Lecture by

edited by jikrul
Prof. Dr. Engr. Mohiuddin Ahmad
EEE KUET Introduction to control system Engineering

System: A system is a combination or an arrangement of different physical components which act

together as an entire unit to achieve a certain objective.
A system is a collection, set, or arrangement of elements (subsystems). A kite is an example of a
physical system because it is made of paper and sticks. A classroom and a lamp are also examples of
the physical system.
Systems include physical, biological, organizational, and other entities, and combinations thereof,
which can be represented through a common mathematical symbolism. The study of feedback control
systems is essentially a study of an important aspect of systems engineering and its application.

r(t) : Reference input

c(t): Controlled variable

Input:
• The input is the stimulus, excitation or command applied to a control system.
• The input is an applied signal or an excitation signal applied to a control system from an
external energy source in order to produce a specified output.
Output:
• The output is the actual response obtained from a control system when an input is applied.
• It may or may not be equal to specified response implied by the input.
Plant or Process: The portion of a system which is to be controlled or regulated is called the plant or
the process.

Control: The meaning of control is to regulate, direct or command a system so that the desired object
is obtained. Control is a set of technologies that achieve desired patterns of variations of operational
parameters and sequences for machines and systems by providing the necessary input signals.
The control means to regulate, direct, command, or govern.

Controller: The element of the system itself or external to the system which controls the plant or the
process is called a controller.

Control System: Control system is an incorporation of different physical elements linked in such a
manner so as to regulate, direct or command itself to obtain a certain objective. A control system is an
interconnection of components forming a system configuration that will provide the desired system
response. Hence, a control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in
such a manner as to command, regulate, direct, or govern itself or another system.

Control Engineering:
Control engineering or Control systems engineering is based on the foundations of feedback theory and
linear system analysis, and it integrates the concepts of network theory and communication theory.
It is the engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems with predictable behaviors.
The practice uses sensors to measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a
vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the input actuators that can make
corrections toward desired performance. When a device is designed to perform without the need for
human inputs for correction it is called automatic control (such as cruise control for regulating a car's
speed). Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities focus on the implementation
of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

Why is control important (for production process / in the plant)?

(1) Safety: Prevent injury to plant personnel, protect the environment by preventing emission and
minimizing waste and prevent damage to the process equipment.
(2) Maintain product quality (composition, purity, color, etc.) on a continuous basis and with minimum
cost.
(3) Maintain plant production rate at minimum cost.
So, we can say that the reasons for automation of process plants are to provide safety and at the same
time maintain desired product quality, high plant throughput, and reduce demand on human labor.

Description of a Control system:

A control system is a system capable of monitoring and regulating the operation of a process or a
plant. The study of the control system is essentially a study of an important aspect of systems
engineering and its applications.

A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of
controlling the outputs of the process. For example, a furnace produces heat as a result of the flow of
fuel. In this process, the flow of fuel in the input, and heat to be controlled is the output.

There are two common classes of control systems, with many variations and combinations: logic or
sequential controls, and feedback or linear controls. There is also fuzzy logic, which attempts to
combine some of the design simplicity of logic with the utility of linear control. Some devices or
systems are inherently not controllable.

Classification of Control System

Controls are classified with respect to:

• technique involved to perform control (i.e. human/machines): manual/automatic control
• creation of control system (i.e. natural / manmade): natural/ manmade /combinational
control
• Time dependence of output variable (i.e. constant/changing): regulator/servo, (also known as
regulating/tracking control)
• Time-type control (Continuous/ discrete): Continuous/Discrete time control
• Linearity of the control system (linear/nonlinear): Linear/nonlinear control system
• Parameter distribution (lumped/ distributed)
• Based on the number of input output (SISO, MISO) system
• fundamental structure / configuration of the control (i.e. the information used for computing the
control): Open-loop/feedback control, (also known as open-loop/closed-loop control)

Manual/Automatic Controls - Examples

A system that involves:
• A person controlling a machine is called manual control. Ex: Driving a car
• A machine only is called an automatic control. Ex: Central AC

Servo/Regulator Controls – Examples

An automatic control system designed to:
• Follow a changing reference is called a tracking control or a servo. Ex: Remote control car
• Maintain an output fixed (regardless of the disturbances present) is called a regulating control
or a regulator. Ex: Cruise control

Natural / Manmade / Combinational Control System

The systems inside a human being or a biological system are known as natural control systems. For an
example, the human eye has a biological (or natural) control system that varies the pupil diameter to
maintain constant light intensity to the retina. As the light intensity increases, the optical nerve sends
a signal to the brain, which commands internal eye muscles to decrease the pupil’s eye diameter.
When the light intensity decreases, the pupil diameter increases.
The various systems that are designed and developed or manufactured by human beings are known as
manmade control systems. An automobile system with gears, accelerators, the braking system is a
good example of the manmade control system.
The combination of a natural control system and a manmade control system is known as a
combinational control system. A driver driving a car is an example of combinational control systems. In
such a system, for the successful operation of the system, it is necessary that natural systems of the
drive along with systems in vehicles which are manmade must be active.

Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Control System

If all the system variables of a control system are a function of time, it is termed as a continuous-
time control system. The speed control of a dc motor with tacho-generator feedback is an example
of continuous-time control systems.
If one or more system variables of a control system are known at a certain discrete time, it is termed
as a discrete-time control system. The microprocessor or computer-based system is an example of
discrete-time control systems.

Linear and Nonlinear Control System

A control system is said to be linear if it satisfies the following properties.
(a) The principle of superposition is applicable to the system. This means the response to several
inputs can be obtained by considering one input at a time and then algebraically adding the
individual results. Mathematically principle of superposition is expressed by two properties

Additive Property which says that for x and y belonging to the domain of the function f then we
have, f(x+y) = f(x) + f(y)

Homogeneous Property which says that for any x belonging the domain of the function f and for any
scalar constant a, we have, f(ax) = af(x)

(b) The differential equation describing the system is linear having its coefficients as constant.
(c) Practically the output i.e. response varies linearly with the input i.e. forcing function for linear
systems.
A control system is said to be nonlinear, if,
(a) It does not satisfy the superposition.
(b) The equations describing the system are nonlinear in nature. The function f(x) = x2 is nonlinear
because
f(x1+x2) = (x1+x2)2 ≠ (x1)2 + (x2)2 and f(ax) = (ax)2 ≠ a(x)2
(c) The output does not vary linearly for nonlinear systems.

Lumped and Distributed-Parameter Control Systems

If a control system can be represented by ordinary differential equations, such as a control system is
called a lumped-parameter control system. In case of electrical networks, parameters such as
resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc. are lumped-parameter systems.
If a control system can be described by partial differential equations, such a control system is known
as a distributed-parameter control system. In a long transmission line, its parameters such as
resistance and inductance are totally distributed along it. Therefore, long transmission line
characteristics are always described by partial differential equations.

Single-Input-Single-Output (SISO) and Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO) Control Systems

 If a control system has one input and one output, it is termed as a single-input-single-output
(SISO) control system.
 If a control system has more than one input and more than one output, it is termed as multiple
input-multiple-output (MIMO) control system.
Open-Loop Control /Feedback control
The structures are fundamentally different:
• In an open-loop control, the system does not measure the actual output and there is no
correction to make that output conform to the desired output.
• In a closed loop control, the system includes a sensor to measure the output and uses
feedback of the sensed value to influence the control input variable.
Examples of Open-Loop & Feedback Controls
An Electric toaster is an open-loop control. Since
• The controller is based on the knowledge.
• The output is not used in control computation
A water tank of an ordinary flush toilet is a (basic) feedback control since the output is fed back to control
computation

Advantage of the Control system

We build control systems for four primary reasons

1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of the input form
4. Compensation of the disturbances

Block Diagram
• It represents the structure of a control system.
• It helps to organize the variables and equations representing the control system.
• It is composed of:
– boxes, that represents the components of the system including their causality;
– Lines with arrows that represent the actual dynamic variables, such as speed, pressure,
velocity, etc.

System configurations - open and closed loop systems

 Open-loop control: An open-loop control is applied to achieve the desired system response
using a controller or an actuator without feedback (fig. 1(a)).

Fig 1(a) Block diagram of an open loop control system

Features of open loop control:

Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:

1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To calibrate means to
establish or reestablish the input-output relation to obtain the desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability

For example, the plant can be a furnace or air conditioning system, where the output variable is
temperature. The controller in a heating system consists of fuel valves and the electrical system that
operates the valves.
The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop control system is that it cannot compensate for any
disturbances that add to the controller’s driving signal and plant output signal.
Disturbances: Disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely affect the value of the output of a
system. Disturbances are two types:

Internal Disturbance: If such a disturbance is generated within the system itself, it is called an
internal disturbance.

External Disturbance: The disturbance generated outside the system acting as an extra input to the
system in addition to its normal input, affecting the output adversely is called an external disturbance.

For example, if the controller is an electronic amplifier and disturbance 1 as shown in Figure 1.6(a) is
noise, then any additive amplifier noise at the first summing junction will also drive the process,
corrupting the output with the effect of the noise. The output of an open-loop system is corrupted not
only by signals that add to the controller’s commands but also by the disturbance at the output. The
system cannot correct for these disturbances, either.

Open-loop systems do not monitor or correct the output for disturbances; however, they are simpler
and less expensive than closed-loop systems.

The disadvantages of open-loop systems, namely sensitivity to disturbances and inability to correct for
these disturbances, may be overcome by using closed-loop systems.

Advantages of Open-Loop Control System

The followings are the advantages of an open-loop control system:
(a) These systems are simple in construction and design.
(b) These systems are economical.
(c) These systems are easy from a maintenance point of view.
(d) Usually, these systems are not much troubled with problems of stability.
(e) These systems are convenient to use when output is difficult to measure.

Disadvantages of Open-Loop Control System

The followings are the disadvantages of an open-loop control system:
(a) These systems are not accurate and reliable because of their accuracy depends on the accuracy of
calibration.
(b) In these systems, inaccuracy results are obtained with parameter variations i.e. internal
disturbances.
(c) Recalibration of the controller is required from time to time for maintaining quality and accuracy.

 Closed-loop/feedback control: A closed-loop control is used to achieve desired system response

using a controller with the output measurement as a feedback signal. The use of feedback enables us
to improve system performance at the cost of introducing the measurement noise and stability
problem.

Fig 1(b) Block diagram of a closed loop control system

Control systems that have the property of measurement and correction of disturbances are called
closed-loop (feedback) control systems. The generic architecture of a closed-loop system is shown in
Figure 1(b).

The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the controller. An output
transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into the form used by the
controller. [For example, if the controller uses electrical signals to operate the valves of a temperature
control system, the input position and the output temperature are converted to electrical signals. The
input position can be converted to a voltage by a potentiometer, a variable resistor, and the output
temperature can be converted to a voltage by a thermistor, a device whose electrical resistance
changes with temperature.]

The first summing junction algebraically adds the signal from the input to the signal from the output,
which arrives via the feedback path, the return path from the output to the summing junction. In
Figure 1(b), the output signal is subtracted from the input signal. The result is generally called the
actuating signal. However, in systems where both the input and output transducers have unity gain
(that is, the transducer amplifies its input by 1), the actuating signal’s value is equal to the actual
difference between the input and the output. Under this condition, the actuating signal is called the
error.

The closed-loop system compensates for disturbances by measuring the output response, feeding that
measurement back through a feedback path, and comparing that response to the input at the summing
junction. If there is any difference between the two responses, the system drives the plant, via the
actuating signal, to make a correction. If there is no difference, the system does not drive the plant,
since the plant’s response is already the desired response.

Closed-loop systems, then, have the obvious advantage of greater accuracy than open-loop systems.
They are less sensitive to noise, disturbances, and changes in the environment. Transient response and
steady-state error can be controlled more conveniently and with greater flexibility in closed-loop
systems, often by a simple adjustment of gain (amplification) in the loop and sometimes by
redesigning the controller. We refer to the redesign as compensating the system and to the resulting
hardware as a compensator. On the other hand, closed-loop systems are more complex and expensive
than open-loop systems.

Closed-loop systems monitor the output and compare it to the input. If an error is detected, the
system corrects the output and hence corrects the effects of disturbances.

Advantages of Closed-Loop Control System

The followings are the advantages of a closed-loop control system:
(a) In these systems, accuracy is very high due to correction of any arising error.
(b) Since these systems sense environmental changes as well as internal disturbances, the errors are
modified.
(c) There is reduced effect of nonlinearity in these systems.
(d) Systems have high bandwidth i.e. high operating frequency zone.
(e) There are facilities for automation in these systems.

Disadvantages of Closed-Loop Control System

The followings are the disadvantages of a closed-loop control system:
(a) Systems are complicated in design and, hence, costlier.
(b) Systems may be unstable.
Comparison of open loop and closed loop systems

Open Loop Closed Loop

Any change in output has no effect on the input Changes in output affect the input which is
i.e. feedback does not exist. possible by the use of feedback.
Output measurement is not required for
Output measurement is necessary.
operation of the system.
Feedback element is absent. Feedback element is present.
The error detector is absent. The error detector is necessary.
It is inaccurate and unreliable. Highly accurate and reliable.
Highly sensitive to the disturbances. Less sensitive to the disturbances.
Highly sensitive to the environmental changes. Less sensitive to the environmental changes.
Bandwidth is small. Bandwidth is large.
Simple to construct and cheap. Complicated to design and hence costly.
Stability is the major consideration while
Generally are stable in nature.
designing.
Highly affected by nonlinearities. Reduced effect of nonlinearities.

Computer Controlled Systems

In modern systems, the controller (or compensator) is a digital computer. The advantage of using a
computer is that many loops can be controlled or compensated by the same computer through time
sharing. Furthermore, any adjustments of the compensator parameters required to yield the desired
response can be made by changes in software rather than hardware.

Analysis and Design objectives of a control system

Some definitions related to control systems:

Analysis and Design Objectives

Analysis is the process by which a system’s performance is determined. For example, we evaluate its
transient response and steady-state error to determine if they meet the desired specifications.
Design is the process by which a system’s performance is created or changed. For example, if a
system’s transient response and steady-state error are analyzed and found not to meet the
specifications, then we change parameters or add additional components to meet the specifications.
Control systems analysis and design focus on three primary objectives:
(1) Producing the desired transient response
(2) Reducing steady-state errors
(3) Achieving stability
The Design Process
The design of a control system follows these steps:
Step 1 Determine a physical system and specifications from requirements.
Step 2 Draw a functional block diagram.
Step 3 Represent the physical system as a schematic.
Step 4 Use the schematic to obtain a mathematical model, such as a block diagram.
Step 5 Reduce the block diagram.
Step 6 Analyze and design the system to meet specified requirements and specifications that include
stability, transient response, and steady-state performance.

Fig. 1.11 the control system design process

Figure 1.11 is feedback and communication during each phase. For example, if testing (Step 6) shows
that requirements have not been met, the system must be redesigned and retested. Sometimes
requirements are conflicting and the design cannot be attained. In these cases, the requirements have
to be re-specified and the design process repeated. Let us now elaborate on each block of Figure 1.11.

Step 1: Transform Requirements into a Physical System

We begin by transforming the requirements into a physical system. Using the requirements, design
specifications, such as desired transient response and steady-state accuracy, are determined.

Step 2: Draw a Functional Block Diagram

The designer now translates a qualitative description of the system into a functional block diagram that
describes the component parts of the system (that is, function and/or hardware) and shows their
interconnection.

Step 3: Create a Schematic

As we have seen, position control systems consist of electrical, mechanical, and electromechanical
components. After producing the description of a physical system, the control systems engineer
transforms the physical system into a schematic diagram. The control system designer can begin with
the physical description to derive a schematic.

Step 4: Develop a Mathematical Model (Block Diagram)

Once the schematic is drawn, the designer uses physical laws, such as Kirchhoff's laws for electrical
networks and Newton's law for mechanical systems, along with simplifying assumptions, to model the
system mathematically. These laws are
Kirchhoff's voltage law: The sum of voltages around a closed path equals zero.
Kirchhoff's current law: The sum of electric currents flowing from a node equals zero.
Newton's laws: The sum of forces on a body equals zero; the sum of moments on a body equals zero.

Kirchhoff's and Newton's laws lead to mathematical models that describe the relationship between the
input and output of dynamic systems. One such model is the linear, time-invariant differential
equation, Eq. (1.2):

(1.12)
Many systems can be approximately described by this equation, which relates the output, c(t), to the
input, r(t), by way of the system parameters, ai, and bj.

In addition to the differential equation, the transfer function is another way of mathematically modeling
a system. The model is derived from the linear, time-invariant differential equation using what we call
the Laplace to transform. Although the transfer function can be used only for linear systems, it yields
more intuitive information than the differential equation. We will be able to change system parameters
and rapidly sense the effect of these changes on the system response. The transfer function is also
useful in modeling the interconnection of subsystems by forming a block diagram.

Still another model is the state-space representation. One advantage of state space methods is that
they can also be used for systems that cannot be described by linear differential equations. Further,
state-space methods are used to model systems for simulation on the digital computer. Basically, this
representation turns an nth-order differential equation into n simultaneous first-order differential
equations.

Step 5: Reduce the Block Diagram

Subsystem models are interconnected to form block diagrams of larger systems, where each block has
a mathematical description.
In order to evaluate system response, we need to reduce this large system's block diagram to a single
block with a mathematical description that represents the system from its input to its output. Once the
block diagram is reduced, we are ready to analyze and design the system.

Step 6: Analyze and Design

The next phase of the process, following block diagram reduction, is analysis and design. Test input
signals are used, both analytically and during testing, to verify the design. These inputs are impulses,
steps, ramps, parabolas, and sinusoids, as shown in Table 1.1.

Ref: [1] Norman S. Nise, “Control Systems Engineering,” Sixth Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2011.
 Chapter01 - Control system types - Examples
Open loop control: An open-loop control system utilizes an actuating device to control the process directly
without using feedback. A common example of an open-loop control system is an electric toaster in the
kitchen. A microwave oven set to operate for a fixed time.

Plant
Fig. a. Open loop control of the speed of turntable, b. block diagram model

Features of open loop control:

Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To calibrate means to establish or reestablish the
input-output relation to obtain a desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability, a concept to be subsequently discussed in detail.
Closed loop control: A closed-loop control system uses a measurement of the output and feedback of this signal to
compare it with the desired output.

Plant

Fig. a. Closed-loop control of speed of turntable, b. block diagram model

The system in Figure: 01-22 is a negative feedback control system, because the output is subtracted from the input and
the difference is used as the input signal to the controller.
Example: An automobile system (Closed loop control system)

Figure: 01-07a-c, An example of a closed-

loop control system is a person steering an
automobile (assuming his eyes are open) by
looking at the auto’s location on the road
and making the appropriate adjustments.

Manual control system: The level of fluid in a tank control

Control system of the national income.

Figure: 01-13. It has become interesting and valuable to attempt to model the feedback processes prevalent in the
social, economic, and political spheres.
Method of Describe a system
a. The Nth-order differential equation model
b. Signal-Flow graph / Block diagram
c. Transfer Function ( by Laplace Transform)
d. The unit impulse response
e. The State-space Model

Control system Design: Engineering design is the main task of the engineer.

Specifications
The closed-loop control system performance specifications include:
1) Good regulation against disturbance,
2) Desirable responses to commands,
3) Realistic actuator signal,
4) Low sensitivity, and
5) Robustness

The design is to achieve appropriate design specifications and rests on four characteristics:
complexity, tradeoffs, gaps and risk.

Establish Select sensors

control goals and actuators
Construct the
system model

Identify the Determine the

variable performance
to control and specifications
the Select a
manipulating controller and
variables adjust the
Simulation
controller
study and
parameters
validation
Given a process, how to design a feedback control system?
Three steps:

• Modeling. Obtain a mathematical description of the systems.

• Analysis. Analyze the properties of the system.
• Design. Given a plant, design a controller based on performance specifications.

The course spans each of these steps in that sequence.

The basis for analysis of a system is the foundation provided by linear system theory, which assumes
a cause-effect relationship for the components of a system.
Sample Question. Consider the voltage divider network of Fig. 1-4. The output is v2, and the input is v1. (
a ) Write an equation for v2 as a function of v1, R1, and R2. That is, write an equation for v2 which yields an
open-loop system. (b) Write an equation for v2, in closed-loop form, that is, v2 as a function of v1, v2, R1,
and R2. This problem illustrates how a passive network can be characterized as either an open-loop or a
closed-loop system.

Answer:
Examples of open loop, closed loop and complex control system
Open loop examples
 manual operation of the accelerator in an automobile
 manual operation of the brake system in an automobile
 Any light switch in your home
 Motor speed regulator using a governor
 Train crossing signals/gates
 Electric Ovens
 Gas ring
 Water tap
 Traffic signals
 Washing machine
 Electric fan
 Irrigation sprinkler system
 Electric motor
 Manual operation of the accelerator in an automobile
 Manual operation of the brake system in an automobile

Closed loop: Examples of closed-loop systems:

 A pump on an aquarium
 An air conditioning system on a furnace.
 A hot water heating system that uses boilers and radiators
 A steam heating system that uses boilers and water return lines
 the primary water loop on a nuclear reactor
 the secondary steam generating loop on a nuclear reactor
 A coal-fired electric power generating system
 refrigerator temperature regulating the system
 Geothermal heating systems where a coil is buried in the ground and a pump pumps water through
 the coil back to the furnace
 The mouse on a computer
 A joystick on a video game
 The governor on a go-cart.
 The speed control on an automobile
 The motor cooling system on a car
 The air conditioning system on a car
 The air circulating system on a submarine
 The air circulating system on a passenger airplane
 The pneumatic system that lifts cars at auto repair shops
 The volume control on a television.
 The remote control on a TV: The remote communicates with the TV through a signal. This allows
the user to turn the volume or change the channel without pressing anything on the actual television.
 Furnace/heating system with a thermostat
 automobile cruise control (some can be considered complex)
 The power supply in a computer or other electronic device
 Motor speed regulator using tachometer and/or current sensor

Complex:
 the guided missile guidance system
 launch vehicle (rocket) guidance system
 gimbal control system for the overhead camera at some sports stadiums
 Airplane control surface control system.
 Satellite navigation system
Review Questions

1. Name three applications for feedback control systems.

2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason
for not using them.
3. Give three examples of open-loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed-loop systems differ from open-loop systems?
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system
would not be the difference between the input and the output.
6. If the error signal is not the difference between input and output, by what general
name can we describe the error signal?
7. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.
8. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
9. Name the two parts of a system’s response.
10. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
11. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response?
12. Describe a typical control system analysis task.
13. Describe a typical control system design task.
14. Adjustments of the forward path gain can cause changes in the transient
response. True or false?
15. Name three approaches to the mathematical modeling of control systems.
16. Briefly describe each of your answers to Question 15.
 Lecture 03: Mathematical models of systems
The set of mathematical equations, describing the dynamic characteristics of a system is called a
mathematical model of the system.

Method of Describe a system

a. The Nth-order differential equation model – time domain
b. Signal-Flow graph / Block diagram – Frequency domain
c. Transfer Function ( by Laplace Transform) - Frequency domain
d. The unit impulse response – Frequency domain
e. The State-space Model – time domain

Approach to dynamic systems

1. Define the system and its components.
2. Formulate the system and list the necessary assumptions.
3. Write the differential equations describing the model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. If necessary, reanalyze or redesign the system.

Differential Equations of Physical Systems

The differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a physical system are obtained
by utilizing the physical laws of the process.
This approach applies equally well to;
• Mechanical,
• Electrical,
• Fluid,
• Thermodynamic systems.
Physical laws
The physical laws define relationships between fundamental quantities and are usually represented
by equations.
Newton’s 2nd law of motion: f = Ma, f = M (dv/dt), The velocity v = v(t) and force f = f(t) are
dependent variable, the time t is the independent variable.

Ohm’s Law : v = R I, v = R (dq/dt) ; The charge q = q(t) and the voltage v = v(t) are dependent
variable, the time t is the independent variable.
KVL: Applied voltage = sum of voltage drops
KCL: Entering current at a node = Outgoing currents at that node
D’Alemberts Principle: f = FM +FB +FK (applied force = sum of all resisting forces)
 Linear and Nonlinear Equations:

• A linear equation
• A linear equation is an equation consisting of the sum of linear terms.
• A linear term is one which is the first degree of dependent variables and their derivatives.
• If any term of differential equation contains higher power, products, or transcendental functions
of the dependent variables, it is nonlinear.
dy 3 dy
( ) ,u ,sinu
dt dt
• A time-invariant equation - is an equation in which none of the terms depends explicitly on the
independent variable time.
• A time-variable equation - is an equation in which one or more terms depend explicitly on the
independent variable time.

Why are all transcendental functions not of first degree?

• Transcendental functions, such as the logarithmic, trigonometric, and hyperbolic functions
and their corresponding inverses, are not of first degree because they are defined by an
infinite series.

x 2 n1 x3 x5
• For example, sin x   (1) n 1
 x    ...
n 1 (2n  1)! 3! 5!
• Where the first term is first degree, the second is a third degree, and so on. Hence their
degree is in general equal to infinity.

Symbols and units (mechanical system)

Inductive Storage
Electrical inductance

Translational spring

Rotational spring

Fluid inertia

Capacitive Storage
Electrical capacitance

Translational mass

Rotational mass or Moment of Inertia

Energy dissipators
Electrical resistance

Translational damper

Rotational damper

Fluid resistance

Thermal resistance

Example: An automobile shock absorber (a) spring-mass-damper (b) Free body diagram. Figure:
We model the wall friction as a viscous damper; the friction force is linearly proportional to the
velocity of the mass. (In reality the wall friction may behave as a Coulomb damper- a dry friction,
which is a nonlinear function of mass velocity and possesses a discontinuity around zero velocity.
Summing the forces acting on M and utilizing Newton’s second law yields

d 2 y(t ) dy(t )
M 2
b  ky(t )  r (t ) , Solution: y(t)= K1 exp(-1t) sin(1t+1)
dt dt
KVL and KCL:
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Example:

v(t)/R + C dv(t)/dt +1/L v(t) dt = r(t)

v(t)= K2 exp(-2t) cos(2t+2)
To see the close similarity between the differential equations for mechanical and electrical
systems, we shall rewrite M d2y(t)/dt2 + b dy(t)/dt + k y(t) = r(t) in term of velocity v(t) = dy(t)/dt
.
We have M dv(t)/dt + b v(t) + k v(t) = r(t)

The close similarity

• M d2y(t)/dt2 + b dy(t)/dt + k y(t) = r(t)

for v(t) = dy(t)/dt
• M dv(t)/dt + b v(t) + k v(t) = r(t)
• C dv(t)/dt + v(t)/R +1/L v(t) dt = r(t)

Analogous variables
Voltage-velocity analogy: voltage v(t) and velocity v(t) are equivalent variables
Current-velocity analogy: current i(t) and velocity v(t) are equivalent variables
Voltage-velocity analogy (often called the force-current analogy) relates analogous through -
and across- variables of the electrical and mechanical systems.
State Concepts:
STATE: The state of a system is a mathematical structure containing a set of n variables x1(t ), x2(t), .
. . , xi(t ), . . . , xn(t ), called the state variables, such that the initial values xi(t0) of this set and the
system inputs uj(t) are sufficient to describe uniquely the system’s future response of t ≥ t0. A
minimum set of state variables is required to represent the system accurately. The m inputs, u1(t ),
u2(t ), . . . ,uj(t ), . . . ,um(t ), are deterministic; i.e., they have specific values for all values of time t ≥
t0.

Generally, the initial starting time t0 is taken to be zero. The state variables need not be
physically observable and measurable quantities; they may be purely mathematical quantities. The
following additional definitions apply:

STATE VECTOR: The set of state variables xi(t ) represents the elements or components of the n-
dimensional state vector x(t ); that is,
 x1 (t )   x1 
 x (t )  x 
x(t )   2    2   x
   
   
 n   xn 
x (t )

The order of the system characteristic equation is n, and the state equation representation of the
system consists of n first-order differential equations. When all the inputs uj (t) to a given system
are specified for t > t0, the resulting state vector uniquely determines the system behavior for any t
> t0 .

STATE SPACE: State space is defined as the n-dimensional space in which the components of the
state vector represent its coordinate axes.

STATE TRAJECTORY: State trajectory is defined as the path produced in the state space by the
state vector x(t) as it changes with the passage of time. State space and state trajectory in the two-
dimensional case are referred to as the phase plane and phase trajectory, respectively.

The first step in applying these definitions to a physical system is the selection of the system
variables that are to represent the state of the system. Note that there is no unique way of making
this selection. The three common representations for expressing the system state are the physical,
phase, and canonical state variables.

The selection of the state variables for the physical-variable method is based upon the energy-
storage elements of the system. Table 2.2 lists some common energy-storage elements that exist
in physical systems and the corresponding energy equations. The physical variable in the energy
equation for each energy-storage element can be selected as a state variable of the system. Only
independent physical variables are chosen to be state variables. Independent state variables are
those state variables that cannot be expressed in terms of the remaining assigned state variables.
In some systems, it may be necessary to identify more state variables than just the energy-storage
variables.
Example 1: Series RL circuit.
Only one energy-storage element, the inductor, is present in this circuit; thus there is only one
state variable. From Table 2.2, the state variable is x1 = i. The equation desired is one that
contains the first derivative of the state variable. Letting u = e, the loop equation, Ri+Ldi/dt=e,
can be rewritten as

Example 2: Series RLC circuit ( Fig. 2.2). This circuit contains two energy-storage elements,
the inductor, and capacitor. From Table 2.2, the two assigned state variables are identified as x 1
= vc (the voltage across the capacitor) and x2 = i (the current in the inductor). Thus two state
equations are required.

Figure 2.2 is redrawn in Fig. 2.5 with node b as the reference node. The node equation for
node a and the loop equations are, respectively,

Above two equations represents the state equation of the system containing two independent
state variables.
State Equations: The state equations of a system are a set of n first-order differential equations,
where n is the number of independent states. The state equations represented by the above
equations are expressed in matrix notation as
It can be expressed in a more compact form is x  Ax  bu (i)

and, in this case, u = [u] is a one-dimensional control vector.

If the output quantity y(t ) for the circuit of Fig. 2.2 is the voltage across the capacitor vC, then
y(t )  vC  x1
Thus the matrix system output equation for the example is
x 
y (t )  cT x  du  1 0 1   0u  (ii)
 x2 

Equations (i) and (ii) are for a single-input-single-output (SISO) system. For a multiple-input-
multiple-output (MIMO) system, with m inputs and l outputs, these equations become
 x  Ax  Bu (iii)
y  Cx  Du (iv),
Where,

Example 3: Obtain the state equation for the circuit of Fig. 2.6, where i 2 is considered to be the
output of this system. The assigned state variables are x1 = i1, x2 = i2, and x3 = vC. Thus, two loop
and one node equations are written

The three state variables are independent, and the system state and output equations are

Example 4: Obtain the state equations for the circuit of Fig. 2.7. The output is the voltage v 1.
The input or control variable is a current source i(t). The assigned state variables are i1, i2, i3, v1,
and v2. Three loop equations and two node equations are written:
Substituting from the values of v1 =L1Di1 and v2 = L3Di3 into v2=L2Di2 + v1, or writing the loop
equation through L1, L2, and L3 and then integrating (multiplying by 1/D), gives
L3i3  L2i2  L1i1  K

where K is a function of the initial conditions. This equation reveals that one inductor current is
dependent upon the other two inductor currents. Thus, this circuit has only four independent
physical state variables, two inductor currents, and two capacitor voltages.
The four independent state variables are designated as x1 = v1, x2 = v2, x3 = i1, and x4 = i2, and the
control variable is u = i.
 Lecture 04: Solution of Mathematical Models of Systems

Servomotor:
Help-line

Motor equation gives:

Lm Dim  Rmim  eb  ea gives
JD m  B m  T (t )  K t im Lm Dx2  Rm x2  em  u
 JDx1  Bx1  K t x2  Lm x 2  Rm x2  K b m  u
 Jx1  Bx1  K t x2  Lm x 2  Rm x2  K b x1  u
B K K R 1
 x1   x1  t x2  x1   b x1  m x2  u
J J Lm Lm Lm
Standard input to control systems

Sinusoidal function, r  A cost

a2 2
Power series function r  a0  a1t  t  ...
2
Step function r  u(t )

Ramp (step velocity) function r  tu(t )

t2
Parabolic (step acceleration) function r  u (t )
2

Impulse function r  u0 (t )   (t )

Solution of Linear Differential equation:

Complete solution = transient component + steady-state component,

that is, c(t )  c(t )tr  c(t )ss

The coefficients of the transient terms are determined by the instantaneous value of the
steady-state component, the roots of the characteristic equation, and the initial
conditions.
Steady state response: Sinusoidal input
The input quantity r is assumed to be a sinusoidal function of the form

r (t )  R cos(t   ) (3.1)

The general integrodifferential equation to be solved is of the form

Av Dvc  Av 1Dv 1c    A0 D0c  A1D 1c    A w D  wc  r (3.2)

The steady-state solution can be obtained directly by use of Euler’s identity,

e jt  cost  j sint

The input can then be written

r  R cos(t   )

 r  real part of R ei (t  ) 
 
 r  Re R e j (t  )
 r  Re R e e  j jt (3.3)

 r  Re Re  jt

j
The quantity R  R e is the phasor representation of the input; i.e., it has both a
magnitude R and an angle α. The magnitude R represents the maximum value of the
input quantity r(t). For simplicity the angle α =0 usually is chosen for R. The input r
from Eq. (3.3) is inserted in Eq. (3.2). Then, for the expression to be an equality, the
response c must be of the form


c(t ) ss  C cos(t   )  Re Ce j (t  ) 
 
 Re Ce j e jt  Re Ce jt   (3.4)

j
where C  Ce is a phasor quantity having the magnitude C and the angle φ. The
nth derivative of css with respect to time is


D nc(t ) ss  Re ( j )n Ce jt  (3.5)
Inserting css and its derivatives from Eqs. (3.4) and (3.5) into Eq. (3.2) gives

Re( Av ( j )v Ce jt  Av 1 ( j )v 1 Ce jt    A w ( j )  w Ce jt

 Re( R eit ) (3.6)

Canceling Ce jt from both sides of the equation and then solving for C gives
R
C
Av ( j )v  Av 1 ( j )v 1    A0  A1 ( j ) 1    A w ( j )  w
(3.7)

where C is the phasor representation of the output; i.e., it has a magnitude C and an
angle φ. Since the values of C and φ are functions of the frequency ω, the phasor
output is written as C(jω) to show this relationship. Similarly, R(jω) denotes the fact
that the input is sinusoidal and may be a function of frequency.

Comparing Eqs. (3.2) and (3.6), it can be seen that one equation can be determined
easily from the other. Substituting jω for D, C(jω) for c, and R(jω) for r in Eq. (3.2)
results in Eq. (3.6).The reverse is also true and is independent of the order of the
equation. It should be realized that this is simply a rule of thumb that yields the desired
expression.

The time response can be obtained directly from the phasor response. The output is

 
c(t ) ss  Re Ce jt | C | cos(t   ) (3.7)

Steady state response: Polynomial input

The general integrodifferential equation to be solved is of the form

Av Dvc  Av 1Dv 1c    A0 D0c  A1D 1c    A w D  wc  r

The polynomial input is of the form

R2t 2 R3t 3 Rk t k
r (t )  R0  R1t    ... 
2! 3! k!
For t < 0 the value of r(t)<0 is zero. The object is to find the steady-state or
particular solution of the dependent variable c. The method used is to assume a
polynomial solution of the form
q
b2t 2 b3t 3 bt
c(t ) ss  b0  b1t    ...  q
2! 3! q!
The relation between k & q is

Step input: Equation (2.135) can be written in the form

Here, r= u(t), is a unit step function and it is a polynomial in which the highest
exponent of t is k = 0. When the input is a unit step function, the method of solution
for a polynomial can therefore be used, that is, the steady-state response is also a
polynomial. The lowest-order derivative in Eq. (3.15) is w = 0; therefore, q = 0 and the
steady-state response has only one term of the form

The derivatives are Dxss = 0 and D2xss = 0. Inserting these values into Eq. (3.15)
yields

Ramp input: Equation (2.135) can be written in the form

Parabolic function input: Equation (2.135) can be written in the form
 Lecture 05: Solution of Mathematical Models of Systems
TRANSIENT RESPONSE: CLASSICAL METHOD

The classical method of solving for the complementary function or transient

response of a differential equation requires,

First, the writing of the homogeneous equation. The general differential equation
has the form

bv Dvc  bv 1Dv 1c    b0 D0c  b1D1c    b w D wc  r (3.21)

where r is the forcing function and c is the response. The homogeneous equation is
formed by letting the right side of the differential equation equal zero:

bv Dv ct  bv 1Dv 1ct    b0 D0ct  b1D 1ct    b w D  wct  0 (3.22)

where ct is the transient component of the general solution.

The general expression for the transient response, which is the solution of the
homogeneous equation, is obtained by assuming a solution of the form

ct  Amemt (3.23)

where m is a constant yet to be determined. Substituting this value of ct into Eq.

(3.22) and factoring Amemt from all terms gives

Amemt (bv mv  bv 1mv 1    b0  b1m1    b wm w )  0 (3.24)

Equation (3.24) must be satisfied for Amemt to be a solution. Since emt cannot be
zero for all values of time t, it is necessary that

Q(m)  bv mv  bv 1mv 1    b0  b1m1    b wm w  0 (3.25)

This equation is purely algebraic and is termed the characteristic equation. The roots
of the characteristic equation, Eq. (3.25), can be readily obtained by using the
MATLAB CAD program. There are v + w roots, or eigenvalues, of the characteristic
equation; therefore, the complete transient solution contains the same number of
terms of the form Amemt if all the roots are simple.
Condition1: all roots are distinct

Thus the transient component, when there are no multiple roots, is

ct  A1em1t  A2em2t  A3em3t    Av  wemvwt (3.26)

where each emk t is described as a mode of the system.

Condition2: all roots are same

If there is a root mq of multiplicity p, the transient includes corresponding terms of

the form

ct  Aq1e  Aq 2te  Aq3t 2e    Aqpt p 1e

mq t mq t mq t mq t
(3.27)

Instead of using the detailed procedure just outlined the characteristic equation of
Eq. (3.25) is usually obtained directly from the homogeneous equation of Eq. (3.22)
by substituting m for Dct, m2 for D2ct, etc.

Since the coefficients of the transient solution must be determined from the initial
conditions, there must be v + w known initial conditions. These conditions are
values of the variable c and of its derivatives that are known at specific times. The v
+ w initial conditions are used to set up v+w simultaneous equations of c and its
derivatives. The value of c includes both the steady-state and transient
components. Since the determination of the coefficients includes consideration of
the steady-state component, the input affects the value of the coefficient of each
exponential term.

Condition3: Roots are complex

Frequently, some values of mk are complex. When this happens, they always occur
in pairs that are complex conjugates and are of the form

mk    jd , mk 1    jd (3.28)

where σ is called the damping coefficient and ωd is called the damped natural
frequency. The transient terms corresponding to these values of m are
ctr  Ak emk t  Ak 1emk 1t
 ctr  Ak e(  j d )t  Ak 1e(  j d )t
ctr  Ak e mk t  Ak 1e mk 1t
 ctr  Ak e(  j d )t  Ak 1e(  j d )t
 ctr  et ( Ak e  j d t  Ak 1e  j d t )
 ctr  et { Ak (cosd t  j sin d t )  Ak 1 (cosd t  j sin d t )}
 ctr  et {( Ak  Ak 1 ) cosd t  j ( Ak  Ak 1 ) sin d t )}
 ctr  et {B1 cosd t  B2 sin d t )} (3.29)

 ctr  et { A sin  cosd t  A cos sin d t )}

 ctr  Aet sin(d t   )

ctr  Aet sin(d t   ) (3.32)

This transient term is called an exponentially damped sinusoid; it consists of a sine

wave of frequency ωd whose magnitude is Aeσt; that is, it is decreasing
exponentially with time if s is negative. It has the form shown in Fig. 3.2, in which
the curves ±Aeσt constitute the envelope. The plot of the time solution always
remains between the two branches of the envelope.

For the complex roots given in Eq. (3.28), where σ is negative, the transient decays
with time and eventually dies out.

(i) A negative σ represents a stable system. When σ is positive, the transient

increases with time and will destroy the equipment unless otherwise
restrained.
(ii) A positive σ represents the undesirable case of an unstable system. Control
systems must be designed so that they are always stable.
Damping Ratio ζ (zeta) and Undamped Natural Frequency ωn
Let us consider a series RLC circuit.

The governing equation is

di 1
L  Ri   idt  r
dt C
i
 LDi  Ri  r
CD
i
 LD 2i  RDi   Dr  e (Let)
C

The solution is, i(t )  itr  iss

The homogeneous differential equation becomes –

itr
 LD 2itr  RDitr  0
C
The characteristics equation becomes –

b2m2  b1m  b0  0 (Quadratic equation)

This equation has complex conjugate roots. The roots of this factor are

The real part σ is recognized as the exponent of e, and ωd is the frequency of the
oscillatory portion of the component stemming from this pair of roots, as given by
expression (3.32).
Here, b1 = effective damping constant of the system.

If the numerator under the square root in Eq. (3.33) is zero, then b1 has the value
2 b2b0 ,

Roots m1 = m2 are equal. This represents the critical value of the damping constant

and is written b1  2 b2b0 .

The damping ratio ζ is defined as the ratio of the actual damping constant to the
critical value of the damping constant:

Comments:

(i) When ζ is positive and ζ < 1.0, the roots are complex and the transient is a
damped sinusoid of the form of expression (3.32).

(ii) When ζ < 1.0, the response is said to be underdamped.

(iii) When ζ > 1.0, the roots are real and the response is overdamped; i.e., the
transient solution consists of two exponential terms with real exponents.

(iv) For ζ > 0 the transients decay with time and the response c(t) approaches
the steady-state value.

(v) For ζ < 0, the transient increases with time and the response is unstable.

The undamped natural frequency ωn is defined as the frequency of the sustained

oscillation of the transient if the damping is zero:

The case of zero damping constant, b1 = 0, means that the transient response does
not die out; it is a sine wave of constant amplitude.
The quadratic factors are frequently written in terms of the damping ratio and the
undamped natural frequency. Underdamped systems are generally analyzed in
terms of these two parameters. After factoring b0, the quadratic factor of the
characteristic equation is
Above equation, can be written as

1 2
m 2
 m 1  0
n2
n

 m2  2 n m  n2  0 (3.37)

Equation (3.37) is called the standard forms of the quadratic factor, and the
corresponding roots are

The transient response of Eq. (3.32) for the underdamped case, written in terms of ζ
and ωn, is

Comments: (i) The larger the product ζωn, the faster the transient will decay.
(ii) ζωn terms also affect the damped natural frequency of oscillation of the
transient, d  n 1   , which varies directly as the undamped natural
2

frequency and decreases with an increase in damping ratio.

Definition of time constant:

The transient solution is given by (for a single root, m)

ct  Ae mt , where m is a constant yet to be determined.

(i) When m = - a, the root is real and negative, the plot of Ae_at has the form
shown in Fig. 3.3. The value of time that makes the exponent of e equal to
–1 is called the time constant T. Thus,

(ii) If mk    jd , mk 1    jd , then the transient solution is

given by ctr  Aet sin(d t   ) . The plot of the function is in Fig. 3.2.

Thus, time constant is given by

In terms of the damping ratio and the undamped natural frequency, the time
constant is

1
T
 n
Therefore, the larger the product ζωn, the greater the instantaneous rate of decay
of the transient

3.7. Second order system: Mechanical

The simple translational mechanical system of Sec. 2.5 is used as an example and is
shown in Fig. 3.4. Equation (2.59) relates the displacement xb to xa:

The displacement of the mass is given by

(i) Steady state solution (when xa= unit step function) is xb,ss = xa.

(ii) Transient solution:

The characteristics equation is,

 B K
Mm 2  Bm  K  M  m 2  m 0
 M M
Putting in terms of ζ and ωn is, the characteristic equation is

m2  2 n m  n2  0 (3.43)

The roots are m1, 2   n  n  2  1 .

The transient solution depends on whether the damping ratio ζ is

(1) greater than unity,

(2) equal to unity, or

(3) smaller than unity.

(i) For ζ > 1, the roots are real and have the values m1 = –a and m2 = –b, and the
transient response is

(ii) For ζ = 1, the roots are real and equal; that is, m1  m2  n . Since there
are multiple roots, the transient response is

(iii) For ζ < 1, the roots are complex, m1, 2  n  jn 1   2
and the transient solution, as outlined in Sec. 3.5, is


xb,t  Ae  n t sin n 1   2 t    (3.46)

The complete solution for underdamped case (ζ < 1) is


xb (t )  1  Ae  n t sin n 1   2 t   
3.9 Second order transient

The response to a unit step-function input is usually used as a means of

evaluating the response of a system. The second order differential equation in
terms of undamped natural frequency ωn and damping ratio ζ is given by

D 2c 2
 Dc  c  r
n2 n
Where c is the response and r is the excitation function or input. The input is a
unit step function with zero initial condition.

Transient response:

The characteristic equation is

1 2
m2  m 1  0
n 2
n
The roots are,

m1, 2  n  jn 1   2

In Laplace domain, s1, 2  n  jn 1   2

Therefore, the transient solution is


ct  Ae  n t sin n 1   2 t   
Particular integral:

D 2c p 2
 Dc p  c p  1.0
n2 n (Unit step)

Let, cp=A (constant value), Therefore, cp =1.

Complete solution:


c(t )  1  Ae  n t sin n 1   2 t   
With zero initial conditions: At t=0, c(t)=0, gives

0  1  Asin
And


Dc(t )   n Ae  n t sin n 1   2 t   

 n 1   2 Ae  n t cos n 1   2 t    0 
 0   n A sin   n 1   2 A cos
From the above equations:

Asin  1

 n 
A cos   
And,
n 1   2 1  2

A sin 1  2
 tan  
Therefore,
A cos 

So, cos   and   cos1 

And sin   1   2

1 1
A 
Therefore, sin  1 2
Therefore, the complete solution is

c(t )  1 
e  n t
1 2

sin n 1   2 t  cos1   (3.59)
 A family of curves representing this equation is shown in Fig. 3.6, where the
abscissa is the dimensionless variable ωnt. The curves are thus a function only of
the damping ratio ζ.

These curves show that the amount of overshoot depends on the damping ratio
ζ.

Comments:

(i) For the overdamped and critically damped case, ζ >= 1, there is no overshoot.

(ii) For the underdamped case, ζ < 1, the system oscillates around the final value.
The oscillations decrease with time, and the system response approaches the
final value. The peak overshoot for the underdamped system is the first
overshoot.
 Lecture 06: Second order transient

3.9 Second order transient

The second order differential equation in terms of undamped natural frequency

ωn and damping ratio ζ is given by

D 2c 2
 Dc  c  r
n2 n
Where c is the response and r are the excitation function or input. The input is a
unit step function with zero initial condition. Therefore, the complete solution
is

c(t )  1 
e  n t
1 2

sin n 1   2 t  cos1   (3.59)

Time at which peak overshoot occurs:

The time at which the peak overshoot occurs, tp, can be found by
differentiating c(t) from Eq. (3.59) with respect to time and setting this
derivative equal to zero:

dc(t )
dt

  ne n t sin n 1   2 t  cos1  
 n 1   2 e n t cos n 1   2 t  cos1   0

dc(t )
Therefore,  0 if n 1   2  0,  ,2 ,...
dt
The peak overshoot occurs at first value after zero.

n 1   2 t p  

 
tp  
n 1   2 d
The value of the peak overshoot, Mp:

Normalized Peak overshoot with a step input: M p  c(t p ) / R0

 
 n t p
e
M p  c(t p )  1  sin n 1   2 t p  cos1 
1  2


  n
e  n 1  2   
M p 1 sin n 1   2  cos1  
1 2  n 1   2 
 


1  2

M p 1
e

sin   cos1  
1 2

 
 
1  2
1  2
e e
 M p 1 sin cos1   1  sin sin 1 1   2
1 2 1 2

 
e 1  2
   
1 1 e 1 
 1  exp  
2
 M p 1 2

1 2    2 
 1 
c p  css
Per unit overshoot:
M0 
css

  
1  exp   1
   2    
M0   1   exp  
Therefore, 1  1 2 
 
Error in the system, e:

e  r c 
e n t
1 2

sin n 1   2 t  cos1  
State variable equations: 3-12, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15 (Book: D’Azzo) – self study

Sample problems:

Q1. Find ζ, ωn, ωd and tp for the following transfer function.

P( s ) 10
 2
Q( s) 4s  13s  20
Solution: Characteristic equation

Q2. Find ζ, ωn, ωd and tp for the following block diagram.

R(s) 10 C(s)
+ s (0.5s  1)
–

s 1
Second-order System Model:

k
Any second-order system of the form ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )
kn2
may be rewritten as s 2  2n s  n2
where wn is the natural frequency and zeta is the damping coefficient.

Control Lab Definitions:

Mp - (peak output - steady state)/step size

t_r - rise time from 10% of the step size to 90% of the step size
t_s - settling time from control start to the system staying within 5% of the steady-
state - bigger bound than in Franklin since our systems are often noisy.

Estimates

For reference, first consider the estimates found in common textbooks.

Franklin, Section 3.4, gives


 2.2 4.6
Mp  e 1 2 tr  ts 
, n , n
Kuo, Section 7-5, gives

Mp = exp(-pi*zeta/sqrt(1-zeta^2))
t_r = (1-0.4167*zeta+2.917*zeta^2)/wn for zeta<1
t_s = 3.2/(zeta*wn) for zeta<0.69; and t_s = 4.5*zeta/wn for zeta>0.69

Our formulas for estimating these values are:

Mp = exp(-pi*zeta/sqrt(1-zeta^2)) for zeta<1; and Mp = 0 for zeta>1
t_r = (1.2 - 0.45*zeta + 2.6*zeta^2)/wn for zeta<1.2; and t_r = (4.7*zeta-1.2)/wn for
zeta>1.2
t_s = -0.5*log( (1-zeta^2)/400) )/(zeta*wn) for zeta<0.7; and t_s = (6.6*zeta-
1.6)/wn for zeta>0.7
 Lecture 07: Poles and Zeros

Definition of poles and zeros

The transfer function provides a basis for determining important system response
characteristics without solving the complete differential equation. As defined, the transfer
function is a rational function in the complex variable s = σ + jω, that is
bm s m  bm 1s m 1  ...  b1s  b0
H (s) 
an s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a1s  a0 (1)

It is often convenient to factor the polynomials in the numerator and denominator, and to
write the transfer function in terms of those factors

N (s) ( s  z1 )(s  z2 )( s  zm 1 )(s  zm )

H ( s)  K
D( s ) ( s  p1 )(s  p2 )( s  pn 1 )(s  pn ) (2)


m
N ( s) j 1
(s  z j )
H ( s)  K
 (s  p j )
n (3)
D( s )
k 1

where the numerator and denominator polynomials, N(s) and D(s), have real coefficients
defined by the system’s differential equation and K = bm/an. As written in Eq. (2) the zi’s are
the roots of the equation.
N(s) = 0, (3)
and are defined to be the system zeros, and the pi’s are the roots of the equation
D(s) = 0, (4)
and are defined to be the system poles. In Eq. (2) the factors in the numerator and
denominator are written so that when s = zi the numerator N(s) = 0 and the transfer function
vanishes, that is
lim H(s) = 0.
s→zi

and similarly when s = pi the denominator polynomial D(s) = 0 and the value of the transfer
function becomes unbounded,
lim H(s) = ∞.
s→pi
All of the coefficients of polynomials N(s) and D(s) are real, therefore the poles and zeros
must be either purely real, or appear in complex conjugate pairs. In general for the poles,
either pi = σi, or else pi, pi+1 = σi ± jωi. The existence of a single complex pole without a
corresponding conjugate pole would generate complex coefficients in the polynomial D(s).
Similarly, the system zeros are either real or appear in complex conjugate pairs.

Example: A linear system is described by the differential equation. Find the system poles
and zeros.
 d2y dy du
2
 5  6 y  2 1
dt dt dt

Example: A system has a pair of complex conjugate poles p1, p2 = -1 ± j2, a single
real zero z1 = -4, and a gain factor K=3. Find the differential equation representing the
system.

Figure 1: The pole-zero plot for a typical third-order system with one real pole and a
complex conjugate pole pair, and a single real zero.
Pole-zero plots:
A system is characterized by its poles and zeros in the sense that they allow reconstruction of
the input/output differential equation. In general, the poles and zeros of a transfer function
may be complex, and the system dynamics may be represented graphically by plotting their
locations on the complex s-plane, whose axes represent the real and imaginary parts of the
complex variable s. Such plots are known as pole-zero plots. It is usual to mark a zero
location by a circle (◦) and a pole location a cross (×). The location of the poles and zeros
provide qualitative insights into the response characteristics of a system. Figure 1 is an
example of a pole-zero plot for a third-order system with a single real zero, a real pole and a
complex conjugate pole pair, that is;

System poles and the homogeneous response:

Because the transfer function completely represents a system differential equation, its poles
and zeros effectively define the system response. In particular the system poles directly
define the components in the homogeneous response. The unforced response of a linear
SISO system to a set of initial conditions is
n
yh (t )   Ci ei t
i 1

where the constants Ci are determined from the given set of initial conditions and the
exponents λi are the roots of the characteristic equation or the system eigenvalues. The
characteristic equation is
D( s)  s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a1s  a0  0
and its roots are the system poles, that is λi = pi, leading to the following important
relationship:

Figure 2: The specification of the form of components of the homogeneous response from
the system pole locations on the pole-zero plot.

The transfer function poles are the roots of the characteristic equation, and also the
eigenvalues of the system A matrix. The homogeneous response may therefore be
written
n
yh (t )   Ci e pi t
i 1

The location of the poles in the s-plane therefore define the n components in the
homogeneous response as described below:
1. A real pole pi = −σ in the left-half of the s-plane defines an exponentially decaying
component, Ce−σt, in the homogeneous response. The rate of the decay is determined by
the pole location; poles far from the origin in the left-half plane correspond to
components that decay rapidly, while poles near the origin correspond to slowly
decaying components.
2. A pole at the origin pi = 0 defines a component that is constant in amplitude and defined
by the initial conditions.
3. A real pole in the right-half plane corresponds to an exponentially increasing component
Ceσt in the homogeneous response; thus defining the system to be unstable.
4. A complex conjugate pole pair σ ± jω in the left-half of the s-plane combine to generate
a response component that is a decaying sinusoid of the form Ae−σt sin (ωt + υ) where A
and υ are determined by the initial conditions. The rate of decay is specified by σ; the
frequency of oscillation is determined by ω.
5. An imaginary pole pair, that is a pole pair lying on the imaginary axis, ±jω generates an
oscillatory component with a constant amplitude determined by the initial conditions.
6. A complex pole pair in the right half plane generates an exponentially increasing
component.
These results are summarized in Fig. 2.

The pole locations of the classical second-order homogeneous system

d2y dy
2
 2 n  n
2
y0
dt dt
Roots are: p1, 2  n  n  2  1

If ζ ≥ 1, corresponding to an overdamped system, the two poles are real and lie in the left-
half plane. For an underdamped system, 0 ≤ ζ < 1, the poles form a complex conjugate pair,
p1, 2   n  jn 1   2
and are located in the left-half plane, as shown in Fig. 4. From this figure it can be seen that
the poles lie at a distance ωn from the origin, and at an angle ± cos−1(ζ) from the negative
real axis. The poles for an underdamped second-order system therefore lie on a semi-circle
with a radius defined by ωn, at an angle defined by the value of the damping ratio ζ.
 Figure 4: Definition of the parameters ωn and ζ for Figure 3: Pole-zero plot of a fourth-order
an underdamped, second-order system from the system with two real and two complex
complex conjugate pole locations. conjugate poles.

Example: Comment on the expected form of the response of a system with a pole-zero plot
shown in Fig. 3 to an arbitrary set of initial conditions.

Solution: The system has four poles and no zeros. The two real poles correspond to
decaying exponential terms C1e−3t and C2e−0.1t, and the complex conjugate pole pair
introduce an oscillatory component Ae−t sin (2t + υ), so that the total homogeneous
response is
yh(t) = C1e−3t + C2e−0.1t + Ae−t sin (2t + υ)

Although the relative strengths of these components in any given situation is determined
by the set of initial conditions, the following general observations may be made:
1. The term e−3t, with a time-constant τ of 0.33 seconds, decays rapidly and is
significant only for approximately 4τ or 1.33seconds.
2. The response has an oscillatory component Ae−t sin(2t + υ) defined by the
complex conjugate pair, and exhibits some overshoot. The oscillation will
decay in approximately four seconds because of the e−t damping term.

3. The term e−0.1t, with a time-constant τ = 10 seconds, persists for approximately

40 seconds. It is therefore the dominant long term response component in the
overall homogeneous response.

System stability
The stability of a linear system may be determined directly from its transfer function. An nth
order linear system is asymptotically stable only if all of the components in the homogeneous
response from a finite set of initial conditions decay to zero as time increases, or
 n
lim  Ci e pi t  0
t 
i 1

where the pi are the system poles. In a stable system all components of the homogeneous
response must decay to zero as time increases. If any pole has a positive real part there is a
component in the output that increases without bound, causing the system to be unstable.
In order for a linear system to be stable, all of its poles must have negative real parts that are
they must all lie within the left-half of the s-plane. An “unstable” pole, lying in the right half
of the s-plane, generates a component in the system homogeneous response that increases
without bound from any finite initial conditions. A system having one or more poles lying on
the imaginary axis of the s-plane has non-decaying oscillatory components in its
homogeneous response, and is defined to be marginally stable.

Q1. Comment on stability for the different location of poles.

Q2. For the following system, find the poles and zeros. Also establish the differential
equation for the system.

R(s) 10 C(s)
+ s (0.5s  1)
–

s 1
Block Diagram fundamentals &
reduction techniques
Lect# 4-5
Introduction
• Block diagram is a shorthand, graphical
representation of a physical system, illustrating
the functional relationships among its
components.
OR
• A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial
representation of the cause-and-effect
relationship of a system.
 Introduction
• The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block,
with one input and one output.
• The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually
contains a description of or the name of the element, or the
symbol for the mathematical operation to be performed on
the input to yield the output.
• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal
flow.

d
x y
dt
 Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation.
• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point,
with the appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the
arrows entering the circle.
• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.

• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.

• Some books put a cross in the circle.
Components of a Block Diagram for
a Linear Time Invariant System
• System components are alternatively called
elements of the system.
• Block diagram has four components:
▫ Signals
▫ System/ block
▫ Summing junction
▫ Pick-off/ Take-off point
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to
more than one block or summing point, a takeoff point is
used.
• Distributes the input signal, undiminished, to several
output points.
• This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations.
 Example-1

• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are

variables, and a1, a2 are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.

x3 = a1x1 + a 2 x2 − 5
 Example-1

• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are

variables, and a1, a2 are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.
x3 = a1 x1 + a2 x2 − 5
 Example-2
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are
variables, and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or
mathematical operators.

xn = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + an −1 xn −1
 Example-3
• Draw the Block Diagrams of the following equations.

dx1 1
(1) x2 = a1 + ∫ x1dt
dt b
2
d x2 dx1
( 2) x3 = a1 2
+3 − bx1
dt dt
Topologies
• We will now examine some common topologies
for interconnecting subsystems and derive the
single transfer function representation for each
of them.
• These common topologies will form the basis for
reducing more complicated systems to a single
block.
CASCADE
• Any finite number of blocks in series may be
algebraically combined by multiplication of
transfer functions.
• That is, n components or blocks with transfer
functions G1 , G2, . . . , Gn, connected in cascade
are equivalent to a single element G with a
transfer function given by
Example

• Multiplication of transfer functions is

commutative; that is,
GiGj = GjGi
for any i or j .
Cascade:

Figure:
a) Cascaded Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function

is
Parallel Form:
• Parallel subsystems have a common input and
an output formed by the algebraic sum of the
outputs from all of the subsystems.

Figure: Parallel Subsystems.

Parallel Form:

Figure:
a) Parallel Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function is

Feedback Form:
• The third topology is the feedback form. Let us derive the
transfer function that represents the system from its input
to its output. The typical feedback system, shown in figure:

Figure: Feedback (Closed Loop) Control System.

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the

summing junction is negative and positive feedback if the sign
is positive.
 Feedback Form:

Figure:
a) Feedback Control System.
b) Simplified Model or Canonical Form.
c) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent or closed-loop

transfer function is
 Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the
system.
C( s ) G( s )
=
R( s ) 1 ± G( s ) H ( s )

• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the

characteristic equation of the system.

• Which is usually determined as:

1 ± G( s ) H ( s ) = 0
 Canonical Form of a Feedback Control
System

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing
junction is negative and positive feedback if the sign is positive.
 B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function = G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function = G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )

4. feedback ratio B( s ) G( s ) H ( s )
=
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )
E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )

7. characteristic equation 1 + G( s ) H ( s ) = 0

8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

Characteristic Equation
Unity Feedback System
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2

2. Combining blocks in parallel

G1
G1 + G2
G2
Reduction techniques

3. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G
G
Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G
1
G

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

G G
G
Reduction techniques
6. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1  GH
H

G
G
1 G

H =1

7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A
Block Diagram Transformation Theorems

The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X ,

Y, Z denote any transformed signals.
Transformation Theorems Continue:
Transformation Theorems Continue:
Reduction of Complicated Block Diagrams:
Example-4: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical
Form.
Example-4: Continue.

However in this example step-4 does not apply.

However in this example step-6 does not apply.

Example-5: Simplify the Block Diagram.
Example-5: Continue.
Example-6: Reduce the Block Diagram.
Example-6: Continue.
Example-7: Reduce the Block Diagram. (from Nise: page-
242)
Example-7: Continue.
Example-8: For the system represented by the
following block diagram determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
 Example-8: Continue

▫ First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical

form

K
s +1
 Example-8: Continue

K
s +1

K
G
= s +1
1 + GH K
1+ s
s +1
 Example-8: Continue
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function = G( s ) H ( s )
E( s )
C( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function = G( s )
E( s )
C( s ) G( s ) G(s )
3. control ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )

4. feedback ratio B( s ) = G( s ) H ( s )
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )

E( s ) 1 H (s )
5. error ratio =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )
C( s ) G( s )
6. closed loop transfer function =
R( s ) 1 + G( s ) H ( s )

7. characteristic equation1 + G( s ) H ( s ) = 0

8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

• Example-9: For the system represented by the following
block diagram determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=100.
Example-10: Reduce the system to a single transfer
function. (from Nise:page-243).
Example-10: Continue.
Example-10: Continue.
Example-11: Simplify the block diagram then obtain the
close-loop transfer function C(S)/R(S). (from Ogata:
Page-47)
Example-11: Continue.
Example-12: Reduce the Block Diagram.

H2

R _ C
+_ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+_ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+_ + G3
1 − G1G2 H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+_ +
1 − G1G2 H1
Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
+_ 1 − G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2
Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
1 − G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2 + G1G2G3
Example 13: Find the transfer function of the following
block diagrams.

R(s ) Y (s )
G1 G2

H1 H2

H3
Solution:

1. Eliminate loop I

R(s ) A
G2 I
B
Y (s )
G1 G2
H1
1 + GH2 H
2
2

H3
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block G2
1 + G2 H 2

R(s ) A G2 B
Y (s )
G1
1 + G2 H 2

1 + G2 H 2 II
H1 1 + G2 H 2
G2 H 3 + H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop
3. Eliminate loop II

R(s ) G1G2 Y (s )
1 + G2 H 2

H1 (1 + G2 H 2 )
H3 +
G2

Y (s) G1G2
=
R( s ) 1 + G2 H 2 + G1G2 H 3 + G1H1 + G1G2 H1H 2
Superposition of Multiple Inputs
Example-14: Multiple Input System. Determine the
output C due to inputs R and U using the Superposition
Method.
Example-14: Continue.
Example-14: Continue.
Example-15: Multiple-Input System. Determine the
output C due to inputs R, U1 and U2 using the
Superposition Method.
Example-15: Continue.
Example-15: Continue.
Example-16: Multi-Input Multi-Output System.
Determine C1 and C2 due to R1 and R2.
Example-16: Continue.
Example-16: Continue.

When R1 = 0,

When R2 = 0,
Skill Assessment Exercise:
Answer of Skill Assessment Exercise:
Control System Engineering

Lecture on
Signal Flow Graphs

Edited
Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad
 Outline
• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs
– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
 What is Signal Flow Graph?
• SFG is a diagram which represents a set of simultaneous
equations.
• This method was developed by S. J. Mason. This method
does not require any reduction technique.
• It consists of nodes and these nodes are connected by a
directed line called branches.
• Every branch has an arrow which represents the flow of
signal.
• For complicated systems, when Block Diagram (BD) reduction
method becomes tedious and time consuming then SFG is a
good choice.
 What is Signal Flow Graph?
• Alternative method to block diagram representation,
developed by Samuel Jefferson Mason.

• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula,

also called Mason’s gain formula.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes

are connected by directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system

to another and gives the relationships among the signals.

4
 Comparison of BD and SFG
block diagram: signal flow graph:

In this case at each step block Only one time SFG is to be

diagram is to be redrawn. drawn and then Mason’s gain
That’s why it is tedious formula is to be evaluated.
method. So time and space is saved.
So wastage of time and space.
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y = ax
• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a
Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s ) ⋅ R1( s ) + G12( s ) ⋅ R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s ) ⋅ R1( s ) + G22( s ) ⋅ R2( s )

 Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11⋅ x1 + a12⋅ x2 + r1 x1

a21⋅ x1 + a22⋅ x2 + r2 x2
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

xo is input and x4 is output

x1 = ax0 + bx1 + cx2 f

c
x2 = dx1 + ex3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x3 = fx0 + gx2
x4 = hx 3 b e
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are
required to construct the signal flow graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated
branches.

• Another way to arrange this

graph is shown in the figure.
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no
node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on
the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback path.
 Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self
loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path.
i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain
of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have
no nodes in common.
Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are two forward path gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are four loops

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• Nontouching loop gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the
following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node
(c) Forward Paths
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(e) Self Loop(s)
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph
to a single transfer function requires the application of one
formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
 Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph
is; n

C (s) ∑ P∆ i i
= i =1
R( s) ∆
Where

n = number of forward paths.

Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since

∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
 Mason’s Rule:
n
∑ Pi ∆ i
C( s ) i =1
=
R( s ) ∆
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-
th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
 Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward

path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward
path i

31
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P1∆1 + P2∆ 2

=
R ∆
There are three feedback loops

L1 = G1G4 H 1, L2 = −G1G2G4 H 2 , L3 = −G1G3G4 H 2

 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 )

∆ = 1 − (G1G4 H 1 − G1G2G4 H 2 − G1G3G4 H 2 )

 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of
the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Example#1: Continue
 Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

2. Calculate all loop gains.

3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3 36
 Example#2: continue

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

∆ = 1 − (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 ) + (L1L3 + L1L4 + L2 L3 + L2 L4 )

∆ = 1 − (G2 H 2 + H 3G3 + G6 H 6 + G7 H 7 ) +
(G2 H 2G6 H 6 + G2 H 2G7 H 7 + H 3G3G6 H 6 + H 3G3G7 H 7 )

37
 Example#2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1 − (L3 + L4 )
∆1 = 1 − (G6 H 6 + G7 H 7 )

Eliminate forward path-2

∆ 2 = 1 − (L1 + L2 )

∆ 2 = 1 − (G2 H 2 + G3 H 3 )

38
 Example#2: continue

Y ( s ) P1∆1 + P2∆ 2
=
R( s ) ∆

Y (s) G1G2G3G4 [1 − (G6 H 6 + G7 H 7 )] + G5G6G7G8 [1 − (G2 H 2 + G3 H 3 )]

=
R( s ) 1 − (G2 H 2 + H 3G3 + G6 H 6 + G7 H 7 ) + (G2 H 2G6 H 6 + G2 H 2G7 H 7 + H 3G3G6 H 6 + H 3G3G7 H 7 )

39
 Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow
graph in figure below.
 Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.

P1 = G1( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )

 Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
 Example#3

Eliminate forward path-1

 Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function
of the system represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

3
∑ Pi ∆ i
C( s ) i =1 P1∆1 + P2∆ 2 + P3∆ 3
= =
R( s ) ∆ ∆
 Example#4: Forward Paths

P3 = A42 A54 A65 A76

P1 = A32 A43 A54 A65 A76 P2 = A72

 Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

L1 = A32 A23
L5 = A76 A67
L2 = A43 A34 L9 = A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6 = A77
L3 = A54 A45 L10 = A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7 = A42 A34 A23
L4 = A65 A56
L8 = A65 A76 A67
 Example#4: two non-touching loops

L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1L4
L1L5 L2 L6

L1L6 L2 L8

L1L8
 Example#4: Three non-touching loops

L1L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8
L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7
L1L4
L1L5 L2 L6

L1L6 L2 L8

L1L8
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－H2
－H3
From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－H2

－H3

∆ = 1 + (G1G2G3G4 H 3 + G2G3 H 2 + G3G4 H 1 )

P1 = G1G2G3G4 ; ∆1 = 1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G= =
R( s ) 1 + G1G2G3G4 H 3 + G2G3 H 2 + G3G4 H 1
 Example#6
－
－ X1 Y1
G1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ －X +
2
G2
－ Y2

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

7 loops:

3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

Then: Δ = 1 + 2G 2 + 4G1G 2
4 forward paths:
p1 = ( − 1) ⋅ G1 ⋅ 1 Δ1 = 1 + G2
p2 = ( − 1) ⋅ G1 ⋅ ( − 1) ⋅ G2 ⋅ 1 Δ2 = 1
p3 = 1 ⋅ G 2 ⋅ 1 Δ3 = 1 + G1
p4 = 1 ⋅ G2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ G1 ⋅ 1 Δ4 = 1
 Example#6

We have
C( s ) ∑ pk ∆k
=
R( s ) ∆
G − G1 + 2G1G2
= 2
1 + 2G2 + 4G1G2
 Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below
by signal flow graph techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore
 Example-6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward

paths, hence

• Hence the control ratio T =

 Design Example#1

1
V1( s ) = I 1 ( s ) + I 1( s ) R
Cs
CsV1( s ) − CsV2 ( s ) = I1( s )
V2 ( s ) = I 1 ( s ) R
−Cs

Cs R

V1(s ) I1(s ) V2 (s )
 Design Example#2

F = M 1s 2 X 1 + k1( X 1 − X 2 ) 0 = M 2 s 2 X 2 + k1( X 2 − X 1 ) + k 2 X 2
Design Example#2
Design Example#2
 Lecture 14: Routh’s Stability Criterion
Concept of Stability:

Absolute vs. Relative Stability

 A system is either stable or unstable. This type of stable/unstable is referred as

absolute stability.

 If the system is stable, we can further investigate the degree of stability. This is
referred as relative stability.

Definition of System Stability

* BIBO Stability : A stable system is a dynamic system with a bounded response to a bounded
input. This is called a BIBO stability.

 Ex. Step response of a 2nd-order system:

Stability depends on the pole locations in the s-plane

General Stability Condition:

A necessary and sufficient condition for a feedback system to be stable is that all the
poles of the system transfer function have negative real parts.

Effect of Pole Locations of 2nd-Order Systems:

 Standard transfer function:

n2
G( s)  2
s  2 n  n2
 Poles of G(s) are: s1, 2   n  j 1   2

 Unit Step Response:

Y(s)=G(s)*R(s), R(s)=1/s
=[ωn2/s(s2+2ζ ωns+ ωn2)]
=>
y(t) = 1 – (1/β)e - ζ ωnt sin(ωn β t + θ)
=> System is stable if all poles have negative real parts.
Effect of Pole Locations on Impulse Responses:

Example:

 Let G(s)=2/(s+1)(s+2)
=p(s)/q(s)
 Then, poles are -1,-2
=>
System impulse (or natural) response is
y(t)=k1e-t + k2e-2t
=>
System is stable.

 Show that
 1. G(s)=s/(s2+1) is stable
 2. G(s)=10(s+2)/(s+1)(s-3)(s+4) is unstable.

System Stability Criterion:

Recall: Let the system transfer function be G(s)=p(s)/q(s).

Then,
The (System) Characteristic Eqn. is q(s)=0, and
Poles are the roots of q(s)=o.
 Necessary condition: It is necessary for a stable system to have all the coefficients of
the characteristic equation have the same sign.
 Proof: Yourself , check book
 Necessary condition: It is necessary for a stable system to have all the coefficients of
the characteristic equation have the same sign.
Ex.
1. q(s)=s3+s2+2s+8
2. q(s)=s4+4
 Necessary condition is satisfied for both.
 Are they stable?

 1. q(s)=(s+2)(s2-s+4) => poles: -2, ½±j /2 => stable

 2. q(s)=(s2+2s+2)(s2-2s+2) => poles: -1±j1, 1±j1
=> unstable

Routh-Hurwitz Stability Test:

 Necessary and Sufficient condition:

 R-H test
The Routh*-Hurwitz** stability criterion states that the number of roots of q(s) with positive real
parts is equal to the number of changes in sign of the first column of the Routh array.
Proof: See Book.
*John Routh, English mathematician
**Adolf Hurwitz, German mathmatician

The Routh-Hurwitz Stability Test for SISO-LTI Systems:

 A necessary condition for a feedback system to be stable is that all the poles of the system
transfer function have negative real parts. How about a sufficient condition?
=> Use the Routh-Hurwitz test.
 Step 1. In order to test system stability, first construct the Routh array from the system
characteristic equation q(s)=0.
 Step2. The number of changes in sign of the first column of the Routh array is equal to the
number of poles in the right half-plane.

Routh Array:
The response transform X2(s) has the following form. X1(s) is the driving transform

P( s)
X 2 ( s)  X 1 ( s)
Q( s )
P( s) X 1 ( s) (1)

bn s n  bn 1 s n 1    b1 s  b0
The characteristic equation is
Q(s)  bn s n  bn 1s n 1    b1s  b0  0
We can get the Routhian array by

The constants c1, c2, c3 etc., in the third row are evaluated as follows:

This pattern is continued until the rest of the c’s are all equal to zero. Then the d row is formed by using
the sn_1 and sn_2 rows. The constants are

This process is continued until no more d terms are present. The rest of the rows are formed in this way
down to the s0 row. The complete array is triangular, ending with the s0 row. Notice that the s1 and s0
rows contain only one term each. Once the array has been found, Routh’s criterion states that the
number of roots of the characteristic equation with positive real parts is equal to the
number of changes of sign of the coefficients in the first column. Therefore, the system is
stable if all terms in the first column have the same sign.*
Example 1:

Example 2:

Routhian Array

Two sign changes → Two roots in RHP

in the first column
1→ – 62 → 70.6

Example 3:
Theorem 2: Zero Coefficient in the First Column. When the first term in a row is zero but not all the other
terms are zero, the following methods can be used:
1. Substitute s = 1/x in the original equation; then solve for the roots of x with positive real parts. The
number of roots x with positive real parts will be the same as the number of s roots with positive real
parts.
2. Multiply the original polynomial by the factor (s+1), which introduces an additional negative root. Then
form the Routhian array for the new polynomial.
There are two changes of sign in the first column. Therefore, there are two roots of x in the RHP. The
number of roots s with positive real parts is also two. This method does not work when the coefficients
of Q(s) and of Q(x) are identical.

Method 2:

The same result is obtained by both methods. There are two changes of sign in the first column, so there are two
zeros of Q(s) with positive real parts.
Method3:

Example 4:

Theorem 3: A Zero Row. When all the coefficients of one row are zero, the procedure is as follows:
1. The auxiliary equation can be formed from the preceding row, as shown below.
2. The Routhian array can be completed by replacing the all-zero row with the coefficients obtained by
differentiating the auxiliary equation.
3. The roots of the auxiliary equation are also roots of the original equation. These roots occur in pairs and
are the negative of each other. Therefore, these roots may be imaginary (complex conjugates) or real
(one positive and one negative), may lie in quadruplets (two pairs of complex-conjugate roots), etc.
Consider the system that has the characteristic equation

The presence of a zero row (the s1 row) indicates that there are roots that are the negatives of
each other. The next step is to form the auxiliary equation from the preceding row, which is the
s2 row. The highest power of s is s2, and only even powers of s appear. Therefore, the auxiliary
equation is
AE  s 2  9  0
The roots of this equation are s1, 2   j3
These are also roots of the original equation. The presence of imaginary roots indicates that the
output includes a sinusoidally oscillating component.

To complete the Routhian array, the auxiliary equation is differentiated

d ( AE )
 2s  0
ds 1
The coefficients of this equation are inserted in the s row, and the array is then completed:

Since there are no changes of sign in the first column, there are no roots with positive real parts.

Example:

Example: Find the range of K for which the system is stable.

Answer:

The characteristic equation is

Routhian array

Here
(i) From s2 row, 80 – K >0, so that K < 80, and
(ii) From s0 row 14K > 0, so that K > 0.
(iii) The numerator of the first term in the s1 row is equal to – K2 – 43K + 2000 =0 , and
this function must be positive for a stable system. From above equation,
(K – 28.1)(K + 71.1) =0, gives K = 28.1 or K= – 71.1

Therefore, the combined restriction gives 0 < K < 28.1

Example:
Simple & important criteria for stability:

(i) 1st Order polynomial

Q(s)  a1s  ao  0 , All roots are in LHP ↔ a1 and a0 have the same sign
(ii) 2nd Order polynomial

Q(s)  a2 s 2  a1s  ao  0 , All roots are in LHP ↔ a2, a1 and a0 have the same sign

(iii) Higher Order polynomial

Q(s)  an s n  an 1s n 1    a1s  ao  0 , All roots are in LHP ↔ All ak have

the same sign

Routh-Hurwitz criterion is applicable to only polynomials (so, it is not possible to deal

with exponential, sin, cos etc.).

Example: Whether system is stable or unstable?

Solution:
Example: Antenna position control system

Solution:

 q(s)=s3+101.7s2+171s+6.63K
=>
Routh array:
s3 1 171
s2 101.7 6.63K
s1 17392.4 – 6.63K 0
s0 6.63K
=>
17392.4-6.63K=0 when K=2623
=> Stable for 0<K<2623.

Stability of a state variable system

Steps:
(i) From the state equation find the transfer equation of the system
(ii) from transfer equation, find the characteristic equation
(iii) From characteristic equation, Routhian array can be obtained

The linear time invariant (LTI) state-space form is


x  Ax  Bu
y  Cx  Du
The transfer function is given by
C[adj ( sI  A)]B
H ( s)  C ( sI  A) 1 B  D  D
| sI  A |
C[adj ( sI  A)]B  D | sI  A | N c ( s )
 
| sI  A | Dc ( s)
Here subscript ‘c’ denotes variables after pole/zero cancellation.

The denominator of this is the characteristic polynomial

D(s) | sI  A | .
The system poles are the roots of the characteristic equation
Δ(s) =| sI – A| = 0.
The transfer function poles are the roots of Dc(s)=0.

Example1:

so that both poles are at s = –1. Therefore the system is stable.

Example2: