Signals and Linear Systems Course # EE 2231

Lecture # 03_04 Topic: Classification of Signals

• Continuous-time signal vs. discrete-time signal

• Analog vs. Digital signal
• Periodic vs. aperiodic
• Causal vs. non-causal
• Even vs. odd
• Energy signal vs. power signal
• Deterministic vs. random
• Right-handed vs. left-handed
• Finite vs. infinite length (duration) signal

(i) Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time

A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time.
As the names suggest, this classification is determined by whether or not the time axis (x-axis)
is discrete (countable) or continuous (Figure 1).

CT signal:x(t ) = a cos(wt +  )
DT signal: x[n] = x(nT ) = {x(0), x(T ),..., x( N − 1)T}, n = 0,1,2,...

Figure 1

Examples:
• Continuous time signals (t->time, x->signal, x(t) -> CT signal)
– Most of the signals in the physical world are CT signals—E.g. voltage & current,
pressure, temperature, velocity, etc.
• Discrete time signals in nature: (n->time, x->signal, x[n] -> DT signal)
– DNA base sequence
– Population of the nth generation of certain species

(ii) Analog vs. Digital

Analog corresponds to a continuous amplitude (y-axis) and time (x-axis), while digital
corresponds to a discrete amplitude (y-axis) and time (x-axis). (Figure 2).

-1

Figure 2

A Digital signal means a discrete signal with quantized (finite) amplitude values. For example,
there are 28=256 gray scale levels in an 8-bit digital image.
Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET
Examples:
• Analog: signals in nature, such as a speech signal
• Digital: binary sequence, the transmission of data in a computer

(iii) Periodic vs. Aperiodic (non-periodic)

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(t + T), where T = fundamental
time period, 1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

A discrete-time signal x[n] is said to be periodic if it satisfies the following condition

x[n] = x[n + T ], for all integer n .

(a) A periodic signal with period T0

(b) An aperiodic signal

Figure 3

(iv) Causal vs. Anticausal or non-causal

Causal signals are signals that are zero for all negative time, while anticausals are signals that
are zero for all positive time or nonzero values in both positive and negative time (Figure 4). A
signal x[n] is causal if x[n] = 0 for all n < 0. It is anti-causal if x[n] = 0 for all n > 0.

(a) A causal signal (b) An anticausal or non-causal signal

Figure 4

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET
(v) Even vs. Odd

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition x (t) = x (– t). Even signals can be
easily spotted as they are symmetric around the vertical axis. An odd signal, on the other hand,
is a signal x such that x(t) = – x(–t).

(a) An even signal (b) An odd signal

A function whose even part is zero is odd and a function whose odd part is zero is even.

x(t ) + x(−t ) x(t ) − x(−t )

Even function: xe (t ) = , Odd function: xo (t ) =
2 2
Example 1(a) The signal we will decompose using odd-even decomposition

(b) Even part: e(t) = ½ (f(t) +f(−t) )

(c) Odd part: o(t) = ½ (f(t) −f(−t) )

(d) Check: e(t) +o(t) =f(t)

Figure 6

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET
(vi) Energy and power signals

• Energy Signals: an energy signal is a signal with finite energy and zero average power
(0 ≤ E < , P = 0)

• Power Signals: a power signal is a signal with infinite energy but finite average power
(0 < P < , E → ).

In general, power is given by p (t ) = x 2 (t ) , since p (t ) = v 2 (t ) / R or p (t ) = i 2 (t ) R

T /2 
E = lim x (t )dt = x
2 2
The total energy of the continuous-time signal x(t) as (t )dt
T →
−T / 2 −
T /2
1
P = lim x
2
and its average power as (t )dt
T → T
−T / 2
The average power of a periodic signal x(t) of fundamental period T is given by
T /2
1
P= x
2
(t )dt
T −T / 2
The square root of the average power P is called the root-mean-square (RMS) value of the
signal x(t).


In the case of discrete-time signal x[n], the total energy of x[n] is defined as E= x
n =−
2
[ n]
N
1
and its average power is defined as P = lim
N → 2 N
x
n=− N
2
[ n] .
The average power of a periodic signal x[n] with fundamental period N is given by
N −1
1
P=
N
x
n =0
2
[ n]

Q1. Evaluate E and P and determine the type of signal a(t ) = 3sin(2t ), −   t  

Solution: It is a power signal

1 1
1
1 0
Pa = | a (t ) |2 dt =  | 3sin(2 t ) |2 dt
  0

Ea =  | a (t ) | dt =  | 3sin(2 t ) |
2 2
dt 1
1
− −
= 9 1 − cos(4 t )dt
0
2

1
=9 1 − cos(4 t )dt
0 1
1
2 = 9  dt − 9  cos(4 t )dt
− 0
2 0
  1
1 9  9 
=9 dt − 9  cos(4 t )dt = −  sin(4 t ) 
−
2 − 2  4 0
= J =
9
W
2

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET
Q2. Evaluate E and P and determine the type of signal b(t ) = 5e −2|t| , −   t  
Solution: It is an energy signal

  1
T /2
1
T /2

 
2
Pb = lim | b (t ) | dt = lim 5e −2|t |
 | b (t ) | dt = 
−2|t | 2 2
Eb = 2
5e dt T → T T → T
dt
−T / 2 −T / 2
− −
0 T /2
1 1
 e
 −4t
0
= 25 lim e dt + 25 lim
4t
dt
= 25  e dt + 25 e dt
4t −4t T → T
−T / 2
T → T
0
− 0 25 1 0 25 1 T /2
= lim e 4t  + lim e −4t 
25 4t 0 25  4 T → T −T / 2 4 T → T 0
= e  + e −4t 
4 − 4 0 25 1 25 1
= lim 1 − e −2T  + lim e −2T − 1
4 T → T 4 T → T
25 25 50
= + = J = 0+0 = 0
4 4 4
(vii) Deterministic vs. Random

A deterministic signal is a signal in which each value of the signal is fixed and can be
determined by a mathematical expression, rule, or table. Because of this, the future values of
the signal can be calculated from past values with complete confidence. On the other hand, a
random signal has a lot of uncertainty about its behavior. The future values of a random signal
cannot be accurately predicted and can usually only be guessed based on the averages of sets
of signals (Figure 7).

(a) Deterministic Signal

(b) Random Signal

Figure 7

(viii) Right-handed vs. Left-Handed

A right-handed signal and left-handed signal are those signals whose value is zero between a
given variable and positive or negative infinity. Mathematically speaking, a right-handed signal
is defined as any signal where f(t) =0 for t&lt;t1&lt;∞, and a left-handed signal is defined as
any signal where f(t) =0 for t>t1>−∞. See (Figure 8) for an example. Both figures "begin" at t1
and then extends to positive or negative infinity with mainly nonzero values.

(a) Right-handed signal (b) Left-handed signal

Figure 8
(ix) Finite vs. Infinite Length (duration)

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET
As the name applies, signals can be characterized as to whether they have a finite or infinite
length set of values. Most finite-length signals are used when dealing with discrete-time signals
or a given sequence of values. Mathematically speaking, f(t) is a finite-length signal if it is
nonzero over a finite interval t1 <f(t)< t2 where t1>−∞ and t2 < ∞. An example can be seen in
Figure 9. Similarly, an infinite-length signal, f(t), is defined as nonzero overall real numbers:
∞≤f(t) ≤−∞.

Figure 9: Finite-Length Signal. Note that it only has nonzero values on a set, finite interval.
First, we divide all signals into two classes: those that are of finite duration and those that are
of infinite duration. A signal x[n] is of finite duration if there exists two integers ∞< N1 <= N2
<∞, such that x[n] = 0 only for N1 <= n <= N2. Otherwise, it is of infinite duration.

General rule:

• A signal cannot be both an energy and power signal.

• A signal may be neither energy nor power signal.
• All periodic signals are power signals (but not all non–periodic signals are energy
signals).
• Any signal f that has limited amplitude (|f| < ) and is time limited (f = 0 for |t |> t0) is
an energy signal.
• The square root of the average power of a power signal is called the RMS value.
• Periodic and random signals are power signals. Signals that are both deterministic and
non-periodic are energy signals.

Edited: Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmad EE 2231: Signals and Linear Systems Dept. of MTE, KUET