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Philosophy of Research Ethics An Over View

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RESEARCH AND PUBLICATION

ETHICS
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Research and Publication Ethics

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xiv :: Research and Publication Ethics

7. Philosophy of Research Ethics: |

An Over View.....................................................90
Dr. Laishram Santosh Singh,
Dr. Y. Shantikumar Singh & Dr. L. Pungding

8. Intellectual Honesty and Research Integrity....118

Dr. Koijam Sobita Devi

9. Plagiarism and Salami Slicing........................124

Dr. Rajkumar Suresh Singh

10. Research Ethics with Reference to

Nep–2020........................................................148
Dr. N. Munindro Singh & Teresa Wahengbam

11. Scientific Misconduct: Fabrication,

Falsification, and Plagiarism..........................159
Dr. Naziya Hasan & Dr Soram Sonia
 7
Philosophy of Research
Ethics: An Over View
Dr. Laishram Santosh Singh1,
Dr. Y. Shantikumar Singh2 & Dr. L. Pungding3

Abstract
Philosophy is concerned with views about how the
world works and, as an academic subject, focuses,
primarily, on reality, knowledge and existence. Our
individual view of the world is closely linked to what
we perceive as reality.Research comprises of defining
and redefining problems, formulating the hypothesis
for suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and
evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusion and further testing the conclusion whether
they fit into formulating the hypothesis.
This article presents the main aim of research is to
find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet.The types of research brings
to light the fact that there are two basic approaches
to research, viz., quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach.

1. Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Manipur

University, Canchipur, Imphal
2. Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Manipur
University, Canchipur, Imphal
3. Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Manipur
University, Canchipur, Imphal
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 91

It further highlights the research ethics involves

the application of fundamental ethical principles
to a variety of topics involving scientific research.
The application of fundamental ethical principles
to a topics like, The design and implementation of
research involving human experimentation, animal
experimentation. Various aspects of academic
scandal, including scientific misconducts
Keywords: Philosophy, Research, Research Ethics,
Methods, Methodology, Code and Policies

1.1 Overview
Meaning of Philosophy The word philosophy literally
means love of wisdom; it is derived from two Greek words i.e.
'phileo' (love) and 'Sophia' (wisdom). This tells us something
about the nature of philosophy, but not much, because
many disciplines seek wisdom. Since times immemorial
there have been various pursuits for unfolding the mystery
of the universe, birth and death, sorrow and joy. Various ages
have produced different thoughts throwing light upon the
mystic region. The ultimate truth is yet to be found out. This
eternal quest for truth 'lends the origin of philosophy. A love
of wisdom is the essence for any philosophy investigation.
The idea that there are different views of the world,
and the processes that operate within it, is part of what is
known as philosophy. Philosophy is concerned with views
about how the world works and, as an academic subject,
focuses, primarily, on reality, knowledge and existence.
Our individual view of the world is closely linked to what
we perceive as reality. On a day-to-day basis outside of your
academic work, it would be unusual to think often about the
way you perceive reality and the world around you. However,
in relation to your dissertation, it is very important to realize
92 :: Research and Publication Ethics

how you perceive reality. Your individual perception of reality

affects how you gain knowledge of the world, and how you
act within it. This mean that your perception of reality, and
how you gain knowledge, will affect the way in which you
conduct the research in your dissertation.

DEFINITION OF PHILOSOPHY
“Philosophy is the science of knowledge.” –Fichte
“Philosophy is a logical enquiry into the Nature of
Reality.” –Dr. Radha Krishan
“Philosophy like science, consists of theories of insights
arrived at as a result of systematic reflection.” –Joseph A.
Leighton
“Philosophy like other studies aims primarily at
knowledge.” –Russell
“Philosophy aims at a knowledge of the eternal nature
of things.” –Plato
“Philosophy is a search for comprehensive view of
nature, an attempt at universal explanation of the nature of
things.” –Alfred Weber
“Philosophy is an increasing effort to discover the
general truth that lies behind the particular facts to discern
also the reality that lie behind appearance.” –Raymont

1.2 MEANING OF RESEARCH

The word research itself is a combination of “re” and
“search,” which is meant by a systematic investigation
to gain a new knowledge from already existing facts.
Frankly speaking, research may be defined as a scientific
understanding of existing knowledge and deriving a new
knowledge to be applied for the betterment of the mankind.
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 93

In the words of Wernher von Braun (a German philosopher),

“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t know what I’m
doing”. It is basically the search for truth/facts. The significant
contribution of Research deals with the progress of the
nation as well as an individual with commercial, social, and
educational advantages. Albert Szent Gyorgyi (Hungarian
Biochemist, Nobel Prize – 1937) writes “Research is to
see what everybody else has seen and think what nobody
has thought”. Research may be an important parameter to
judge the development of any nation/generation. According
to Clifford Woody (American philosopher, 1939), “Research
comprises of defining and redefining problems, formulating
the hypothesis for suggested solutions, collecting, organizing
and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching
conclusion and further testing the conclusion whether they
fit into formulating the hypothesis.”
Research is a derivative of the French word; “Research”
means quest, search, pursuit and search for truth.Research
in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
It is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.It is
systematized effort to gain new knowledge.According to
Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research
as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for
the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of
theory or in the practice of an art.”Research is, an original
contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
94 :: Research and Publication Ethics

its advancement. It is the detection of truth with the help of

study, observation, comparison and experiment.Research is
the systematic approach concerning generalization and the
formulation of a theory.The research refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating
a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form
of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.Research
means mission, search, hunt, and exploration for truth. The
purpose of research is to discover answers to questions or
problems through the application of scientific procedures.
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relations among natural phenomenon.Research
is a careful, critical and disciplined enquiry, varying in
technique and method.According to the nature and
conditions of the problem identified, research is directed
towards clarification or/and resolution of the problem. The
purpose of research is to discover answers to questions or
problems through the application of scientific procedures.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though
each research study has its own specific purpose, we may
think of research objectives as falling into a number of
following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 95

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

individual, situation or a group (studies with this object
in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something else
(studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic
research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

1.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

THE BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH ARE AS
FOLLOWS:
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research
includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
In social science and business research we quite often
use the term ex-post fact research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or
what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects
are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency
of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex
post facto studies also include attempts by researchers
to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlation methods. In analytical
research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use
96 :: Research and Publication Ethics

facts or information already available, and analyze these

to make a critical evaluation of the material.
2. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be
applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic
or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalisations
and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research
studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with
a view to make generalisations about human behaviour,
are also examples of fundamental research, but research
aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. Research to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular institution
or the copy research (research to find out whether
certain communications will be read and understood)
or the marketing research or evaluation research are
examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim
of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is
directed towards finding information that has a broad
base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research
is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in
terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 97

phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For

instance, when we are interested in investigating the
reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think
or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying
motives and desires, using in depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are
word association tests, sentence completion tests,
story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative
research. Qualitative research is especially important in
the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover
the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through
such research we can analyze the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative
research in practice is relatively a difficult job and
therefore, while doing such research, one should seek
guidance from experimental psychologists.
4. Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research
is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience
or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified
by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and
98 :: Research and Publication Ethics

actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate

the production of desired information. In such a
research, the researcher must first provide himself with
a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or
disprove his hypothesis. He then setsup experimental
designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or
the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study
and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study
its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof
is sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
5. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of
research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches, based on either the purpose of
research, or the time required to accomplish research,
on the environment in which research is done, or on
the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point
of view of time, we can think of research either as one-
time research or longitudinal research. In the former
case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on
over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be
carried out. Research can as well be understood as
clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows
case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach
the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep
into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 99

very small samples and very deep probing data gathering

devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing,
whereas formalized research studies are those with
substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to
be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes
historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study
events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy
of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented
and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared
to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented
research is always for the need of a decision maker and
the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his own inclination. Operations
research is an example of decision oriented research
since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions
regarding operations under their control.

1.5 RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to
light the fact that there are two basic approaches to research,
viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
The quantitative approach involves the generation of
data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This
approach can be further sub- classified into inferential,
experimental and simulation approaches to research.
100 :: Research and Publication Ethics

1. The inferential approach’s purpose is to research is to

form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population. This usually means survey
research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics,
and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
2. Experimental approach is characterised by much
greater control over the research environment and in
this case some variables are manipulated to observe
their effect on other variables.
3. Simulation approach involves the construction of
an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated. This permits
an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system
(or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The
term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social
sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a
dynamic process. Given the values of initial conditions,
parametersand exogenous variables, a simulation is run
to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”5
Simulation approach can also be useful in building
models for understanding future conditions.
4. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of
researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an approach
to research generates results either in non-quantitative
form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus
group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used. All these are explained at length in
chapters that follow.
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 101

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better
than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry
leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of
which the significance of research can well be understood.
Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it
promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisation.
The role of research in several fields of applied
economics, whether related to business or to the economy
as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The
increasingly complex nature of business and government
has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic
policy, has gained added importance, both for government
and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government
policies in our economic system. For instance, government
budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires
of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet
these needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable
revenues and this is a field where research is most needed.
Through research we can devise alternative policies and
can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but
research certainly facilitates the decisions of the policy
maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for
dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most
of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big
and small business and industry, working conditions, trade
102 :: Research and Publication Ethics

union activities, the problems of distribution, even the

size and nature of defense services are matters requiring
research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area
in government, where research is necessary, is collecting
information on the economic and social structure of the
nation. Such information indicates what is happening in the
economy and what changes are taking place. Collecting such
statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it
involves a variety of research problems. These days nearly
all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of
government, research as a tool to economic policy has
three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of
economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
(ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis
of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e.,
the prediction of future developments.
Research has its special significance in solving
various operational and planning problems of business
and industry. Operations research and market research,
along with motivational research, are considered crucial
and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking
business decisions. Market research is the investigation of
the structure and development of a market for the purpose
of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production
and sales. Operations research refers to the application
of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the
solution of business problems of cost minimization or of
profit maximization or what can be termed as optimization
problems. Motivational research of determining why
people behave asthey do is mainly concerned with market
characteristics. In other words, it is concerned with the
determination of motivations underlying the consumer
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 103

(market) behaviour. All these are of great help to people

in business and industry who are responsible for taking
business decisions. Research with regard to demand and
market factors has great utility in business. Given knowledge
of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm, or
for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the
limits of its projected capacity. Market analysis has become
an integral tool of business policy these days. Business
budgeting, which ultimately results in a projected profit and
loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates which in
turn depend on business research. Once sales forecasting
is done, efficient production and investment programmes
can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and
financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business
decisions by more logical and scientific decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists
in studying social relationships and in seeking answers
to various social problems. It provides the intellectual
satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of
knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist
to know for the sake of being able to do something better or
in a more efficient manner. Research in social sciences is
concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with
knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns.
“This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in
the case of social science. On the one hand, its responsibility
as a science is to develop a body of principles that make
possible the understanding and prediction of the whole
range of human interactions. On the other hand, because
of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for
practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human
relations.
104 :: Research and Publication Ethics

In addition to what has been stated above, the

significance of research can also be understood keeping in
view the following points:
1. To those students who are to write a masters or Ph.D.
thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to
attain a high position in the social structure;
2. To professionals in research methodology, research may
mean a source of livelihood;
3. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the
outlet for new ideas and insights;
4. To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work;
5. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalizations of new theories.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the

sake of knowledge and an important source of providing
guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables
one to understand the new developments in ones field in a
better way.

1.7 RESEARCH METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain
the difference between research methods and research
methodology. Research methods may be understood as all
those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of
research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to
the methods the researchers *At times, a distinction is also
made between research techniques and research methods.
Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments
we use in performing research operations such as making
observations, recording data, techniques of processing data
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 105

and the like. Research methods refer to the behaviour and

instruments used in selecting and constructing research
technique. For instance, the difference between methods
and techniques of data collection can better be understood
from the details given in the following chart use in performing
research operations.
In other words, all those methods which are used by
the researcher during the course of studying his research
problem are termed as research methods. Since the object
of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive
at a solution for a given problem, the available data and
the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to
each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view,
research methods can be put into the following three groups:
In the first group we include those methods which are
concerned with the collection of data. These methods will
be used where the data already available are not sufficient
to arrive at the required solution;
The second group consists of those statistical techniques
which are used for establishing relationships between the
data and the unknowns;
The third group consists of those methods which are
used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups
are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve
the research problem. It may be understood as a science of
studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study
the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher
in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only
the research methods/techniques but also the methodology.
106 :: Research and Publication Ethics

Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain

indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the
median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply
particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and
which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and
why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions
underlying various techniques and they need to know the
criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the
researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the
same may differ from problem to problem. For example, an
architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate
the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on
what basis he selects particular size, number and location
of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the
scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation
before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly
and precisely what decisions he selects and why he selects
them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that
research methodology has many dimensions and research
methods do constitute a part of the research methodology.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that
of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research
methodology we not only talk of the research methods but
also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study and explain why we are using
a particular method or technique and why we are not using
others so that research results are capable of being evaluated
either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research
study has been undertaken, how the research problem
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 107

has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis

has been formulated, what data have been collected and
what particular method has been adopted, why particular
technique of analysing data has been used and a host of
similar other questions are usually answered when we talk
of research methodology concerning a research problem or
study.

1.8 RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics involves the application of fundamental
ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific
research.The application of fundamental ethical principles
to a topics like
1. The design and implementation of research involving
human experimentation, animal experimentation.
Various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific
misconducts (such as fraud, fabrication of data and
plagiarism),
2. Whistle blowing (wrongdoing within an organization
to the public or to those in positions of authority);
regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most
developed as a concept in all the scientific research.
3. Research in the social sciences presents a different set
of issues than those in medical research.

The scientific research enterprise is built on a

foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported
by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research
reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world
accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only
if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying
and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific
conduct.
108 :: Research and Publication Ethics

There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious

consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of
having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and
interests of all those involved in the study. They should not
misuse any of the information discovered, and there should
be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the
participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people
in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The
confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be
carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As
pointed out in the BSA for Sociology, all of these ethics must
be honoured unless there are other overriding reasons to do
so - for example, any illegal or terrorist activity.
Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school,
in temple, in church or in other social settings. Although
most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during
childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and
human beings pass through different stages of growth as
they mature. Ethical norms are so everywhere that one
might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense.
On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than
commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes
and issues in our society?
One reasonable explanation of these disagreements is
that all people recognize some common ethical norms but
different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these
norms in different ways in light of their own values and life
experiences.
Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior,
but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal
than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce
widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal
rules use similar concepts, it is important to remember that
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 109

ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal
but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical
concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or
interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social
reformers urged citizens to disobey laws in order to protest
what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful
civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political
viewpoints.
Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines
that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology,
law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist"
is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One
may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective
for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems
and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue
like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological,
political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an
economist might examine the cost and benefits of various
policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist
could examine the ethical values and principles at stake.
Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions
have norms for behavior that suit their particular aims and
goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to
coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the
public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms
govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business.
Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and
apply to people who conduct scientific research or other
scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized
discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere
to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims
of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error.
110 :: Research and Publication Ethics

For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or

misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid
error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people
in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards
promote the values that are essential to collaborative work,
such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as
guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies,
data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review,
are designed to protect intellectual property interests while
encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive
credit for their contributions and do not want to have their
ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. Third, many of the
ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held
accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies
on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human
subject protections, and animal care and use are necessary
in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by
public money can be held accountable to the public. Fourth,
ethical norms in research also help to build public support
for research. It is seen that people more likely to fund
research project if they can trust the quality and integrity
of research. Finally, many of the norms of research promote
a variety of other important moral and social values, such
as social responsibility, human rights, and animal welfare,
compliance with the law, and health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and
animal subjects, students, and the public. For example, a
researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm
or even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by
regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological
safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety of staff and students.
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 111

1.9 CODES AND POLICIES FOR RESEARCH ETHICS

Given the importance of ethics for the conduct
of research, it should come as no surprise that many
different professional associations, government agencies,
and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and
policies relating to research ethics. Many government
agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH),
the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), and the Department of Agriculture (USDA)
have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential
research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements
for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals
(International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the
Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society),
Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory
Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American
Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and
Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological
Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American
Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code
and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
The following is a rough and general summary of some
ethical principles that various codes address*:
1. Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific
communications. Honestly report data, results,
methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive
colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
2. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental
design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony,
and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-
112 :: Research and Publication Ethics

deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that

may affect research.
3. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act
with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
4. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence;
carefully and critically examine your own work and
the work of your peers. Keep good records of research
activities, such as data collection, research design, and
correspondence with agencies or journals.
5. Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources.
Be open to criticism and new ideas.
6. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents,
copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do
not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to
research. Never plagiarize.
7. Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications,
such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient
records.
8. Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance
research and scholarship, not to advance just your own
career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
9. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor,
and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow
them to make their own decisions.
10. Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and
treat them fairly.
11. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good
and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,
public education, and advocacy.
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 113

12. Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against

colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity,
or other factors that are not related to their scientific
competence and integrity.
13. Competence: Maintain and improve your own
professional competence and expertise through
lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
14. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional
and governmental policies.
15. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for
animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
16. Human Subjects Protection: When conducting
research on human subjects minimize harms and risks
and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy,
and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable
populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and
burdens of research fairly.
17. There are many other activities that do not define
as "misconduct" but which are still regarded by most
researchers as unethical. These are called "other
deviations" from acceptable research practices and
include:
¾¾ Publishing the same paper in two different journals
without telling the editors
¾¾ Submitting the same paper to different journals
without telling the editors
¾¾ Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a
patent in order to make sure that you are the sole
inventor
¾¾ Including a colleague as an author on a paper in
return for a favor even though the colleague did not
make a serious contribution to the paper
114 :: Research and Publication Ethics

¾¾ Discussing with your colleagues confidential data

from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal
¾¾ Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing
your reasons in paper
¾¾ Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order
to enhance the significance of your research
¾¾ Bypassing the peer review process and announcing
your results through a press conference without
giving peers adequate information to review your
work
¾¾ Conducting a review of the literature that fails to
acknowledge the contributions of other people in
the field or relevant prior work
¾¾ Stretching the truth on a grant application in order
to convince reviewers that your project will make a
significant contribution to the field
¾¾ Stretching the truth on a job application or
curriculum vita
¾¾ Giving the same research project to two graduate
students in order to see who can do it the fastest
¾¾ Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or
post-doctoral students
¾¾ Failing to keep good research records
¾¾ Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable
period of time
¾¾ Making derogatory comments and personal attacks
in your review of author's submission
¾¾ Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors
¾¾ Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
¾¾ Making significant deviations from the research
protocol approved by your institution's Animal Care
 Philosophy of Research Ethics: An Over View :: 115

and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board

for Human Subjects Research without telling the
committee or the board
¾¾ Not reporting an adverse event in a human research
experiment
¾¾ Wasting animals in research
¾¾ Exposing students and staff to biological risks in
violation of your institution's biosafety rules
¾¾ Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even
reading it
¾¾ Sabotaging someone's work
¾¾ Stealing supplies, books, or data
¾¾ Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn
out
¾¾ Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or
computer programs
¾¾ Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance
of a new drug in order to obtain economic benefits

These actions would be regarded as unethical by most

scientists and some might even be illegal. Most of these
would also violate different professional ethics codes or
institutional policies.

Conclusion
This article is being concluded that research is, an
original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
making for its advancement. It is the detection of truth with
the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
Research is the systematic approach concerning
generalization and the formulation of a theory. The research
refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating
116 :: Research and Publication Ethics

the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the

facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the
concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation. Research means mission, search,
hunt, and exploration for truth. The purpose of research is
to discover answers to questions or problems through the
application of scientific procedures. Scientific research is a
systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomenon. Research is a careful, critical
and disciplined enquiry, varying in technique and method.
According to the nature and conditions of the problem
identified, research is directed towards clarification or/and
resolution of the problem.

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