Q=ω° × RC
Rearranging the formula to make R the subject.
Q
R=
ω ° ×C

Where Q is the quality factor and it is equal to the cutoff frequency over the bandwidth
f°
Q=
BW
2000
Q= =10
200
10
R= −9
(2 π ×2000 ×100 × 10 )
R=7957.7 Ω

For the second circuit:

The second circuit is series, so some formulas have changed.
The formula for calculating the inductor value is the same in parallel and series.
1
ω °=
√ LC
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 1
L= 2
(C ×ω ° )
ω °=2 π × f °
ω °=2 π × 20000
The capacitor value was assumed to be 1nF.
1
L= −9 2
1× 10 × ( 2 π × 20000 )
L=63.3 mH
The formula used to calculate the resistor is different than the first circuit, the formula for series
circuit to calculate the resistor:
1
Q=
(ω¿¿ ° × RC )¿
Rearranging the formula to make the R the subject.
1
R=
ω ° ×C × Q
f°
Q=
BW
20000
Q= =10
2000
1
R= −9
2 π × 20000 ×1 ×10 ×10
R=795.77 Ω

For the third circuit:

The third circuit is parallel like the first circuit so the same formulas to calculate the values of the
resistor and inductor will be used.
The formula to calculate the inductor:
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 1
ω °=
√ LC
1
L= 2
(C ×ω ° )
ω °=2 π × f °
ω °=2 π × 200000
The capacitor value was assumed to be 100pF.
1
L= −12 2
100 ×10 × ( 2 π × 200000 )
L=6.33 mH
As the third circuit was parallel, to calculate the resistor value the below formula was used:
Q=ω° × RC
Q
R=
ω ° ×C
f°
Q=
BW
200000
Q= =10
20000
10
R= −12
(2 π ×200000 × 100× 10 )
R=79.57 kΩ

Table 1. Summarizing the components values

Component Calculated value Formula used

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 R1 7957.7 Ω 10
R= −9
(2 π ×2000 ×100 × 10 )

R2 795.77 Ω 1
R= −9
2 π × 20000 ×1 ×10 ×10

R3 79.57 kΩ 10
R= −12
(2 π ×200000 × 100× 10 )

L1 63.3 mH 1
L= 2
100 ×10−9 × ( 2 π × 2000 )

L2 63.3 mH 1
L= 2
1× 10−9× ( 2 π ×20000 )

L3 6.33 mH 1
L= −12 2
100 ×10 × ( 2 π × 200000 )

C1 100nF Fixed to a standard value

C2 1nF Fixed to a standard value
C3 100pF Fixed to a standard value

Simulation results

The simulation results were indicated by using the exact parameters values calculated theoretically. The
circuit results were shown using AC sweep which is acting as bode plotter. The cursers indicate the cut-off
frequency and the bandwidth of each filter circuit. To get the results, the branches were named Vin for the
Vout
source and Vout on the last circuit and then expression ( ) were added to use AC sweep.
Vin
Final circuit for all frequencies:
AS there are three different frequencies, three circuits were built and then connected with one voltage
source. The first frequency is 2kHz with a bandwidth of 200Hz. The second frequency is 20kHz with a
bandwidth of 2kHz. The third frequency is 200kHz with a bandwidth of 20kHz.

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 Figure 2. The circuit in Multisim

The values of resistors were standardized in the simulation:

R1= 8.2kΩ
R2= 820Ω
R3= 82kΩ

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 Figure 3. All frequencies graph.

First frequency (2kHz, 200Hz bandwidth):

Figure 4. first frequency (2kHz cutoff frequency)

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 Figure 5. first frequency (200khz bandwidth)

The cut-off frequency got in simulation was 1.9993kHz with a bandwidth of 222.78Hz. These values were
very close to the theoretical results with a small amount of variation.
Calculating the error:
1- Bandwidth error

simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

222.78−200
×100=11.39%
200
2- Cut-off frequency error

simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

1999.3−2000
×100=0.035 %
2000

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Second frequency (20kHz, 2kHz bandwidth):

Figure 6. Second frequency (20Khz cutoff frequency)

Figure 7. second frequency (2Khz bandwidth)

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The cut-off frequency got in simulation was 20.0029kHz with a bandwidth of 2.1115kHz. These values were
very close to the theoretical results with a small amount of variation.
Calculating the error:
1- Bandwidth error

simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

2.1115 k−2 k
× 100=5.575 %
2k
2- Cut-off frequency error

simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

20.002 k−20 k
×100=0.01 %
20 k

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Third frequency (200kHz, 20kHz bandwidth):

Figure 8. Third frequency (200kHz cutoff frequency)

Figure 9. Third frequency (20Khz bandwidth)

The cut-off frequency got in simulation was 200.4967kHz with a bandwidth of 19.6869kHz. These values
were very close to the theoretical results with a small amount of variation.
Calculating the error:
1- Bandwidth error

simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

19.6869 k−20 k
×100=1.56 %
20 k
2- Cut-off frequency error

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 simulation−theoretical
×100
theoretical

200.4967 k−200 k
×100=0.248 %
200 k

Table 2. Comparison between simulation and theoretical results (cut off frequencies):

Cut-off frequency Theoretical Practical % of error

2kHz 2k 1.9993k 0.035%
20kHz 20k 20.002k 0.01%
200kHz 200k 200.4967k 0.248%
Table 3. Comparison between simulation and theoretical results (bandwidths):

Bandwidth Theoretical Practical % of error

200Hz 200 222.78 11.39%
2kHz 2k 2.1115k 5.575%
20kHz 20k 19.6869k 1.56%

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 Practical results

The practical results were got by using NI Elvis after connecting the circuit on the Elvis board. NI Elvis was
used as bode analyzer.

Table 4. The parameters values used for each circuit:

R1 R2 R3 L1 L2 L3 C1 C2 C3

Theoretical 7.957kΩ 795.7 79.57kΩ 63.3mH 63.3mH 6.3mH 100n 1nF 100pF
values Ω F
Practical 8.2kΩ 820Ω 82kΩ 33m+33m 33m+33m 3.3m+3.3m 100n 1nF 100pF
values = 66mH = 66mH = 6.6mH F
% of error 3% 3% 3% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 0% 0% 0%

Error calculation:
This is the formula used to calculate the error.

practical value−theoretical value

×100
theoretical value

Resistors error
The unit is Ohm (Ω)
R1
8.2−7.957
×100=3 %
7.957

R2
820−795.7
×100=3 %
795.7

R3
82 k−79.57 k
×100=3 %
79.57 k

Inductors error:
The unit is Henry (H)
L1
66 m−63.3 m
×100=4.2 %
63.3 m

L2
66 m−63.3 m
×100=4.2 %
63.3 m

L3
6.6 m−6.3 m
×100=4.2 %
6.3 m

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Capacitors error:
The unit is Farad (F)
C1
100 n−100 n
×100=0 %
100 n

C2
1n−1 n
×100=0 %
1n

C3
100 p−100 p
×100=0
100 p

Altium

First, we add all the components needed for the circuit and we set the values and the names respectively
for reference when the PCB get printed to solder every component to it right place. Also, every footprint
needs to be checked to see that it is correct or changed to the right one, so no problems happen at
soldering.

Figure 10. the circuit drawn schematically in Altium Designer

Also, a header with 2 pins needs to be placed in the input side and another one at the output.
After doing all what is mentioned and double checking everything, we can proceed to design the PCB.
The first step will be to toggle the unit of measurement (mm) instead of (mil) and some rules inside the
design need to be edited like the clearance, the width and the plane. After that we can import the
components from the sheet to the PCB file where every component needs to be aligned with the other so
connections can be made. After that connections in the bottom layer will be made connecting every
component to the other respecting the design in mind leaving the ground pins with no connection. The
next step will be placing the polygon pour over the hole circuit and setting the net for it to ground
therefore ground pins will be connected to the polygon pour. Also, the pads size needs to be fixed to
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preference so that it will be easier to solder every component without short circuiting the hole board by
mistake.

Figure 11. PCB Design

Finally, a line with a width of 1.5mm will go around the hole circuit leaving a gap in the top and bottom side
of PCB to act as a border to it when the machine cuts it.
Following these steps will lead to designing a functional PCB.

PCB configuration:

This is the final PCB used for the practical part holding the
components connected either series or parallel
depending on the main circuit.

Figure 12. The Notch filter after soldering the components to the PCB.

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NI Elvis:

Figure 13. The graph using NI Elvis

The above graph shows the three cut-off frequencies practically using the Elvis board and LabVIEW.
According to the results, the first two frequencies are very close to the actual frequencies given by the
instructor (2KHz and 20KHz). The last cut-off frequency (200KHz) is correct and close to the given cut-off
frequency, but it is facing some error. The reason of error is that NI Elvis cannot deal with high frequencies.

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NI Elvis (2KHz):

Figure 14. First circuit graph

According to the graph, the curser is pointing on the first cut-off frequency which is 2KHz. As circled, the
practical cut-off frequency is 1.8479KHz which is close to the given one (Theory).
The error is calculated as below:

( Practical)1847.9−(Theoretical )2000
× 100=7.6 %
(Theoretical) 2000

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Figure 15. Bandwidth (200Hz)

Going to the bandwidth, we can compare between the two values indicated by cursers in the two gain
graphs above. These cursers must be pointing on -3db but due to some reasons in Elvis, the gain cannot be
set at -3db exactly. As shown above, the graph on the left shows -3.2db for the gain and the frequency at
that amount of gain is 1997.3Hz while the second one has 1700Hz on -2.76db.

Bandwidth:

1997.3−1700=297.3 Hz

Our band width is 200Hz theoretically. And we got 297.3 which we can consider as correct value because
we cannot point exactly on -3db. So, if we rounded the value of the gain indicated by the cursers, the error
will be much fewer.

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NI Elvis (20KHz):

Figure 16. Second circuit graph

According to the graph, the curser is pointing on the first cut-off frequency which is 20KHz. As circled, the
practical cut-off frequency is 18.434KHz which is close to the given one (Theory).
The error is calculated as below:

( Practical)18434−(Theoretical)20000
×100=7.8 %
(Theoretical) 20000

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Figure 17. Bandwidth (2000Hz)

Going to the bandwidth, we can compare between the two values indicated by cursers in the two gain
graphs above. These cursers must be pointing on -3db but due to some reasons in Elvis, the gain cannot be
set at -3db exactly. As shown above, the graph on the left shows -3.25db for the gain and the frequency at
that amount of gain is 19973Hz while the second one has 17801Hz on -2.68db.

Bandwidth:

19973−17801=2172 Hz

Our band width is 2000Hz theoretically. And we got 2172 which we can consider as correct value because
we cannot point exactly on -3db. So, if we rounded the value of the gain indicated by the cursers, the error
will be much fewer.

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NI Elvis (200KHz):

Figure 18. Third circuit graph

According to the graph, the curser is pointing on the first cut-off frequency which is 200KHz. As circled, the
practical cut-off frequency is 199.05KHz which is close to the given one (Theory).
The error is calculated as below:

( Practical)199050−(Theoretical )200000
×100=0.47 %
(Theoretical) 200000

The bandwidth of this cut-off frequency cannot be calculated by NI Elvis because Elvis cannot deal with high
frequencies and cannot reach -3db for the gain in this last circuit.

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 Cost consideration

The cost was minimized the cost by minimizing the number of components as much as possible. In
the simulation the circuit had 3 inductors, 3 resistors, and 3 capacitors, and in the practical the
circuit had 6 inductors, 3 resistors and 3 capacitors. The circuit had more inductors because the
values of the 2 inductors is 63.3mH and one inductor 6.3mH, instead of ordering or buying the
inductors, 2 inductors were connected in series to get the desired value.
The resistors and capacitors were reduced to the minimum required in the circuit and all were
standard and available in the store.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the project worked as it was intended to be, the theoretical, simulation and the
practical results all were close with a low percentage of error. All objectives that were set were
fulfilled without any major problem. The calculations of the components were done based on the
frequencies and bandwidths provided by the tutor, the formulas of band stop filter were used to
get the values of each component and tried to get values as close as possible to the standard
value. The circuit was simulated using NI Multisim to verify if the values of the components display
the same frequencies desired, AC Sweep was used to show the graphs of the cutoff frequencies
and bandwidths. The prototype of the circuit was built using bread board and then using NI Elvis
to see the graphs and check if the cutoff frequencies and bandwidths were met. Next, by using
ALTIUM Designer software, the circuit was drawn schematically and then the PCB was made. After
testing the PCB, it was printed, and all components were soldered properly to it. After that, the
circuit was tested again using NI Elvis just to find out if the circuit worked after the circuit was
soldered to the PCB Finally, the prototype of the Band Stop filter worked as wished.

Unfortunately, there was a small percentage of error, some of the reasons were that being
inexperienced, it was the first time designing a notch filter. Another reason was that the
components used had tolerance values, so it affected the results a little bit. If the experiment
would happen again and to lower the percentage of error even more, trying to use standard
values of capacitor and resistor would be better and for the inductors making them so even if the
inductor value was not a standard it could be as wished, using more evolved devices for the
measuring of the values to make sure does not effect as much and using more advanced devices
to show the graph, NI Elvis is not able to measure high frequencies.

Page 26 of 29
 References

The organic chemistry tutor, RLC Band Stop Filters and Band Pass Filters
Published on: 30th of October 2019
https://youtu.be/ynIx3vNvdIM

Analog Devices, Notch filter

https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/glossary/notch-filter.html#:~:text=Notch%20filters%20are
%20used%20to,receivers%20and%20software%2Ddefined%20radio.

Science direct, Filters in Control Systems

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/notch-filters

Electronics tutorial, Band Stop Filter

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/band-stop-filter.html

HardwareBee, Introduction to Notch Filter

https://hardwarebee.com/notch-filter/

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