LOGARITHMS

A logarithm of a number to base x is the power to which x 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚

must be raised to give a number e.g.
Now the logarithmic form of the statement
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛  a  log x m
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 is 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑛 + 𝑚,
The following 3 statements are equivalent
but 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
4
(i) 16 = 2 and log 2 16 = 4
Putting this result together we have:
(ii) 27 = 33 and log327 = 3
(iii) 64 = 82 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔8 64 = 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦

Logarithms appear in all sorts of calculations in Therefore, log a xy = log a x + log a y (as required.)
engineering and science, business and economics. Before
days of calculators, they were used to assist in the process x
(2) For log a x  log a y  log a  
of multiplication by replacing the operation of  y
multiplication by addition similarly they enabled the 𝑛 𝑚
Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 with equivalent respective
operation of division to be replaced by subtraction.
logarithmic forms
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑛 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑚.
Laws of Logarithms 𝑥
= 𝑎𝑛 ÷ 𝑎𝑚
(1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥𝑦 𝑦
𝑥
x = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚
(2) log a x  log a y  log a   𝑦
 y 𝑥
𝑚
(3) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎𝑛−𝑚
𝑦
(4) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 = 0 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑛 − 𝑚
(5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑎 (Change of base law) 𝑦
𝑐 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑦
Example I 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
Prove the following laws of logarithms 𝑦
𝑥
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 as required
𝑦
(1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑥
(2) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
(3) For 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙𝒎 = 𝒎𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙
𝑚
(3) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 or 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑛.
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑏
(4) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = Suppose we raise both sides of 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 to the power m
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑎
1 𝑥 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑛 )𝑚
(5) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
Using the rules of indices this can be written as;
Solution:
𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛𝑚
(1) Suppose 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 then equivalent
Thinking of the quantity 𝑥 𝑚 as a single term, the
logarithmic forms are
logarithmic form is
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑛 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑚
loga xm  loga anm
Using the first rule of indices, loga xm  nm loga a
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑎𝑚 loga xm  nm

1
 m log a x m  m( n) 52 = 𝑥
log a x m  m log x a 𝑥 = 25
∴ 𝑥 = 5 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 25
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒃
(4) For 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂 𝒃 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒄𝒂
𝒄 Example III
Let 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑦 Solve 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 8 = 2
∴ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑏…………………… (1) Solution:
Introducing 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 on both sides of equation (1) 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 8 = 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 8
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − =2
logc a y  logc b 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
y log c a  log c b 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 23
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − =2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
log c b
y 3𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2
log c a 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − =2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 3
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − =2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
1 Let m = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
(5) For 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 3
Let 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 𝑚− =2
𝑚
𝑚2 − 3 = 2𝑚
𝑏 = 𝑎𝑦
𝑚2 − 2𝑚 − 3 = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎 𝑦
(𝑚 − 3)(𝑚 + 1) = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑦𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
𝑚 = 3, 𝑚 = −1
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑏
𝑦= 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 3
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
23 = 𝑥
1
𝑦= 𝑥=8
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
1 log2x = -1
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 = 2−1 = 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
1
Example II 𝑥=
2
Solve log 5 x  2log x 5  3
Solution Example IV
log 5 x  2log x 5  3 Solve for x: 3log2 x – logx2 = 2
1 Solution
But 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 5 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
5𝑥 3log2 x – logx 2 = 2
2 1
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 + =3 But log 𝑥 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥
Let 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 = 𝑚 1
⇒ 3𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 − =2
2 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
𝑚+ =3 Let 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑚
𝑚2 + 2 = 3𝑚 1
3𝑦 − = 2
𝑚2 − 3𝑚 + 2 = 0 𝑦
2
(𝑚 − 1)(𝑚 − 2) = 0 3𝑦 − 1 = 2𝑦
𝑚 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 2 3𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 1 = 0
Since 𝑙𝑜𝑔5 𝑥 = 1, 3𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0
∴ 51 = 𝑥 3𝑦(𝑦 − 1) + 1(𝑦 − 1) = 0
log 5 x  2 (3𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 1) = 0

2
 1 18𝑞 = 3𝑝
𝑦 = − ,𝑦 = 1
3
Since 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 𝑦 3𝑝 = 18𝑞
1
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 18𝑞
3
1 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔6 18
2− 3 = 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 = 1 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑞(𝑙𝑜𝑔6 6 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3)
21 = 𝑥
Example IV 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔6 6 + 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3
Solve ln(6𝑥 − 5) = 3 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 − 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑞𝑙𝑜𝑔6 6
Solution
ln(6𝑥 − 5) = 3 (𝑝 − 𝑞)𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑞
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (6𝑥 − 5) = 3 𝑞
𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 =
∴ 𝑒 3 = 6𝑥 − 5 𝑝−𝑞
6𝑥 = 𝑒 3 + 5
Example VII
𝑒3 + 5
𝑥= If 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑚 = 𝑎, 𝑙𝑜𝑔12 𝑚 = 𝑏. Prove that
6
𝑎+𝑏
𝑒3 + 5 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 =
𝑥= 𝑎−𝑏
6
Solution
Example V
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥
3
𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑚 = 𝑎
Prove that 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 𝑥 = 1+𝑙𝑜𝑔
32 4𝑎 = 𝑚
Solution 1
4 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
𝑙𝑜𝑔6 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔12 𝑚 = 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 6
12𝑏 = 𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 1
= 12 = 𝑚𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 2 1 1
4 × 12 = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑚𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 1 1
= 48 = 𝑚𝑎+𝑏
1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 2
𝑏+𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 48 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑏
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔6 𝑥 = 𝑏+𝑎
1 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑚 𝑎𝑏
𝑏+𝑎
Example VI (UNEB Question) 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑚 …………. (1)
𝑎
But 𝑚 = 4
Given that 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑔18 𝑥 = 𝑞. Prove that
𝑞 Substituting for m = 4a in Eqn (1);
𝑙𝑜𝑔6 3 = 𝑝−𝑞 𝑏+𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4𝑎
𝑎𝑏
Solution 𝑏+𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = × 𝑎log 3 4
𝑙𝑜𝑔18 𝑥 = 𝑞 𝑎𝑏
𝑏+𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = 𝑏 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4……………….. (2)
∴ 18𝑞 = 𝑥……………………. (1)
Since 𝑚 = 4𝑎 , 12𝑏 = 𝑚
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 = 𝑝 4𝑎 = 12𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4𝑎 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 12𝑏
∴ 3𝑝 = 𝑥……………………… (2)
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 = 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑔3 12
Equating equation (1) and (2) 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 = 𝑏[𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4]

3
 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 = 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 log x 5  4log 5 x  4
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 − 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 = 𝑏 1
𝑏 log 5 x 
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 4 = 𝑎−𝑏…………………….. (3) log x 5
4
Substituting eqn. (3) in eqn. (2)  log x 5  4
log x 5
𝑏+𝑎 𝑏 Let m = logx 5
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 = ( )×( )
𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 4
m 4
𝑏+𝑎 m
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 48 =
𝑎−𝑏  m2 + 4 = 4m
m2 – 4m + 4 = 0
Example VIII (UNEB Question)
(m – 2)2 = 0
Prove that log8 x  23 log4 x . Hence find log86 if log43 =
m=2
0.7925. logx5 = 2
Solution x2 = 5
log 4 x x 5, x 5
log8 x  ………………… (1)
log 4 8 Example IX
log 2 8 Solve 6log3 x + 6log27 y = 7
But log 4 8 
log 2 4 4log9 x + 4log3 y = 9
log 2 23 Solution
 6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 + 6𝑙𝑜𝑔27 𝑦 = 7……………… (1)
log 2 22
4𝑙𝑜𝑔9 𝑥 + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦 = 9……………….. (2)
3log 2 2
 From equation (1)
2log 2 2 6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦
6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 + =7
3 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 27
log 4 8  ……………………….. (2)
2 6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦
6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 + =7
substituting Eqn (2) in Eqn (1); 3𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3
𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑥 6𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦 = 7……………….. (3)
𝑙𝑜𝑔8 𝑥 =
3⁄
2 From equation (2)
2
𝑙𝑜𝑔8 𝑥 = ⁄3 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 6
4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
+ 4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦 = 9
= 2⁄3 [𝑙𝑜𝑔4 2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 3] 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
But, 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦 = 9
2 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 3
𝑙𝑜𝑔 2 1
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 222 = 2 2𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 + 4𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦 = 9………………. (4)
2

𝑙𝑜𝑔8 6 = 2⁄3 [0.5 + 0.7925] Let A = log3 x, 𝐵 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑦

= 0.867 6𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 7…………………… (5)

Example (UNEB Question) 2A+ 4B = 9 …………………….. (6)

Solve logx 5 + 4log5 x = 4 Solving equation 5 and 6 simultaneously
Solution 1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 2
logx 5 + 4log5 x = 4 2
But, 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
1
∴ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
2
1
𝑥 = 32

4
 B = log3 y 20 = 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2
2 = log3 y 1 = x – 3y + 2
y = 32 x – 3y = -1 …………….……… (1)
y =9 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 + 1) − 1 = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦
x3 2, 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 + 1) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2 = 2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦
1
y=9
Example X log 2 2(𝑥 + 1) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦 2
Given that 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑦 = 4, show that xy = 16. Hence 𝑦 2 = 2(𝑥 + 1)…………………………. (2)
solve for x and y in the equations. From eqn. (1)
𝑥+1
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑦 = 4
3
= 𝑦 ……………… (3)
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 Substituting Eqn (3) in Eqn (2)
Solution (𝑥 + 1)2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑦 = 4………………….. (1) = 2(𝑥 + 1)
9
From eqn. (1) (𝑥 + 1)2
2𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑦 + −2(𝑥 + 1) = 0
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥 + =4 9
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 4 𝑥+1
(𝑥 + 1) [ − 2] = 0
But log 2 4  2log 2 2 9
=2 𝑥 + 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −1
𝑥+1
2log 2 y =2
log 2 x  4 9
2
𝑥 + 1 = 18
log 2 x  log 2 y  4
x = 17
log 2 xy  4 x = -1, x = 17
24 = xy Example
16 = 𝑥𝑦…………………………. (2) Solve the equation log4 x2  6log x 4  1  0
From Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
log4 x2  6log x 4  1  0
∴ 101 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
y = 10 – x ………………………… (3) 1
But log x 4  log x
Substituting Eqn (3) in Eqn (2); 4

Substituting Eqn (3) in Eqn (1) 6

 log 4 x 2  1  0
16 = x(10 – x) log 4 x
16 = 10x – x2
6
x2 – 10x + 16 = 0  2log 4 x  1  0
(x – 2)(x – 8) = 0 log 4 x
x = 2, x = 8 6
2y  1  0
10 = x + y y
If x = 2, 10 = 2 + y 2y2 – 6 – y = 0
y=8 (2y + 3)(y – 2) = 0
If x = 8, y=2 3
y , y2
2
Example XI
Solve for x and y; If y = 2  log 4 x  2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2) = 0 42 = x
(log 2 x  1)  1  2log 2 y x = 16
3 3
Solution y ,  log 4 x 
If 2 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 (𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2) = 0

5
 4
3
2
x For 5𝑥 = 1,  5x = 50
1 x=0
x (ii) 9 − 12(3𝑥 ) + 27 = 0
𝑥
8
⇒ (3𝑥 )2 − 12(3𝑥 ) + 27 = 0
Application of Indices [Since 9𝑥 = (32 )𝑥 = (3𝑥 )2]
Let 𝑦 = 3𝑥
Example XIII
𝑦 2 − 12𝑦 + 27 = 0
Solve the equation 22 x 8  32(2x )  1  0 (𝑦 − 3)(𝑦 − 9) = 0
Solution 𝑦 = 3, 𝑦 = 9
22 x 8  32(2x )  1  0 But 𝑦 = 3𝑥
(2𝑥 )2 . 28 − 32 . 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 3𝑥 = 3
256(2𝑥 )2 − 32(2𝑥 ) + 1 = 0 ∴𝑥=1
Let 2𝑥 = 𝑦 3𝑥 = 9
256𝑦 2 − 32𝑦 + 1 = 0 ∴𝑥=2
256𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 − 16𝑦 + 1 = 0 (iii) 4x + 2 = 3 × 2x
16𝑦(16𝑦 − 1) − 1(16𝑦 − 1) = 0 (22 )𝑥 + 2 = 3 × 2𝑥
(16𝑦 − 1)(16𝑦 − 1) = 0 (2𝑥 )2 + 2 = 3 𝑋 2𝑥
1 Let 𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑦=
16 𝑦 2 + 2 = 3𝑦
1 𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 + 2 = 0
2𝑥 =
16 (𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0
1 𝑦 = 1, 𝑦 = 2
2𝑥 = 4
2 2𝑥 = 1
2x = 2-4 𝑥=0
𝑥 = −4 2𝑥 = 2
𝑥=1
Example IV
∴ 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1
Solve the following equations
(i) 52𝑥 − 5𝑥+1 + 4 = 0
(iv) 9𝑥 − 3𝑥+1 = 10
(ii) 9𝑥 − 12(3𝑥 ) + 27 = 0
(32 )𝑥 − 3𝑥 . 31 = 10
(iii) 4𝑥 + 2 = 3 × 2𝑥
(3𝑥 )2 − 3𝑥 . 31 = 10
(iv)
𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 − 10 = 0
Solutions
(𝑦 − 5)(𝑦 + 2) = 0
(i) 52𝑥 − 5𝑥+1 + 4 = 0
𝑦 = 5 , 𝑦 = −2
(5𝑥 )2 − 5𝑥 . 51 + 4 = 0
3𝑥 = 5
𝑦 2 − 5𝑦 + 4 = 0
𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔10 3 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 5
𝑦 2 − 𝑦 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0
log 5
𝑦(𝑦 − 1) − 4(𝑦 − 1) = 0 x  10
(𝑦 − 4)(𝑦 − 1) = 0 log10 3
𝑦 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1 x = 1.465
5𝑥 = 4
Example (UNEB Question)
5𝑥 = 1
Solve the equations:
For 5𝑥 = 4,
9x – 3x + 1 = 10
 log10 5x  log10 4
Solution
log10 4 9x – 3x + 1 = 10
x = 0.86135
log10 5

6
(32)x − 3x × 3 = 10 3x = 5
 log10 3x  log10 5
(3x)2 – 3  3x − 10 = 0
x log10 3  log10 5
Let 3x = y
log10 5
 y2 – 3y – 10 = 0 x
log10 3
(y – 5)(y + 2) = 0
y = 5, y = -2 x = 1.465

7
 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Any equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic equation.

b  b 2  4ac
x is the formula used to solve quadratic equations.
2a
b2 – 4ac is a discriminant and determines the nature of the roots.

Nature of roots of quadratic Equations

b  b 2  4ac
x is the formula used to solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, we see that
2a
Either

b  b 2  4ac
Or x 
2a
Therefore in general, a quadratic equation has two solutions (called roots).

1. If b2 – 4ac is positive
b 2  4 ac can be evaluated and the equation has two real and distinct (different) roots.

Illustration

x1 x2

2. If b2 – 4ac is zero
b
b 2  4 ac is zero; the equation is satisfied by only one value of x; x  and we say that it has
2a
repeated roots or equal roots.

8
 y = ax2 + bx + c

3. If b2 – 4ac is negative

b 2  4 ac has no real values; so the equation has no real roots.

To summarise the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0;

Has two distinct roots if b2 – 4ac > 0
Has equal roots if b2 – 4ac = 0
Has no real roots if b2 – 4ac < 0; and b2 – 4ac is
called a discriminant.
Example I
Determine the nature of roots of the following equations:
(a) 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0
(b) x2 + ax + a2 = 0
(c) x2 – px – q = 0

Solutions
(a) 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0
Compare 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0, it follows that a = 4, b = -7 and c = 3
The discriminant = b2 – 4ac
b2 – 4ac
 (-7)2 – 4 × 4 × 3
= 49 – 48
=1>0
Since b2 – 4ac >0,
 The equation 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 has two real distinct roots

(b) x2 + ax + a2 = 0.
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
b2 – 4ac = (a)2 – 4 × 1(a2)
= a2 – 4a2
= -3a2
2
Since a is positive irrespective of the value of a,
b2 – 4ac < 0. So the equation x2 + ax + a2 = 0 has no real roots.

36
(c) x2 – px – q2 = 0
Comparing x2 – px – q2 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0, it follows that a = 1, b = -p, and c = -q2.
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
b2 – 4ac = (-p)2 – 4(1)(-q2)
= p2 + 4q2
2 2
p + 4q > 0 irrespective of the values of p and q.
Since b2 – 4ac > 0,
 x2 – px – q2 = 0 has two real distinct roots.

Example II
Determine the nature of the roots of the following equations:
(a) x2 – 6x + 9 = 0
(b) x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
(c) x2 – 6x + 10 = 0
(d) 4x2 – 12x – 9 = 0

Solution
(a) x2 – 6x + 9 = 0
Comparing x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 1, b = -6, c = 9
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
= (-6)2 – 4 × 1 × 9
= 36 – 36
=0
Since b – 4ac = 0,
2

 The equation x2 – 6x + 9 = 0 has repeated roots.

(b) x2 – 2x + 1 = 0
Comparing x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0, it follows that a = 1, b = -2, c = 1
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
= (-2)2 – 4 × 1 × 1
=4–4
=0
Since b – 4ac = 0,
2

 The equation x2 – 2x + 1 = 0 has repeated roots.

(c) x2 – 6x + 10 = 0
Comparing x2 – 6x + 10 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 1, b = -6, c = 10
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac = 0
= (-6)2 – 4 × 1 × 10
= 36 – 40
= -4
Since b2 – 4ac < 0,
 The equation x2 – 6x + 10 = 0 has no real roots.

37
(d) 4x2 – 12x – 9 = 0
Comparing 4x2 – 12x – 9 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 4, b = -12, c = -9.
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
= (4)2 – 4 × 4 × (-9)
= 16 – 16 × -9
= 16 + 144
= 160
b2 – 4ac > 0
 The equation 4x2 – 12x – 9 = 0 has two real distinct roots.

Example III
Find the values of k for which the following equations have equal roots.
(i) 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0
(ii) x2 – 5x + k = 0
Solution
(i) 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0
For a quadratic equation to have equal roots,
b2 = 4ac
Comparing 3x2 + kx + 12 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 3, b = k and c = 12
b2 = 4ac
 (k)2 = 4 × 3 × 12
k2 = 144
k = ±12
 k = 12, k = -12

(ii) x2 – 5x + k = 0
For the equation x2 – 5x + k = 0 to have real roots,
b2 = 4ac
 (-5)2 = 4 × 1 × k
25 = 4k
25
k=
4

Example IV
Prove that kx2 + 2x – (k – 2) = 0 has real roots for any values of k.
Solution
k2 + 2x – (k – 2) = 0
Comparing kx2 + 2x – (k – 2) = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = k, b = 2, c = -(k – 2)
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
= (2)2 – 4 × k[-(k – 2)]
= 4 + 4k(k – 2)
= 4 + 4k2 – 8k
= 4k2 – 8k + 4

38
 = 4(k2 – 2k + 1)
= 4(k – 1)2
Since 4(k – 1)2 > 0,  kx2 + 2x – (k – 2) has two real distinct roots for any values of k.

Example V
Find the range of values k can take for 9x2 + kx + 4 = 0 to have two real distinct roots.
Solution
Comparing 9x2 + kx + 4 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 9, b = k, c = 4.
The discriminant is b2 – 4ac
= (k)2 – 4 × 9 × 4
= k2 – 144
For two distinct real roots, b2 – 4ac > 0
k2 – 144 > 0
(k + 12)(k – 12) > 0
For the boundary conditions, k = -12, k = 12
k < -12 -12 < k < 12 k > 12
k + 12 –ve +ve +ve
k – 12 –ve –ve +ve
(k + 12)(k – 12) +ve –ve +ve
 For 9x2 + kx + 4 = 0 to have real roots, the product
(k + 12)(k – 12) must be positive.
 k < -12 and k > 12 are ranges of values for which
9x2 + kx + 4 = 0 has real distinct roots.

Example VI (UNEB Question)

x2  x  1
Find the value of k for which the equation = k has repeated roots. What are the repeated roots?
x 1
Solution
x2  x  1
=k
x 1
x2 – x + 1 = kx – k
x2 – x – kx + 1 + k = 0
x2 – (k + 1)x + k + 1 = 0
For repeated roots, b2 = 4ac
Comparing x2 – (k + 1)x + k + 1 = 0 with
ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 1, b = -(k + 1), c = k + 1)
b2 = 4ac
[-(k + 1)]2 = 4 × 1(k + 1)
(k + 1)2 = 4k + 4
k2 + 2k + 1 = 4k + 4
k2 – 2k – 3 = 0
(k – 3)(k + 1) = 0
 k = 3 OR k = -1

39
 If k = 3,
x2 – (k + 1)x + k + 1 = 0
x2 – 4x + 4 = 0
(x – 2)2 = 0
x = 2, x = 2
When x = 3, the repeated roots are x=2 and x = 2
If x = -1;
x2 – (k + 1)x + k + 1 = 0
x2 = 0
x = 0, x = 0
When k= -1, the repeated roots are x=0 and x =0.

Maximum and Minimum values of a quadratic function

Consider y = ax2 + bx + c
Using the method of completing squares, the quadratic equation can be reduced to:
(i) a(x – p)2 + q
(ii) q – a(x – p)2

(i) Let y = a(x – p)2 + q

Since (x – p)2 is never negative, the least value of y occurs when (x – p)2 = 0

(ii) For y = q – a(x – p)2;

Since (x – p)2 is never negative
 The maximum value of y is q.

Examples
Find the greatest or least values of the following functions:
(a) x2 – 2x + 5
(b) 5 – 4x – x2
(c) x2 – 3x + 5
(d) 2x2 – 4x + 5
(e) 7 + x – x2
(f) x2 – 2
(g) 2x – x2

Solution
(a) x2 – 2x + 5
By completing squares,
 12 (2)   12 (2)
2 2
x2 – 2x + 5 = x2 – 2x + +5
= x – 2x + 1 – 1 + 5
2

= (x – 1)2 + 4
y = x2 – 2x + 5
y = 4 + (x – 1)2
The least value of y is 4 and it occurs when (x–1)2 =0

40
(b) 5 – 4x – x2
By completing squares;
5 – 5x – x2 = 5 – (x2 + 4x)
= 5 – (x2 + 4x + 4) – −4
= 5 – (x + 2)2 + 4
= 9 – (x + 2)2
y = 9 – (x + 2)2
The greatest value is y = 9 and it occurs when
(x + 2)2 = 0

(c) x2 – 3x + 5
By completing squares;
9 9
x2 – 3x + 5 = x2 – 3x +  + 5
4 4
2
 3  11
= x  
 2 4
2
 3  11
y = x   
 2 4
2
11  3
The least value of y is and it occurs when x  0
4  2

(d) 2x2 – 4x + 5
2(x2 – 2x) + 5
2(x2 – 2x + 1) – 2 + 5
3 + 2(x – 1)2
y = 3 + 2(x – 1)2
The least value of y is 3 and it occurs when
2(x – 1)2 = 0

(e) 7 + x – x2
7 – (x2 – x)
1 1
7 – (x2 – x + )–
4 4
2
 1 1
7 – x  
 2 4
2
29  1
y x 
4  2
2
29  1
The greatest value of y is and it occurs when x  = 0
4  2

(f) x2 − 2

41
 The least value of y is -2 and it occurs when x2 = 0

(g) 2x – x2
y = 2x – x2
y = -(x2 – 2x)
By completing squares;
y = -(x2 – 2x + 1) – −1
y = -(x – 1)2 + 1
y = 1 – (x – 1)2
The greatest value of y = 1 and it occurs when x = 1

Sum & Product of the roots of Quadratic Equations

Consider the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
bx c
 x2 +  = 0 ……………………. (i)
a a
Suppose α and β are the roots of the equation
bx c
x2 +  =0
a a
We can use α and β to form an algebraic equation in which the unknown quantity x is satisfied by putting
x = α or x = β.
x=α or x=β
x – α = 0 or x–β=0
(x – α)(x – β) = 0
x2 – βx – αx + αβ = 0
x2 – (α + β)x + αβ = 0 ……………………… (ii)
Eqn (i) and Eqn (ii) have the same roots, must be precisely the same equation written in two different
ways.
Equating coefficients of the same monomials in Eqn (i) and Eqn (ii);
b
 -(α + β) =
a
b
(α + β) =
a
c
Similarly, αβ =
a
 For a quadratic function with roots α and β,
b
Sum of roots = α + β =
a
c
Product of roots αβ =
a
α + β = (α +β) – 2αβ
2 2 2

α3 + β3 = (α + β)3 – 3αβ (α + β)
α3 + β3 = (αβ)3

42
 (α – β) = (   ) 2

α– β =  2  2   2

α–β=  2   2  2

α–β= (   ) 2  2  2

(α – β) = (   ) 2  4 .
1 1  
 
  
1 1 1
 
  
 The following are important formulae used
under roots of quadratic equations.
(α2 + β2) = (α + β)2 – 2αβ
α3 + β3 = (α + β)3 – 3αβ(α + β)
α–β= (   ) 2  4

Example I
If α and β are roots of the equation x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, find the values of
(a) αβ
(b) α + β
(c) α2β + αβ2
(d) α2 + β2

Solution
(a) x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
Comparing x2 + 8x + 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 1, b = 8, c = 1
c
αβ=
a
1
αβ = = 1
1
b
(b) α + β = .
a
8
α+β 
1
α + β = -8

(c) α2β + α β2
= α β(α + β)

43
 = 1(-8)
= -8
∴ α2β + α β2 = -8

(d) α2 + β2 = (α + β)2 – 2 α β
α + β = -8
αβ=1
α2 + β2 = (-8)2 – 2 × 1
= 64 – 2
= 62

Example II
If α and β are roots of the equation x2 – x – 3 = 0, state the values of α + β and αβ and find the values of:
(a) α2 + β2
(b) (α – β)2
(c) α3 + β3

Solution
Comparing x2 – x – 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 1, b = -1, c = -3
b
α+β=
a
 1
 α+β= =1
1
c
αβ=
a
3
αβ= = -3
1
(a) α2 + β2
(α + β)2 – 2αβ
= (1)2 – 2(-3)
= 1 – –6
=7
(b) (α – β)2 = α2 – 2αβ + β2
= α2 + β2 – 2αβ
But α2 + β2 = (α+β)2 – 2αβ
= (α + β)2 – 4αβ
(α - β)2 = (α + β)2 – 4αβ
= 12 – 4 × (-3)
= 13
(c) α3 + β3 = (α + β)3 – 3 αβ(α + β)
α3 + β3 = (1)3 – 3(-3)(1)
=1+9

44
 = 10

Example III
If α and β are roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0, find the values of:
(a) α + β
(b) α β
(c) α2 + 3αβ + β2
(d) α2 – 3αβ + β2.
(e) α3β + αβ3
1 1
(f) 
 
Solution
Comparing 2x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 2, b = -5 and c = 1
b
α+β=
a
5
α+β= 
2
5
 α+β=
2
c
αβ=
a
1
 αβ=
2
(c) α + 3αβ + β2
2

= (α2 + β2) + 3αβ

= (α + β)2 – 2αβ + 3αβ
= (α + β)2 + αβ
2
5 1
=  
2 2
25 1
= 
4 2
27
=
4
(d) α – 3αβ + β
2 2

α2 + β2 – 3αβ
(α + β)2 – 2 αβ – 3αβ
(α + β)2 – 5αβ
2
5 1
=    5 
2 2
25 5
= 
4 2

45
 15
=
4

(d) α3 β + αβ3
= α β (α2 + β2)
= α β[(α + β)2 – 2 αβ]
1  5  1
2

=    2  
2  2  2 
15  1
   1 
2 4  8

1 1
(f) 
 
 
=

5
2
=
1
2

=5

Example IV
If α and β are roots of the equation 6x2 + 2x – 3 = 0, find the values of:
  1 1
(a)  (b)  2
   2

2 1 1 1
(c) (d)  
1     
1 1
(e) α3 + β3 (f) 
 3
3

Solution
Comparing 6x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0,
gives a = 6, b = 2, c = -3
  2  2
 
  
 2   2 (   )2  2

 
b
α+β=
a
2 1
α+β= 
6 3

46
 c
αβ =
a
3 1
αβ = 
6 2

(   ) 2  2 ( 31 ) 2  2( 12 )

 1
2

9 1
1

1
2

20

9
  20
  
  9

1 1 2  2
(b)  
2 2  2 2
(   )2  2

( )2
( 13 ) 2  2( 1 2 )
=
( 1 2 ) 2
1
1
 9
1
4
10 40
 9

1
4 9
1 1 40
 
 2
 2
9

2 2
(c)   
1 



2

 
2( 21 )
 1
3

1
 3
1
3

2
 3
1  

(c) α3 + β3 = (α + β)3 – 3 α β(α + β)

47
  1   1  1 
3

    3   
 3   2  3 
1 1
 
27 2
29

54

1 1 3 3
(f)  
3 3  3 3
(   )3  3 (   )

( )3
( 31 )3  3( 21 )( 31 )

( 21 )3
1
 12 29
 27
 54
1 1
8 8

116

27

Example V
If α2 and β2 are roots of the equation x2 – 21x + 4 = 0, and α and β are both positive, find α β and α + β.
Solution
Comparing x2 – 21x + 4 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 1, b = -21, c = 4
b
α2 + β2 =
a
21
=
1
= 21
α2 β2 = 4
α2 + β2 = (α + β)2 – 2 α β
(α + β)2 – 2αβ = 21
(α + β)2 - 2 × 2 = 21
(α + β)2 = 25
(α + β) = 5

Example VI
Write down the equation whose roots are:
(a) 3, 4 (b) -2, ½
1 2 1
(c) , (d) ,0
3 5 4
(e) a2, a2 (f) -(k + 1), k2 – 3

48
 b c2
(g) ,
a b

Solution
Any quadratic equation is given by
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
(a) x = 3, 4
Sum of roots = 3 + 4
=7
Product of roots = 3 × 4
= 12
x – (sum of roots)x + product = 0
2

x2 – (7)x + 12 = 0
x2 – 7x + 12 = 0

1
(b) x = -2, x =
2
1
Sum of roots = -2 +
2
3
Sum of roots =
2
Product of roots = -1
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product = 0
 3 
x2 –   x + -1 = 0
 2 
3
x2 + x–1=0
2
2x2 + 3x – 2 = 0

1 2
(c) x = ,x= x
3 5
1 2
Sum of the roots = 
3 5
1
=
15
1 2
Product of the roots = 
3 5
2
=
15
x – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
2

 1  2
x2 –   x + =0
 5  15

49
 15x + x – 2 = 0

1
(d) x = , x=0
4
1 1
Sum of roots = +0=
4 4
Product of roots = 0
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
1
x2 – x=0
4
4x2 + x = 0

(e) x = a2, x = a2
Sum of the roots = a2 + a2
= 2a2
Product of the roots = a2 × a2
= a4
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
x2 – (2a2)x + a4 = 0
x2 – 2a2x + a4 = 0

(f) -(k + 1), k2 − 3

Sum of roots = -k + 1 + k2 – 3
= k2 – k – 2
Product of roots = -(k + 1)(k2 – 3)
= -(k3 – 3k + k2 – 3)
Product of roots = -k3 + 3k – k2 + 3
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
x2 – (k2 – k – 2)x + 3k + 3 – k2 – k3 = 0

b c2
(g) x = ,x=
a b
b c2
Sum of roots = 
a b
b2  ac 2
=
ab
b c2 c2
Product of the roots =  
a b a2
 b 2  ac 2  c2
x2   x 2 = 0
 ab  a
a bx – a(b + a c)x + c2 = 0
2 2 2 2

Example VII

50
The roots of the equation x2 – 2x + 3 = 0 are α and β. Find the equation whose roots are:
(a) α + 2, β + 2
1 1
(b) ,
 
(c) α2 , β2
 
(d) ,
 
Solution
x2 – 2x + 3 = 0
Comparing x2 – 2x + 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives a = 1, b = -2, and c = 3.
b ( 2)
α+β=  =2
a 1
c 3
αβ =  = 3
a 1
New sum of roots = α + 2 + β + 2
=α+β+4
=2+4
=6
New product of the roots = (α + 2)(β + 2)
= αβ + 2α + 2β + 4
= αβ + 2(α + β) + 4
= 3 + 2(2) + 4
=3+4+4
= 11
Any quadratic equation is given by:
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
x2 – (2)x + 11 = 0
x2 − 2x + 11 = 0

1 1
(b) ,
 
α+β=2
αβ=3
1 1
New sum of roots = 
 
  2
= 
 3
1 1 1
New product of roots =  
  
1

3
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0.

51
 2 1
x2 –   x + = 0
3 3
3x – 2x + 1 = 0
2

(c) α2, β2
α+β=2
αβ=3
New sum of the roots = α2 + β2
= (α + β)2 – 2 α β
= 22 – 2(3)
=4–6
= -2
New product of roots = α2 β2
= (αβ)2
= 32
=9
x2 – (sum of the roots)x +product of the roots = 0
x – (-2)x + 9 = 0
2

x2 + 2x + 9 = 0

 
(d) ,
 
α + β = 2; αβ=3
 
New sum of roots = 
 
2  2


(   ) 2  


2  23 4  6
2
 
3 3
2

3
 
New product of roots = 
 
=1
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
 2 
x2 –   x + 1 = 0
 3 
2
3x + 2x + 3 = 0

(e) α – β, β – α

52
α + β = 2, αβ = 3
New sum of the roots = α – β + β – α
= α + β – (α + β)
=0
New product of the roots = (α – β)(β – α)
= αβ – α2 – β2 + αβ
= 2αβ – [(α2 + β2)]
= 2αβ – [(α + β)2 – 2αβ]
= 4αβ – (α + β)2
= 4 × 3 – (22)
=8
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0
x2 – (0)x + 8 = 0
x2 + 8 = 0

Example VIII
The roots of the equation 2x2 + 7x – 3 = 0 are α and β. Find the equation whose roots are  5 and
  
 

 5 .
  
  
Solution
b
Sum of the roots = α + β =
a
7
=
2
c 3
Product of the roots = α β =
a 2
5 5
New sum of the roots =     
 
1 1
= α + β + 5  
 
   
= α + β + 5 
  
7  7 
  5 2 
2  3 2 
7 35
 
2 3
91

6
 5  5
New product of roots =       
   

53
 25
=αβ+5+5+

25
=αβ+ + 10

3 25
=  + 10
2 3 2
49

10
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
 91  49
x2 –  x + 6 = 0
 6 
6x + 91x – 49 = 0
2

Example IX
Given that α and β are roots of the equation
4x2 + 7x – 5 = 0. Find the equation whose roots are 2α – 1 and 2β – 1
Solution
Comparing 4x2 + 7x – 5 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 4, b = 7, and c = -5
b
Sum of the roots = α + β =
a
7
 α+β=
4
c
Product of the roots = α β =
a
5

4
New sum of roots = 2 α – 1 + 2 β – 1
= 2(α +β) – 2
 7 
= 2   2
 4 
14
 2
4
22 11
 
4 2
New product of roots = (2α – 1)(2 β – 1)
= 4αβ – 2α – 2β + 1
= 4αβ – 2(α + β) + 1
 5   7 
 4   2   1
 4   4 
14
= -5 + +1
4

54
 20  14  4

4
1

2
x2 – (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0
 11  1
x2   x = 0
 2  2
x + 11x – 1 = 0
2

Example (UNEB Question)

If the roots of the equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 are α and β, form an equation whose roots are α2 – β and β2 – α.
Solution
Comparing x2 + 2x + 3 = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 1, b = 2 and c = 3
b
Sum of roots = α + β =
a
c
Product of the roots =
a
2
    = -2
1
c 3
    = 3
a 1
New sum of the roots = α2 – β + β2 – α
= α2 + β2 – (α + β)
= (α + β)2 – 2αβ – (α + β)
= (-2)2 – 2(3) – (-2)
=4–6+2
=0
New product of roots = (α2 – β)(β2 – α)
= α2β2 – α3 – β3 + αβ
= (α β)2 – (α3 + β3) + αβ
= (α β)2 – [(α + β)3 – 3 αβ (α + β)] + αβ
= 32 – [(-2)3 – 3(3)(-2)] + 3
= 9 – [-8 + 18] + 3
= 9 – [10] + 3
=2
x – (sum of the roots)x + product of roots = 0
2

x2 – (0)x + 2 = 0
x2 + 2 = 0

Example (UNEB Question)

 3 1  3 1
If α and β are roots of the equation x2 – px + q = 0, find the equation whose roots are and
 

55
Solution
Comparing x2 – px + q = 0 with ax2 + bx + c = 0 gives
a = 1, b = -p, c = q
b
Sum of the roots = α + β =
a
(  p )
= p
1
c q
Product of the roots = α β =   1
a 1
 3 1  3 1
New sum of the roots = 
 
 3      3  


(   )   ( 2   2 )


(   )   [(   ) 2  2 ]


( p)  q[ p  2q]
2

q
 p  p 2 q  2q 2

q
  3  1   3  1 
New product of the roots =   
    
 3 3   3   3  1


( )3  ( 3   3 )  1


( )  [(   )3  3 (   )]  1
3


q 3  [ p 3  3q ( p )]  1

q
q 3  p 3  3 pq  1

q
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of the roots = 0
( p 2 q  p  2q 2 ) q 3  p 3  3 pq  1
x2  x =0
q q
qx2 – (p2q – p – 2q2)x + q3 – p3 + 3pq + 1 = 0

Example (UNEB Question)

56
If α and β are roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, express (α – β) (β – 2α) in terms of a, b and c. Hence
deduce the condition for the root to be twice the other.
Solution
b
α+β=
a
c
αβ=
a
(α – 2β)(β – 2α)
αβ – 2α2 – 2β2 + 4αβ
  2( 2   2 )  4
    [(   )2  2 ]  4
 5  2[(   )2  2 ]
5c  b  2  c 
  2    2   
a  a   a  
5c  b 2 2c 
  2 2  
a a a
5c  b 2  2ac 
  2 2 
a  a 
5ac  2b 2  4ac

a2
9ac  2b2

a2
 (α – 2 β)(β – 2 α)
For one root to be twice the other, (α – 2β)(β – 2α) = 0
9ac  2b 2
 0
a2
9ac = 2b2

Example (UNEB Question)

Given that α and β are roots of the equation x2 + px + q = 0, express (α – β2)(β – α2) in terms of p and q.
Deduce that for one root to be a square of another root, p3 – 3pq + q2 + q = 0
Solution
b
Sum of the roots = α + β =
a
α + β = -p
αβ=q
(α + β2)(β – α2)
= α β – α3 – β3 + (αβ)2
   (   )3  3 (   )   ( ) 2
= q – [(-p3 – 3q(-p)] + q2
= q + p3 – 3pq + q2

57
 For one root to be a square of the other,
(α – β2)(β – α2) = 0
α = β2, β = α2
(α – β2)(β – α2) = q + p3 – 3pq + q2
 p3 – 3pq + q + q2 = 0

Example (UNEB Question)

Given that α and β are roots of the equation ax2 +bx +c= 0, determine the equation whose roots are α + β
and α3 + β3.
Solution
b
Sum of roots = α + β =
a
c
Product of roots = αβ =
a
New sum of roots = (α + β) + α3 + β3
 (   )  (   )3  3 (   ) 
b  b3 3c  b  
    
a  a3 a  a 
b  b3 3bc 
   2 
a  a3 a 
b  3abc  b 3 
  
a  a3 
 a 2b  3abc  b 3

a3
 a 2b  b3  3abc 
  
 a3 
New product of roots = (α + β)(α3 + β3
= (α + β)[(α + β)3 – 3αβ (α + β)]
b  b3 3c  b  
=    
a  a3 a  a 
b  b3 3cb 
=   2 
a  a3 a 
b  b3  3abc 
=  
a  a3 
3ab2 c  b4
=
a4
b4  3ab2 c
=
a4
x2 − (sum of roots)x + product of roots = 0

58
  a 2b  b3  3abc  b 4  3ab 2 c
x2    x  0
 a3  a4
a4x2 + (a2b + b3 – 3abc)x + b4 + 3ab2c = 0

Example (UNEB Question)

Given that equations y2 + py + q = 0 and y2 + my + k = 0 have a common root, show that (q – k)2 = (m –
p)(pk – mq)
Solution
Let the common root be α.
 α2 + pα + q = 0 ……………………. (i)
α2 + mα + k = 0 …………………… (ii)
Eqn (i) – Eqn (ii);
 (p – m)α + q – k = 0
-(m – p)α + q – k = 0
qk
 ……………………….. (iii)
m p
Substituting Eqn (iii) in Eqn (i);
(q  k )2  qk 
 p  +q=0
(m  p) 2
m p
(q – k)2 + p(m – p)(q – k) + q(m – p)2 = 0
(q – k)2 + (m – p)(pq – pk + qm – pq) = 0
(q – k)2 + (m – p)(qm – pk) = 0
(q – k)2 – (m – p)(pk – qm) = 0
(q – k)2 = (m – p)(pk – qm)

Example
If α and β are roots of px2 + qx + r = 0, form an equation with algebraic integral coefficients whose roots
1 1 
are and
1 1 
Solution
b
α+β=
a
q
 α+β=
p
c
αβ =
a
r
 αβ =
p

1 1 
New sum of the roots = 
1 1 

59
 (1   )(1   )  (1   )(1   )
=
(1   )(1   )
1        1      
=
1      
2  2
=
1  (   )  
2  2pr
=
1  pq  r
p

2 p  2r
=
pqr
2( p  r )
=
pqr

(1   )(1   )
New product of the roots =
(1   )(1   )
1      
=
1      
1  (   )  
=
1  (   )  
1  ( pq )  r
p
= p q r
p

pqr
=
pqr
x2 – (sum of the roots)x + product of the roots = 0
2( p  r ) x p  q  r
x2   =0
pqr pqr
(p – q + r)x2 – 2(p – r)x + p + q + r = 0

60
 Revision Exercise
1 1
1. The roots of the equation 4x2 + 4x – 1 = 0 are α and β. Find the values of: (a) 
 
(b)   
2 2

2. If α and β are roots of the equation 3x2 – 6x + 2 = 0. Find

(a) α2 – 3αβ + β2
(b) α3β + αβ3
1 1
(c) 
 
3. If α and β are roots of the quadratic equation x2 – 2x – 5 = 0. Find the quadratic equation whose roots
are:
(a) α – 4, β – 4
1 1
(b) ,
 2  2
1 1
(c) ,
 2
2
 
4. The roots of the equation 3x2 – 8x + 2 = 0 are α and β. Find an equation whose roots are and .
 
b2
5. If the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 differ by 4, show that = 4a + c.
4a
6. Prove that if the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is three times the other, then 3b2 = 16ac.
7. The roots of the equation x2 + 2px + q = 0 differ by 8. Show that p2 – 16 = q.
8. The roots of the equation x2 + 2x + k are β and β – 1. Find the value of k.
9. The roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is a square of the other. Prove that c(a – b)3 = a(c – b)3.
10. If α and β are roots of the equation px2 + qx + r = 0, form an equation with integral coefficients
1 1 
whose roots are and .
1 1 
11. Given that α and β are roots of the equation 2x2 – 8x + 2 = 0, show that α3 + β3 = 52. Hence that α6 +
β3 = 27.
12. Find the relationship between p, q and r if the roots of the equation px2 + qx + r = 0 double each
1
log3 243  log3 ( 13 )8  log 3 (27 2 ) 3  log 3 a3 3
8

other. Show that 

log3 a 2  2 2
13. If the roots of the equation 2x2 – 3x – 1 = 0 are α and β, find the value of α2 + β2 and hence form the
equation whose roots are α2 and β2.
14. Given that α is a common root of the equations
x2 – 2x – k = 0 and x2 – 5x + 2k = 0, where k ≠ 0. Find the numerical values of k and α.
15. In the equation m2x2 + 2mnx + n2 + 1 = 0, m and n are constants which are real numbers. Show that
the equation has no real roots for any values of m and n.
16. The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are α and β. Write down the expression for (α +
β) and αβ. Express in terms of α and β

61
 c abc
(i) (ii)
b a
2 2
(b) The roots of the equation 2x2 – 3x + 4 = 0 are α and β. Prove that and are also roots of the
 
equation.
17. Solve the equation 22(x + 1) – 5 × 2x + 1 = 0
18. Solve the simultaneous equations
2x + y + 3 = x + y + 2 = 2x2 – 11y2 + 3
19. The roots of the equation x2 + ax + b = 0 is the square of the other. Find the roots in terms of a and b.
20. The roots of the equations 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0 are α and β. And the roots of the equation px2 + x = q = 0
are
α – 1 and β – 1. Find the value of p and q.
21. If α and β are the roots of the equation 2x2 – x = 5, find the equation whose roots are α + 2β and β +
2α.
1
22. If α and β are roots of the equation 2x2 – 3x – 4 = 0, find the equation whose roots are   and

1
 .

23. If the roots of the equation x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 are α and β, form an equation with roots α + 3β, 3α + β.
1
24. If α and β are roots of the equation 3x2 – 3x – 1 = 0, form an equation whose roots are   and

1.


25. If α and β are roots of the equation 3x2 + x + 2 = 0,
1 1
(a) Evaluate 2  2
 
1 1
(b) Find the equation whose roots are and
2 2
(c) Show that 27α4 = 11α + 10
26. The roots of the equation x2 + 6x + c = 0 differ by 2n, where n is real and non-zero. Show that n2 = 9
– c. Given that the roots have opposite signs, find the set of all possible values of n.
27. Prove that the equation x(x – 2p) = q(x – p) has real roots for all values of p and q. If p = 3, find the
non-zero value for q.
28. If the roots of the equation x2 + bx + c are α and β and the roots of the equation x2 + λbx + λ2c = 0 are
γ and δ. Show that the equation whose roots are αγ + βδ and αδ + βγ is x2 – λb2x + 2λ2c(b2 – 2c) = 0
29. The roots of the quadratic equation x2 – px + q = 0 are α and β. Determine the equation having the
roots
α2 + β-2 and β2 + α-2.
30. Prove that the roots of the equation
3
(γ + 3)x2 + (6 – 2 γ)x + γ – 1 = 0 are real if and only if γ is not greater than . Find the values of γ if
2
one root is six times the other.

62
31. Form the equation whose roots are the cubes of the roots of the equation x2 – 3x + 4 = 0.
32. Show that if the equations x2 + bx + c = 0 and
x2 + px + q = 0 have a common root, then
(c – q)2 = (b – p)(cp – bq)
33. (i) Write x2 + 6x + 16 in the form (x + a)2 + b, where a and b are integrals to be found.
(ii) Find the minimum values of x2 + 6x + 16 and state the value of x for which this minimum value
occurs.
34. The roots of the equation 2x2 + 3x – 4 = 0 are αβ. Find the values of: (a) α2 + β2
1 1
(b) 
 
(c) (α + 1)(β + 1)
 
(d) 
 
35. If the roots of the equation 3x2 – 5x + 1 = 0 are α and β, find the values of:
(a) αβ2 + α2β (b) α2 – α β + β2
2 2
(c) α3 + β3 (d) 
 
36. The equation 4x2 + 8x – 1 = 0 has roots α and β. Find the values of:
1 1
(a)  2 (b) (α – β)2
 2

1 1
(c) α3β + αβ3 (d) 
   22

37. If the roots of the equation x2 – 5x – 7 = 0 are α and β, find the equations whose roots are:
(a) α2, β2 (b) α + 1, β + 1
(c) α2 β, α β2
38. The roots of the equation 2x2 – 4x + 1 are α and β. Find the equations with integral coefficients
whose roots are:
1 1  
(a) α – 2, β – 2 (b) , (c) ,
   
39. Find the equation with integral coefficients whose roots are the squares of the roots of the equation
2x2 + 5x – 6 = 0
40. The roots of the equation x2 + 6x + q = 0 are α and
α – 1. Find the values of q.
41. The roots of the equation x2 – px + 8 = 0 are α and
α + 2. Find the two possible values of p.
42. The roots of the equation x2 + 2px + q = 0 differ by 2. Show that p2 = 1 + q
43. If the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are α and β, find expressions in terms of a, b, and c for:
(a) α2 β + α β2 (b) α2 + β2
1 1
(c) α3 + β3 (d) 
 
 
(e)  (f) α4 + β4
 

63
44. The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has roots α and β. Find equations whose roots are:
(a) −α, −β (b) α + 1, β + 1 (c) α2, β2
(d) 1 , 1 (e) α – β, β – α (f) 2 α + β, α + 2β
 
45. Prove that, if the difference between the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1, then a2 = b2 – 4ac
46. Prove that if one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is twice the other, then 2b2 = 9ac
47. Prove that if the sum of the squares of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1, then b2 = 2ac +
a2.
48. Prove that if the sum of the reciprocals of the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is 1, then b + c =
0.

Answers
3
1. (a) 4 (b)
4
2 16
2. (a) (b) (c) 3
3 9
3. (a) x2 + 6x + 3 (b) 3x2 – 6x + 1 = 0
(c) 25x2 – 14x + 1 = 0
4. 3x2 – 26x + 3 = 0
3
8. k 
4
10. (p – q + r)x2 + 2(r – p)x + p + q + r = 0
13
13. , 4x2 – 13x + 1 = 0
4
14. k = 3, α = 3 17. x = 0, x = -2
1  177
18. x = -1, y 
22
20. p = -2, q = -4 21. 2x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
22. 4x2 – 3x – 1. 23. x2 – 20x + 79.
24. x – 4x – 1 = 0
2

11
25. (i) (ii) 4x2 + 11x + 9 = 0
4
29. q2x2 – (p2 – 2q)(q2 + 1)x + (q2 + 1)2 = 0
33
30. -11,
25
31. x2 + 9x + 64 = 0
33. (i) (x + 3)2 + 7 (ii) 7 at x = -3
25 3 5 25
34. (a) , (b) (c) (d)
4 4 2 8
5 16 80 80
35. (a) , (b) (c) (d)
9 9 27 9
16 9
36. (a) 72, (b) 5 (c) (d) -32
9 8

64
37. (a) x2 – 39x + 49 = 0
(b) x2 – 7x – 1 = 0
(c) x2 + 35x – 343 = 0
38. (a) 2x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
(b) x2 – 4x + 2 = 0
(c) x2 – 6x + 1 = 0
39. 4x2 – 49x + 36 = 0
35
40. 41. ±6
4
bc b 2  2ac b(3ac  b 2 )
43. (a) 2
(b) (c)
a a2 a3
b b 2  2ac b 4  4ab 2 c  2a 2 c 2
(d) (e) (f)
c ac a4
44 (a) ax – bx + c = 0
2

(b) ax2 + (b – 2a)x + a – b + c = 0

(c) a2x2 + (2ac – b2)x + c2 = 0
(d) cx2 – bx + a = 0
(e) a2x2 – (b2 – 4ac) = 0
(f) a2x2 + 3abx + (2b2 + ac) = 0

65
 POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is an expression consisting of variables and co-efficient which only employs the operations
of addition, multiplication and non-negative integer exponent.

Consider the expression

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝐶0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝐶2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ 𝑘

Where 𝐶0 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃(𝑥) is said to be a polynomial of degree n. When we solve 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 we get n unequal
roots. When 𝑥 is equal to each of the unequal values
𝑥 = 𝑎1, 𝑥 = 𝑎2, 𝑥 = 𝑎3, … 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 then

𝑥 − 𝑎1 , 𝑥 − 𝑎2 , 𝑥 − 𝑎3 , … 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑛 are factors of 𝑃(𝑥)

Polynomials must have whole numbers as exponents for example 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 7 is a polynomial but 9𝑥 −1 +
1
12𝑥 2 is not a polynomial.

Polynomials appear in a wide variety of areas of mathematics and science. For example they are used to
form polynomial equations which encode a wide range of problems from elementary word problems to
complicated problems in science. They are used in calculus to approximate other functions.

Remainder Theorem
If when a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎, the quotient is 𝑄(𝑥) and remainder is 𝑅 then;

𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅

If 𝑃(𝑎) = 0 then 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥)

This approach can be extended to the division of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) by polynomial 𝑔(𝑥) of the degree
less or equal to the degree of 𝑓(𝑥).
If the division gives the quotient 𝑄(𝑥) and remainder 𝑅(𝑥) then 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥)
Where 𝑅(𝑥) is of lower degree than 𝑔(𝑥)

The Remainder Theorem

When 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 𝑎, the remainder is 𝑃(𝑎)
Proof 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅
Equating the divisor to zero
𝑥−𝑎 =0
𝑥=𝑎
𝑃(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅
𝑃(𝑎) = 𝑅

Example I
Find the remainders when
(i) 3x2 – 4x2 + 5x – 8 is divided by x – 2

66
 (ii) 2x3 – 3x2 – 5x + 6 is divided by x + 2
(iii) 2x3 – 7x + 6 is divided by x – 3
(iv) x5 + x – 9 is divided by x + 1
Solutions
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝐷(𝑥) + 𝑅
Where 𝑄(𝑥) is the quotient, 𝐷(𝑥) is the divisor and 𝑅 is the remainder
(i) 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8
𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2
𝑥−2=0
𝑥=2
𝑃(2) = 3(2 ) − 4(22 ) + 5(2) − 8
3

= 24 − 16 + 10 − 8
= 34 − 24
= 10
𝑅 = 10
The remainder when 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8 is divided by 𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑠 10
3

(ii) 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝐷(𝑥) + 𝑅

𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6
𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2
Equating the divisor to 0
𝑥 +2 = 0
𝑥 = −2
𝑃(−2)  2(2)3  3(2)2  5  2   6
𝑃(−2) = −12
3 2
The remainder when 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 6 is divided by 𝑥 + 2 is -12

(iii) 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝐷(𝑥) + 𝑅

𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3
Equating the divisor to 0
x–3=0
x =3
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 + 6
𝑃(3) = 2(3)3 − 7(3) + 6
𝑃(3) = 54 − 21 + 6
𝑃(3) = 39
The remainder when 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 6 is divided by 𝑥 − 3 is 39

(iv) 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 9 = 𝑃(𝑥)
𝐷(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
Equating the divisor to 0
𝑥+1=0
𝑥 = −1

67
 𝑃(−1) = (−1)5 + (−1) − 9
= −1 − 10
= −11
The remainder when 𝑥 5 + 𝑥 − 9 is divided by 𝑥 + 1 is -11
Suppose a polynomial f(x) has a repeated
factor x – a. So that 𝒇(𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 . 𝒈(𝒙)
So by differentiating
𝒇𝟏 (𝒙) = (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 𝒈𝟏 (𝒙) + 𝟐(𝒙 − 𝒂)𝒈(𝒙)
(differentiation by product rule)

Hence if 𝒇(𝒙) has a repeated factor of 𝒙 − 𝒂

then (𝒙 − 𝒂)is also a factor of 𝒇𝟏 (𝒙)
 If (𝒙 − 𝒂)𝟐 is a factor of a polynomial
𝒇(𝒙) if and only if 𝒇(𝒂) = 𝒇𝟏 (𝒂) = 𝟎

Example II
Given that the polynomial f(x) = x3 + 3x2 – 9x + k has a repeated linear factor, find the possible values of
k.
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 𝑘
𝑓 1 (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9
𝑓 1 (𝑥) = 3(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)
𝑓 1 (𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
The repeated factor of f(x) is either (x – 1) or (x + 3)
If 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(1) = 0
1+3−9+𝑘 = 0
𝑘=5
If 𝑥 + 3 is a factor 𝑓(𝑥), then 𝑓(−3) = 0
−27 + 27 + 27 + 𝑘 = 0
𝑘 = −27
The possible values of k are 𝑘 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = −27

Obtaining the remainder by long division

Here are the steps required for dividing by a polynomial containing more than one term

Step I: Make sure the polynomial is written in descending order. If any terms are missing, use a zero to fill
in the missing term (this will help with the spacing)

Step II: Divide the term with the highest power inside the division symbol by the term with the highest
power outside the division symbol

Step III: Multiply (or distribute) the answer obtained in the previous step by the polynomial in front of the
division symbol

68
Step IV: Subtract and bring down the next term

Step V: Repeat step (II), (III) and (IV) until there are no more terms to bring down.

Step VI: Write the final answer. The term remaining after the last subtract step is the remainder and must
be written as a fraction in the final answer.

Example
Find the remainder when 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 is divided by 𝑥 + 2
Solution
STEP I
Make sure the polynomial is x+2 x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3
written in descending order.
If any term is missing, use
zero to fill in the missing
terms (this will help with the
spacing). In this case, the
problem is ready as it is.

STEP II
Divide the term with the
x2
highest power inside the
division symbol by the term x+2 x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3
with the highest power
outside the division symbol.
In this case, we have x3
divided by 𝑥 which is x2
STEP III
x2
Multiply (or distribute) the
answer obtained in the x+2 x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3
previous step by polynomial x3 + 2x2
in front of division symbol.
In this case, we need 𝑥 2 and
x+2
STEP IV
x2
Subtract and bring down the
next term x+2 x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3
x3 + 2x2
-6x2 + 2x – 3

STEP V
x2 – 6x
Divide the term with the
highest power inside the x+2 x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3
division symbol by the term x3 – 2x2
with the highest power -6x2 + 2x – 3
outside the division symbol.
In this case, we have -6x2
divided by x which is -6x.

69
STEP VI x2 – 6x
Multiply (or distribute) the
x + 2 x – 4x + 2x – 3
3 2
answer obtained in the
x3 – 2x2
previous step by the
polynomial in front of -6x2 + 2x
-6x2 − 12x
division symbol. In this case,
we need to multiply
(-6x) by x+2
STEP VII x2 – 6x
Subtract and bring down the
x + 2 x – 4x + 2x – 3
3 2
next term
x3 – 2x2
-6x2 + 2x
-6x2 − 12x
14x − 3
STEP VIII x2 – 6x + 14
Divide the term with the
x + 2 x – 4x + 2x – 3
3 2
highest power inside the
x3 – 2x2
division symbol by the term
with the highest power -6x2 + 2x
-6x2 − 12x
outside the division symbol.
14x − 3
in this case, we have 14𝑥
divided by 𝑥 which is +14
STEP IX x2 – 6x + 14
Multiply (or distribute) the
x + 2 x – 4x + 2x – 3
3 2
answer obtained in the
x3 – 2x2
previous step by the
polynomial in front of the -6x2 + 2x
-6x2 − 12x
division symbol. In this case,
we need to multiply 14 by x 14x − 3
14x +28
+2
x2 – 6x + 14
STEP X
x + 2 x – 4x + 2x – 3
3 2
Subtract and notice there are
x3 – 2x2
no more terms to bring down
-6x2 + 2x
-6x2 − 12x
14x − 3
14x +28
-31

STEP XI 31
Write the final answer. The x – 6x + 14 + x  2
2

term remaining after the last

subtract step is the remainder
and must be written as a
fraction.
 The remainder when x3 – 4x2 + 2x – 3 is divided by x + 2 is -31.

70
Example II
By using long division, obtain remainders and quotients when

(i) 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 12 is divided by 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
(ii) 2𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 4 is divided by 𝑥 − 3
(iii) 5𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 14 is divided by 𝑥 + 1
(iv) 2𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 11 is divided by 𝑥 + 4
(v) 𝑥 4 − 16 is divided by 𝑥 − 2

Solution
(i) x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12 is divided by x2 + x – 6
x+2

x2+x-6 x + 3x – 4x – 12
3 2

x3 + x2 − 6x
2x2 + 2x – 12
2x2 + 2x – 12
0

x3  3x 2  4 x  12 0
 ( x  2)  2
x  x6
2
x  x6
R=0
Q(x) = x + 2 (the quotient)

(ii) 2x4 – 8x3 + 5x2 + 4 is divided by x – 3

2x4 – 8x3 + 5x2 +0x + 4
2x3 – 2x2 – x – 3

x − 3 2x – 8x + 5x +0x + 4
4 3 2

2x4 – 6x3
-2x3 + 5x2 + 0x + 4
-2x3 + 6x2
-x2 + 0x + 4
-x2 + 3x
-3x + 4
-3x + 9
-5
−5
2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 +
𝑥−3
𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
𝑅 = −5
Where 𝑄(𝑥) = Quotient and remainder = R
(iii) 5x3 – 6x2 + 3x + 14

71
 5x2 – 11x + 14

x + 1 5x – 6x + 3x + 14
3 2

5x3 + 5x2
-11x2 + 3x + 14
-11x2 − 11x
14x + 14
14x + 14
0

5𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 14
= 5𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 14
𝑥+1
𝑅(𝑥) = 0, 𝑄(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 14

(iv) 2x4 + 6x3 − 7x2 +9x + 11

2x3 – 2x2 + x + 5
4 3 2
x + 4 2x + 6x − 7x +9x + 11
2x4 + 8x3
-2x3 − 7x2 + 9x + 11
-2x3 − 8x2
x2 + 9x + 11
x2 + 4x
5x + 11
5x + 20
-9

2 x 4  6 x3  7 x 2  9 x  11 9
 2 x3  2 x 2  x  5 
x4 x4

𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5

𝑅 = −9
(v) x4 – 16 is divided by x – 2
x3 +2x2 + 4x + 8
4 3 2
x − 2 x + 0x + 0x +0x − 16
x4 − 2x3
2x3 + 0x2 + 0x − 16
2x3 − 4x2
4x2 + 0x − 16
4x2 − 8x
8x − 16
8x − 16
0
𝑟=0

72
 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 8

Were 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟

And 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 14𝑥 + 8

Obtaining the remainder by synthetic approach

Definitions :
Dividend: The number or expression you are dividing into
Divisor: The number or expression you are dividing by
Synthetic division: is a quick method of dividing a polynomial when the divisor is of the
form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 or 𝑥 − 𝑐

Steps involved when obtaining the remainder by synthetic approach

(1) Write the value obtained after equating the divisor to 0 and the coefficients of the dividend in
descending order in the first row. If any 𝑥 terms are missing, place a zero in its place
(2) Bring the leading coefficient in the top row down to bottom (third) row
(3) Next multiply the number in the bottom row by c and place this product in the second row under the
next coefficient and add these two terms together
(4) Continue with this process until you reach the last column
(5) The numbers in the bottom are coefficients of the quotient and the remainder. The quotient will have
one degree less than the dividend

Example I

Use synthetic approach to obtain the remainder when 2𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 4 is divided by 𝑥 − 3

Solution

First note that the 𝑥 term is missing so we must record zero in its place

x4 x3 x2 x x0
x=3 2 -8 5 0 4
6 -6 -3 -9
2 -2 -1 -3 -5

Therefore, the quotient is 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3 and the remainder is -5.

Example II
Use synthetic approach to obtain the remainders when
(i) 𝑥 4 − 16 is divided by 𝑥 + 1
(ii) 5𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 14 is divided by 𝑥 + 1

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 (iii) 2𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 11 is divided by 𝑥 + 4

Solution
(i) Equating the divisor to zero
𝑥+1=0
𝑥 = −1
x4 x3 x2 x x0
x = -1 1 0 0 0 16
-1 1 -1 1
1 -1 1 -1 -15

𝑅 = −15
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
Where 𝑅 = remainder
And 𝑄(𝑥) = Quotient
Note: Synthetic method only work where the
divisor is of the form
𝒙 − 𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃
(ii) 5x3 – 6x2 + 3x + 14
Equating the divisor to zero
x + 1 = 0, x = -1
x3 x2 x x0
x = -1 5 -6 3 14
-5 11 -14
5 -11 14 0

𝑄(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 14
R=0
Where 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
R is the remainder

(iii) 2𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 11 = 𝑃(𝑥)
D(x) = x + 4
Equating the divisor to zero
x+4=0
x = -4
x4 x3 x2 x x0
x = -4 2 6 -7 9 11
-8 8 -4 -20
2 -2 1 5 -9

Q(x) = 2x3 – 2x2 + x + 5

R = -9

Where Q(x) = quotient, R = remainder

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More examples on polynomials
Find the values 𝑎 in the expression below if the following conditions are satisfied
(i) 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5 has a remainder -3 when divided by 𝑥 − 2
(ii) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 has a remainder 8 when divided by 𝑥 − 2
Solution
(i) 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝐷(𝑥) + 𝑅
x3  ax 2  3x  5  Q  x  x  2   3 …… (1)
Equating the divisor to zero
𝑥−2=0
𝑥=2
Substituting x = 2 in Eqn (1);
23 + 𝑎(22 ) + 3 × 2 − 5 = 0 + −3
8 + 4𝑎 + 6 − 5 = −3
9 + 4𝑎 = −3
4𝑎 = −12
𝑎 = −3
(ii) x  x  2ax  a  Q  x  x  2   8 …. (1)
3 2 2

𝑥−2=0
𝑥=2
Substituting x = 2 in Eqn (1);
8 + 4 − 4𝑎 + 𝑎2 = 0 + 8
𝑎2 − 4𝑎 + 4 = 0
(𝑎 − 2)2 = 0
𝑎=2

Example II

Show that 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 is divisible by 2𝑥 − 1 and find other factors

Solution
6x2 + 11x + 3
3 2
2x − 1 12x + 16x − 5x − 3
12x3 − 6x2
22x2 − 5x − 3
22x2 − 11x
6x − 3
6x − 3

Since the remainder is zero

12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 is divisible by 2𝑥 − 1

12 x3  16 x 2  5 x  3   2 x  1 (6 x 2  11x  3)
For 6𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 3
The other Factors are 2, 9 and product of factors is 18

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6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 9𝑥 + 3
2𝑥(3𝑥 + 1) + 3(3𝑥 + 1)
 (2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 + 1)
6x2 + 11x + 3 = (2x + 3)(3x + 1)
12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = (2𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥 + 1)
The other factors of 12𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 are (2𝑥 + 3)and (3𝑥 + 1)

Example III

𝑥 + 2 is a factor of 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 5. Find the remainder when the expression is divided by 2𝑥 − 1

Solution
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 5
Since 𝑥 + 2 is a factor,
x+2=0  x = -2
𝑃(−2) = 0 (Since x + 2 is a factor of P(x)

(Remainder = 0)
𝑃(−2) = 2(−23 ) + 6(−22 ) + 𝑏(−2) − 5
𝑃(−2) = −16 + 24 − 2𝑏 − 5
𝑃(−2) = −21 + 24 − 2𝑏
𝑃(−2) = 3 − 2𝑏
3 − 2𝑏 = 0
𝑏 = 1.5

Example IV

The remainder obtained when 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1 is divided by 𝑥 + 2 is twice the remainder obtained

when the same expression is divided by 𝑥 − 3. Find 𝑎

Solution
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1
P  2   2  2)3  a(22   6  2   1
= −16 + 4𝑎 + 12 + 1
𝑃(2) = −3 + 4𝑎
𝑃(3) = 2(33 ) + 𝑎(32 ) − 6(3) + 1
= 54 + 9𝑎 − 18 + 1
P(3) = 37 + 9𝑎
𝑃(−2) = 2𝑃(3)
3 + 4𝑎 = (37 + 9𝑎) × 2
−3 + 4𝑎 = 74 + 18𝑎
−77 = 14𝑎
𝑎 = −5.5

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Example V
A cubic polynomial 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 has a remainder 72 when divided by 𝑥 − 2 and exactly divisible
by 𝑥 + 1. Calculate the values of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. Show that 2𝑥 − 1 is also a factor. Obtain the other factor factor

Solution:

𝑃(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3 + 7𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

𝑃(2) = 72

𝑃(−1) = 0

𝑃(2) = 6(23 ) + 7(22 ) + 𝑎(2) + 𝑏

= 48 + 28 + 2𝑎 + 𝑏

𝑃(2) = 76 + 2𝑎 + 𝑏

72 = 76 + 2𝑎 + 𝑏

−4 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏………………………….. (1)

𝑃(−1) = 6(−1)3 + 7(−1)2 + 𝑎(−1) + 𝑏

𝑃(−1) = −6 + 7 − 𝑎 + 𝑏

0=1−𝑎+𝑏

−1 = −𝑎 + 𝑏………………………… (2)

Eqn. (1) – eqn. (2)

-3 = 3a
a = -1
Substituting a = -1 in Eqn (2);
 -1 = 1 + b
b = -2
P(x) = 6x3 + 7x2 – x – 2

We can apply long division to obtain other factors

6x2 + x − 2
3 2
x + 1 6x + 7x − x − 2
6x3 + 6x2
x2 − x − 2
x2 + x
-2x − 2
-2x − 2

 (6x2 + x – 2)(x + 1)
But 6x2 + x – 2 = 6x2 + 4x – 3x – 2

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 = 2x(3x + 2) – 1(3x + 2)
 6x + 7x – x – 2 = (2x – 1)(3x + 2)(x + 1)
3 2

 The other factors are (3x + 2) and (x + 1)

Example VI
𝑥 − 1and 𝑥 + 1 are factors of 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and it leaves a remainder of 12 when divided by 𝑥 −
2.find the values of a, b, and c.
Solution
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑃(1) = 0
𝑃(−1) = 0
𝑃(2) = 12
𝑃(1) = 13 + 𝑎(12 ) + 𝑏(1) + 𝑐
𝑃(1) = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
0=1+𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = −1…………………… (1)
𝑃(−1) = (−1)3 + 𝑎(−1)2 + 𝑏(−1) + 𝑐
𝑃(−1) = −1 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐
0 = −1 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 1……………………… (2)
𝑃(2) = 23 + 𝑎(22 ) + 𝑏(2) + 𝑐
12 = 8 + 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 = 4………………….. (3)

Eqn. (1) – eqn.(2)

2𝑏 = −2
𝑏 = −1
Eqn.(1) – eqn.(3)
−3𝑎 − 𝑏 = −5
But b = -1
−3𝑎 + 1 = −5
−3𝑎 = −6
𝑎=2
Substituting 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1 in eqn. (1)
2 − 1 + 𝑐 = −1
𝑐 = −2
∴ 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −2

Example IX
When a polynomial𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 2, the remainder is 4 and when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 3, the
remainder is 7. Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3)
Solution
P(2) = 4 and P(3) = 7
The remainder is of the form

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 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝐷(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥)

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

Equating the divisor to zero

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 3
𝑃(2) = 2𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑃(3) = 3𝑎 + 𝑏
But 𝑃(2) = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(3) = 7
2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 4…………………………… (1)
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 7…………………………… (2)
Eqn (2) – Eqn (1)
a=3
Substituting 𝑎 = 3 in eqn. (1)
2 × 3+𝑏 =4
6+𝑏 =4
𝑏 =4−6
𝑏 = −2
R(x) = ax + b
𝑅(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 2

Example VIII
When a polynomial 𝑝(𝑥)is divided by 𝑥 − 1, the remainder is 5 and when 𝑝(𝑥) is divided by 𝑥 − 2, the
remainder is 7. Find the remainder when the same expression is divided by (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2).
Solution
The remainder takes the form R(x) = ax + b.
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Equating the divisor to zero
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 2
𝑝(1) = 𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑝(2) = 2𝑎 + 𝑏
5 = 𝑎 + 𝑏…………………………… (1)
7 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏………………………….. (2)
Eqn. (2) – eqn. (1)
2=𝑎
𝑎=2
Substituting 𝑎 = 2 in eqn. (1)
5= 2+𝑏
𝑏=3
The remainder is 2𝑥 + 3

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Example IX
Given that the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑅(𝑥) where 𝑄(𝑥) is a quotient, 𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 −
𝛽)and 𝑅(𝑥) is a remainder. Show that
(𝑥 − 𝛽)𝑓(𝛼) + (𝛼 − 𝑥)𝑓(𝛽)
𝑅(𝑥) =
𝛼−𝛽
Solution
f(x) = Q(x)D(x) + R(x)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Where 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Equating the divisor to zero
(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0
𝑥 = 𝛼, 𝑥 = 𝛽
𝑓(𝛼) = 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏……………………… (1)
𝑓(𝛽) = 𝑎𝛽 + 𝑏……………………… (2)

Eqn. (1) – eqn. (2)

𝑎(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝑓(𝛼) − 𝑓(𝛽)
𝑓(𝛼) − 𝑓(𝛽)
𝑎=
𝛼−𝛽
𝑓(𝛼)−𝑓(𝛽)
Substituting 𝑎 = 𝛼−𝛽
in equation (1)

𝑓(𝛼) − 𝑓(𝛽)
𝑓(𝛼) = 𝛼 ( )+𝑏
𝛼−𝛽

𝛼𝑓(𝛼) − 𝛼𝑓(𝛽)
𝑏 = 𝑓(𝛼) − ( )
𝛼−𝛽

𝛼𝑓(𝛼) − 𝛽𝑓(𝛼) − 𝛼𝑓(𝛼) + 𝛼𝑓(𝛽)

𝑏=
𝛼−𝛽
𝛼𝑓(𝛽) − 𝛽𝑓(𝛼)
𝑏=
𝛼−𝛽

But since 𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

𝑓(𝛼) − 𝑓(𝛽)
𝑅(𝑥) = ( )𝑥 + 𝑏
𝛼−𝛽
𝑥𝑓(𝛼) − 𝑓(𝛽)𝑥 𝛼𝑓(𝛽) − 𝛽𝑓(𝛼)
𝑅(𝑥) = +
𝛼−𝛽 𝛼−𝛽
𝑥𝑓(𝛼) − 𝛽𝑓(𝛼) + 𝛼𝑓(𝛽) − 𝑥𝑓(𝛽)
𝑅(𝑥) =
𝛼−𝛽
(𝑥 − 𝛽)𝑓(𝛼) + (𝛼 − 𝑥)𝑓(𝛽)
𝑅(𝑥) =
𝛼−𝛽

Example
If 𝑥 2 + 1 a factor of 3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞. Find the values of p and q
Solution

80
 3x 4  x 3  4 x 2  px  q  ( x 2  1)  ax 2  bx  c 
But
( x 2  1)  ax 2  bx  c   ax 4  bx 3  cx 2  ax 2  bx  c

 ax 4  bx3   a  c  x 2  bx  c
3x4  x3  4 x2  px  q  ax4  bx3  (a  c) x2  bx  c
Equating co-efficients of the same monomial;
 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 1
𝑎 + 𝑐 = −4
3 + 𝑐 = −4
𝑐 = −7
𝑏=𝑝
1=𝑝
𝑐=𝑞
𝑞 = −7
 p = 1 and q = -7

Example XII
If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials.
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵. Find 𝑓 1 (𝑥)and hence find A and B in terms of 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 1 (𝑎) and
deduce that 𝑥 − 𝑎 is a repeated factor of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 1 (𝑎)
Solution
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
f 1  x   ( x  a)2 g 1  x   g  x  2  x  a   A
𝑓 1 (𝑎) = 0 + 𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑓 1 (𝑎)
𝑓(𝑎) = 0 + 𝐴𝑎 + 𝐵
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎𝑓 1 (𝑎) + 𝐵
𝐵 = 𝑓(𝑎) − 𝑎𝑓 1 (𝑎)
If (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 is a repeated factor of 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑄1 (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎)2 𝑄1 (𝑥) = 0
𝑓(𝑎) = 0
𝑓 1 (𝑥)
= (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 𝑄11 (𝑥) + 𝑄1 (𝑥)2(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑓 1 (𝑎) = 0
 If (x – a)2 is a repeated factor of f(x) if and only if
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 1 (𝑎) = 0

Example (UNEB 2015)

(a) Given that f(x) = (x – α)2g(x), show that f '(x) is divisible by (x – α)

(b) A polynomial P(x) = x3 + 4ax2 + bx + 3 is divisible by (x – 1)2. Use your results above to find the values
of a and b. Hence solve the equation p(x) = 0

81
Solution
f(x) = (x – α)2g(x)
f '(x) = (x – α)2g'(x) + g(x)2(x – α)
 f '(x) is divisible by (x – α)
p(x) = x3 + 4ax2 + bx + 3
p'(x) = 3x2 + 8ax + b

Since x – 1 is a factor of p(x) and p'(x),

 p(1) = 0 and p'(1) = 0
1 + 4a + b + 3 = 0
4a + b = -4 …………………. (i)
p'(1) = 0
3 + 8a + b = 0
8a + b = -3 …………………. (ii)

Eqn (ii) – Eqn (i);

4a = 1
1
a
4
1
Substituting a  in Eqn (ii)
4
1
 8    b  3
4
2 + b = -3
b = -5
p(x) = x3 + x2 + -5x + 3
p(1) = 1 + 1 + 3 – 5 = 0
p'(x) = 3x2 + 2x – 5
p'(1) = 3 + 2 – 5
p'(1) = 0
P(x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3
(x3 + x2 – 5x + 3) = (x – 1)2g(x)
(x3 + x2 – 5x + 3) = (x2 – 2x + 1)g(x)
x+3
3 2
x2 – 2x + 1 x + x − 5x + 3
x − 2x2 + x
3

3x2 − 6x + 3
3x2 − 6x + 3

 (x3 + x2 – 5x + 3) = (x2 – 2x + 1)(x + 3)

(x2 – 2x + 1)(x + 3) = 0
(x – 1)2(x + 3) = 0
x – 1 = 0 OR x + 3 = 0
x=1 x = -3

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Example (UNEB Question)
When the quadratic expression ap2 + bp + c is divided by p − 1, p − 2 and p + 1, the remainders are 1, 1 and
25 respectively. Determine the factors of the expression.
b) Express 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 3 in the form
(x2 + x − 2) Q(x) + Ax + B; where Q(x) is a polynomial in x and A and B are constants. Determine the values
of A and B and the expression Q(x).
Solution
Let f(p) = ap2 + bp + c
Now f(1) = a + b + c
But f(1) = 1
⟹ a + b + c = 1 ……………… (i)
f(2) = 4a + 2b + c
But f(2) = 1
⟹ 4a + 2b + c = 1…………….. (ii)
f(-1) = a – b + c
But f(-1) = 25
=> a – b + c = 25 …………….. (iii)
Eqn (i) – Eqn (ii)
-3a − 3b = 0
-3a = b…………………….(iv)
Eqn (ii) – Eqn (iii)
3a + 3b = -24
a + b = -8 ………………….(v)
a – 3a = -8
-2a = -8
a=4
Substituting for a into Eqn (iv)
b = -12
Substituting for and b into Eqn (i)
4 – 12 + c = 1
-8 + c = 1
c=9
Hence f(p) = 4p2 – 12p + 9
By factorization,
4p2 – 12p + 9 = 4p2 – 6p – 6p + 9
= 2p(2p – 3) – 3(2p – 3)
= (2p – 3)(2p – 3)
Hence the factors of 4p2 – 12p + 9 are
(2p – 3) and (2p – 3)

b) Let 2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3

≡ (x2 + x – 2)(2x + D) + Ax + B
By opening brackets on the L.H.S
2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3 ≡ 2x3 + Dx2 + 2x2 + Dx – 4x – 2D + Ax + B
2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3 ≡ 2x3 +(D + 2)x2 + (D – 4)x – 2D + Ax + B
2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3 ≡ 2x3 + (D +2)2 + (D + A – 4)x – 2D + B

83
Equating corresponding coefficients,
For x2,
D+2=5
D=3
For x
-4 = D + A – 4
D = -A
3 = -A
A = -3
For constant
-3 = -6 + B
B=6–3
B=3
Hence 2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3 ≡ (x2 + x – 2) (2x +3 ) – 3x + 3
Alternatively
By using long division,
2x  3
( x 2  x  2) 2 x3  5 x 2  4 x  3
2 x3  2 x 2  4 x
3x 2  3
3x 2  3x  6
 3x  3
Hence 2x3 + 5x2 – 4x – 3 ≡ (x2 + x – 2) (2x +3 ) – 3x + 3

Revision Exercise
1. Find the constants p, q and r such that
2y2 – 9y + 14 = p(y – 1)(y – 2) + q(y – 1) + r
2. Find the relationship between p and r so that
A2 + 3qA2 + PA + R shall be a perfect cube for all values of A.
3. When the expression p6 + 4p2 + ap + b is divided by p2 – 1, the remainder is 2p + 3. Find the values of
a and b.
4. Find the remainder when:
(a) 4x3 – 5x + 4 is divided by –(1 – 2x)
(b) y5 + y – 9 is divided by y + 1
5. Find the values of β in the expressions below when the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) y3 + βy2 + 3y – 5 has remainder -3 when divided by y – 2.
1
(b) x5 + 4x4 – 6x2 – βx + 2 has a remainder 6 when divided by .
( x  2)1
6. (p – 1) and (p + 1) are factors of the expression
p3 + ap2 + bp + c and it leaves a remainder of 12 when divided by p – 2. Find the values of a, b, c.
7. The expression ax4 + bx3 + 3x2 – 2x + 3 has a remainder x + 1 when divided by x2 – 3x + 2. Find the
values of a and b.
8. What is the value of a if 2x2 – x – 6, 3x2 – 8x + 4 and ax3 – 10x – 4 have a common factor?

84
9. Factorise the expression 3k3 – 11k2 – 19k – 5.
10. Find the values of a and b which make
y4 + 6y3 + 13y2 + ay + b a perfect square.
mq
11. If x2 + nx + q and x2 + dx + m have a common factor (x – p). show that p  .
nd
12. The remainder obtained when 2x3 + ax2 – 6x + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is twice the remainder obtained
when the same expression is divided by (x – 1). Find the values of a and b.
13. Given that (x + 2) is a factor of 2x3 + 6x2 + bx – 5, find the remainder when the expression is divided
by (2x – 1)
14. Find the values of p and q if the expression 2y3 – 15y2 + py + q is divisible both by y – 4 and 2y – 1.
15. Use the remainder theorem to find the factors of
x4 + 3x2 – 4.
16. Find p and q so that
y4 – 7y3 + 17y2 – 17y + 6 = (y – 1)2(y2 + py + q) Hence find all the factors of the quadratic equation.
17. Factorise (a) 2y3 – y2 + 2y – 1
(b) 2y3 + 5y2 + y – 2
18. Use the synthetic approach to find the remainder when:
(a) 8y3 – 10y2 + 7y + 3 is divided by 2y – 1
(b) 5 + 6x + 7x2 – x3 is divided by x + 2
19. Find the range of values of q for which
(2 – 3q)x2 + (4 – q)x + 2 = 0 has no real roots.
20. Find the value of k for which the line y = mx + c is a tangent to the curve x2 + xy + 2 = 0.
21. Express the polynomial f(x) = 2y4 + y3 – y2 + 8y – 4 as a product of two linear factors and a quadratic
factor q(y). Prove that there are no real values of y for which q(y) = 0.
22. The polynomial ax3 + bx2 – 5x + 1 has 2x – 1 and x – 1 as its two factors. Find a and b.
23. f(x) = 2x3 + px2 + qx + 6 where p and q are constants. When f(x) is divided by x – 1, the remainder is -
6, when divided by (x + 1) the remainder is 12. Show that f(½) = 0 hence write f(x) as a product of
linear factors.
24. Find the remainder when
(a) 3x5 – x2 + 1 is divided by x + 2
(b) x4 – 2x2 + 3x – 6 is divided by x2 + 4x + 3
25. Use long division to find the missing factors:
(a) x5 + x4 + 3x3 + 5x2 + 2x + 8 = (x2 – x + 2)(…)
(b) 6x5 + x4 – x3 – 15x + 5 = (3x – …)(….)
26. The expression 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 6 is exactly divisible by (x – 2) and on division by (x + 2) gives a
remainder of -12. Calculate the values of a and b and factorise the expression completely.
27. f(x) = x2 + ax + b when f(x) is divided by x – 2 the remainder is 8 and when f(x) is divided by x + 3 the
remainder is 18. Find the values of constants a and b.
28. If f(x) denotes the polynomial 2x3 – 3x2 – 8x – 3, find the remainders when f(x) is divided by:
(i) x – 1 (ii) x + 3 (iii) 2x + 1
29. State the remainder when the cubic polynomial x3 + ax2 – 3x + 4 is divided by (x – 3) the remainder
obtained is twice the remainder obtained when the polynomial is divided by (x – 2). Calculate a.
30. When f(x) = x4 – 2x3 + ax2 – bx + c is divided by x – 2, the remainder is -24 and when divided by x +
4, the remainder is 240. Given that x + 1 is a factor of f(x), show that x – 1 is also a factor.

85
31. Given that f(x) = x3 + kx2 – 2x + 1, When f(x) is divided by (x – k), the remainder is k. Find the possible
values of k.
32. When the polynomial p(x) is divided by (x – 1), the remainder is 5 and when p(x) is divided by (x – 2),
the remainder is 7. Find the remainder when p(x) is divided by (x – 1)(x – 2).
33. When the polynomial p(x) is divided by (x – 2), the remainder is 4 and when p(x) is divided by (x – 3) the
remainder is 7. Find by writing p(x) = (x – 2)(x – 3)q(x) + ax, the remainder when p(x) is divided by (x –
2)(x – 3). If p(x) is cubic when the coefficient of x3 is unity and p(1) = 1 determine q(x).
34. Find the quotient and remainder when:
(a) 6x2 – x + 2 is divided by 2x + 1
(b) 6x2 – 7x + 5 is divided by 2x – 3
(c) x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 1 is divided by x – 2
(d) 2x3 – 3x2 – 4x + 1 is divided by x – 4
(e) 4x2 – 3x2 + x + 2 is divided by 2x + 3
35. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when
(a) 3x2 + 2x – 4 is divided by x – 2
(b) 2x3 + 4x2 – 6x + 5 is divided by x – 1
(c) 8x3 + 4x + 3 is divided by 2x – 1
(d) 6x3 – 2x2 + 5x – 4 is divided by x
(e) 3x3 + 6x – 8 is divided by x + 3
36. The expression 2x3 – 3x2 + ax – 5 gives a remainder of 7 when divided by x – 2. Find the value of the
constant a.
37. The remainder when x3 – 2x2 + ax + 5 is divided by (x – 3) is twice the remainder when the same
expression is divided by x + 1. Find the value of the constant a.
38. The remainder when cx3 + 2x2 – 5x + 7 is divided by x – 2 is equal to the remainder when the same
expression is divided by x + 1. Find the value of the constant c.
39. Given that x – 4 is a factor of 2x3 – 3x2 – 7x + b, where b is a constant. Find the remainder when the
same expression is divided by 2x – 1.
40. The expression cx3 + dx2 + 3x + 8 leaves a remainder of -6 when divided by x – 2 and a remainder of
-34 when divided by x + 2. Find the value of the constants c and d.
41. The expression x3 – x2 + ax + b has a factor of x + 3, and leaves a remainder of 6 when divided by x –
3. Find the values of the constants a and b and hence factorise the expression.
42. The remainder when the expression x3 – 2x2 + ax + b is divided by x – 2 is five times the remainder
when the same expression is divided by x – 1, and 12 less than the remainder when the same expression
is divided by x – 3. Find the values of constants a and b.
43. Show that (x – 2) is a factor of x3 – 9x2 + 26x – 24. Find the set of values of x for which x3 – 9x2 + 26x
– 24 < 0
44. The expression 6x2 + x + 7 leaves the same remainder when divided by x – a and by x + 2a, where a
≠ 0. Calculate the value of a.
45. Given that x2 + px + q and 3x2 + q have a common factor x – b, where p, q and b are non-zero. Show
that 3p2 + 4q = 0.
46. Express the polynomial f(x) = 2x4 + x3 – x2 + 8x – 4 as a product of two linear factors and a quadratic
factor q(x). Prove that there are no real values of x for which q(x) = 0.
47. Find the remainder when:
(a) x3 + 3x2 – 4x + 2 is divided by x – 1

86
 (b) x3 – 2x2 + 5x + 8 is divided by x – 2
(c) x5 + x – 9 is divided by x + 1
(d) x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1 is divided by x + 2
48. Find the values of a in the expressions below when the following conditions are satisfied.
(a) x3 + ax2 + 3x – 5 has remainder -3 when divided by x – 2.
(b) x3 + x2 + ax + 8 is divisible by x – 1
(c) x3 + x2 – 2ax + a2 has remainder 8 when divided by x – 2
(d) x4 – 3x2 + 2x + a is divisible by x + 1
49. Show that 2x3 + x2 – 13x + 6 is divisible by x – 2, and hence find the other factors of the expression.
50. Show that 12x3 + 16x2 – 5x – 3 is divisible by 2x – 1 and find the factors of the expression.
51. Factorise:
x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6
x3 – 4x2 + x + 6
2x3 + x2 – 8x – 4
2x3 + 5x2 + x – 2
52. Find the values of a and b if ax4 + bx3 – 8x2 + 6 has remainder 2x + 1 when divided by x2 – 1
53. The expression px4 + qx3 + 3x2 – 2x + 3 has remainder x + 1 when divided by x2 – 3x + 2. Find the
values of p and q.
54. The expression ax2 + bx + c is divisible by x – 1, has remainder 2 when divided by x + 1 and has
remainder 8 when divided by x – 2. Find the values of a, b and c.
55. (x – 1) and (x + 1) are factors of the expression
x3 + ax2 + bx + c and leaves a remainder of 12 when divided by x – 2. Find the values of a, b, and c.
56. What are the values of a and b if x – 3 and x + 7 are factors of the quadratic equation ax2 + 12x + b?
57. Show that 3x3 + x2 – 8x + 4 is zero when x = 2/3, hence factorise the expression.

Answers
1. p = 2, q = -3, r = 7 2. P3 = 27R2
3. a = 1, b = -1 4. (a) 2 (b) -11
5. (a) -3 (b) -2 6. a = 2, b = -1, c = -2
7. a = 1, b = -3 8. 3
9. (k + 1)(x – 3)(3k + 1) 10. a = 12, b = 4
12. 1½ 13. -2.5
14. p = 31, q = -12 15. (x + 1)(x – 1)(x – 2)
16. p = -5, q = 6; (y – 1)(y – 2)(y – 3)
17. (a) (y2 + 1)(2y – 1) (b) (y + 1)(y + 2)(2y – 1)
18. (a) 5 (b) 29 19. -16 < q < 0
20. ±4 21. (2y – 1)(y – 2)(y2 – y – 2)
22. a = 2, b =1
23.(a) p = 3, q = -11 b) (2x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 1)
24. (a) -99 (b) 35x – 39
25. (a) x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 (b) 2x4 + x3 – 5
26. a = -9, b = 7, [(x – 1)(x – 3)(2x + 1)]
27. a = -1, b = 6 28. (i) -12 (ii) -60 (iii) 0
29. a = -10 30. a = -9, b = 2, c = 8

87
 31. k = 1, ½ ± 3 32. (2x + 3)
4
33. [3x – 2, (x – 1)]
34.(a) 3x – 2, 4 (b) 3x + 1, 8
2
(c) x + 5x + 8, 17 (d) 2x2 + 5x + 16, 65
(e) 2x2 – 3x2 + 3x – 4, 14
35. (a) 24 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) -4 (e) 1
36. a = 4 37. a = -2
38. c = 1 39. b = 52, remainder = -56
40. c = 1, d = -7 41. -8, 12, (x – 1)2(x + 3)
42. 3, -1 43. x < 2 or 3 < x < 4
1
44. 46. (2x – 1)(x + 2)(x2 – x + 2)
6
47. (a) 2 (b) 18 (c) -11 (d) -1
48. (a) -3 (b) -10 (c) 2 (d) 4
49. (x + 3)(2x – 1) 50. (2x – 1)(2x + 3)(3x + 1)
51. (a) (x – 1)(x + 2)(x – 3) (b) (x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)
(c) (2x + 1)(x – 2)(x + 2) (d) x + 1)(x + 2)(2x – 1)
52. a = 3, b = 2 53. p = 1, q = -3
54. a = 3, b = -1, c = -2 55. a = 2, b = -1, c = -2
56. a = 3, b = -63 57. (x – 1)(x + 2)(3x – 2)

BINOMIAL THEOREM
Objectives of the topic:
 Create rows of Pascal’s triangle
 Compute factorial values
 Compute binomial co-efficient by the formula
 Expand powers of binomial by Pascal’s triangle and by binomial theorem
 Approximate numbers using binomial expansion

Pascal’s Triangle

88
We can use Pascal triangle to expand expressions of the form (a + b)n
(𝑎 + 𝑏)1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
Pascal’s triangle helps us to calculate the powers of a binomial (a + b)n without actually multiplying it
(𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4
Note
The literal factors are all combination of a and b where the sum of the components of the power is 4 𝑎4 , 𝑎3 𝑏, 𝑎2 𝑏 2 , 𝑏 4
The degree of each term is 4. The first term is actually 𝑎4 𝑏 0 which is a4(1).

Thus, to expand (𝑎 + 𝑏)5 we would anticipate the following terms in which the sum of all the components of the powers
is 5.

? 𝑎5 + ? 𝑎4 𝑏 +? 𝑎3 𝑏 2 +? 𝑎2 𝑏 3 + ? 𝑎𝑏 4 +? 𝑏 5
The question is what are the co-efficients. We can obtain the co-efficients from the Pascal’s triangle above (line five
above)
Example
Use Pascal’s triangle to expand the following.

a) (𝑥 + 2)5
b) (2𝑥 − 3)3
1 4
c) (𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 )
d) (𝑥 2 − 1)4
e) (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)5
f) (2 − 3𝑥)6

Solution
Consider the Pascal’s triangle

We can use Pascal’s triangle to find (x + 2)5

=? 𝑥 5 +? (𝑥)4 (2)+? 𝑥 3 (2)2 +? 𝑥 2 (2)3 +? 𝑥(2)4 +? 𝑥 5
We can obtain the coefficients from the Pascal’s triangle above (line 6).

(𝐚)(𝑥 + 2)5 = 1(𝑥 5 ) + 5(𝑥 4 )(2) + 10(𝑥 3 )(2)2 + 10(𝑥 2 )(2)3 + 5(𝑥)(2)4 + 1(2)5

47
 (𝑥 + 2)5 = 𝑥 5 + 10𝑥 4 + 40𝑥 3 + 80𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 + 32
(b) (2x – 3)3 = (2x)3 + 3(2x)2(-3) + 3(2x)(-3)2 + (-3)3
 8 x3  36 x 2  54 x  27
 8 x3  36 x 2  54 x  27

4
1 2
  2x 
(c)  x 
1 4 1 3 1 2 1
= ( ) + 4 ( ) (2𝑥 2 ) + 6 ( ) (2𝑥 2 )2 + 4 ( ) (2𝑥 2 )3 + (2𝑥 2 )4
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1 8
   24 x 2  32 x 5  16 x 8
x4 x
(𝑥 2 − 1)4 = (𝑥 2 )4 + 4(𝑥 2 )3 (−1) + 6(𝑥 2 )2 (−1)2 + 4(𝑥 2 )(−1)3 + (−1)4
 x8  4 x 6  6 x 4  4 x 2  1
 x8  4 x 6  6 x 4  4 x 2  1

(2𝑥 − 3𝑦)5 = (2𝑥)5 + 5(2𝑥)4 (−3𝑦) + 10(2𝑥)3 (−3𝑦)2 + 10(2𝑥)2 (−3𝑦)3 + 5(2𝑥)(−3𝑦)4 + (−3𝑦)5

= 32𝑥 5 + −240𝑥 4 𝑦 + 720𝑥 3 𝑦 − 1080𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 810𝑥𝑦 4 − 243𝑦 5

= 32𝑥 5 − 240𝑥 4 𝑦 + 720𝑥 3 𝑦 − 1080𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 810𝑥𝑦 4 − 243𝑦 5

(2 − 3𝑥)6 = (2)6 + 6(2)5 (−3𝑥) + 15(24 )(−3𝑥)2 + 20(23 )(−3𝑥)3 + 15(22 )(−3𝑥)4 + 6(2)(−3𝑥)5 + (−3𝑥)6
= 64 – 576x + 2160x2 – 4320x3 + 4860x4 + -2916x5
+ 729x6

We have seen that Pascal’s triangle can be used to expand (a + b)n for the known value of n where n is a positive integer.
However, as n becomes large it becomes difficult to determine the co-efficient of a triangle. Imagine a task to expand (a
+ b)10000.
This is so tedious yet indeed, we may not require all the terms of the expansion but just few. in the above case, we can use
binomial theorem.

Binomial Theorem
It states that if n is a positive integer then
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑎(𝑛−2) 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛
2!
It is also stated as
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛
An important particular case is when (𝑎 = 1) and (𝑏 = 𝑥) giving
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ 𝑥𝑛
2! 3!
The binomial expansion discussed up to now is for the case when the exponent is positive
For the case when the number n is not positive, the binomial expansion (1 + x)n is valid when -1 < x < 1 OR |x| < 1.

Example
𝑥 4
Expand (2 + )
3

48
Solution:
Using the binomial theorem;
n(n  1)a n  2b2
(a  b)n  a n  n a n 1b  b n
2!
4(3)(22 )( 3x ) 2
 2  3x   (2)4  4(2)3  3x  
4

2!
4(3)(2)(2) ( 3 ) 4(3)(2)(1)(20 )( 3x ) 4
1 x 3
 
3! 4!
32 48𝑥 2 48𝑥 3 1
= 16 + 𝑥 + + + 𝑥4
3 18 27 × 6 81
32 8 2 8 1
= 16 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4
3 3 27 81

Example II
Expand (2x – 3y)4
Solution
Using binomial expansion,
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑛 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + + ⋯ 𝑏𝑛
2!
(4)(3)(2𝑥)2 (−3𝑦)2 (4)(3)(2)(2𝑥)(−3𝑦)3
(2𝑥 − 3𝑦)4 = (2𝑥)4 + (4)(2𝑥)3 (−3𝑦) + + + (−3𝑦)4
2! 3!
432 2 2
 16 x 4  96 x 3 y  x y  216 xy 3  81 y 4
2
 16 x  96 x y  216x2 y 2  216xy3  81y 4
4 3

Example III
𝑥 2 3
Expand (2 + 𝑥)
Solution
n(n  1)a n  2b2
(a  b)n  a n  n a n 1b  b n
2!
3 𝑥 2 2
𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥 2 3 3(2) (
2
2)( )
𝑥 2 3
( + ) = ( ) +3( ) ( ) + +( )
2 𝑥 2 2 𝑥 2! 𝑥
𝑥 4
𝑥3 𝑥2 2 6 ( ) ( 2) 8
2 𝑥
= + 3( )( ) + + 3
8 4 𝑥 2 𝑥
𝑥3 3 6 8
= + 𝑥+ 2+ 3
8 2 𝑥 𝑥

The rth term in a binomial expansion

(co-efficient of a term in a binomial expansion)
The rth term of a binomial expansion is given by
U r 1  nCr a( nr )br
Ur+1 = nCr a(n-r)br

Example I
Write down the terms indicated in the expansion of the following and simplify your answers.
a) (𝑥 + 2)8 , term in 𝑥 5

49
 b) (3𝑥 − 2)5 term in 𝑥 3
1 12
c) (2𝑥 − 2) term in 𝑥 7
d) (2𝑥 + 𝑦)11 term in 𝑥 3

Solution
(x + 2)8 = (a + b)n
n = 8, a = x, b = 2
(a) 𝑈𝑟+1 = 𝑛∁𝑟 (𝑥)8−𝑟 (2)𝑟
= 8 ∁𝑟 2𝑟 𝑥 8−𝑟
⇒8−𝑟 =5
𝑟=3
8∁3 𝑥 5 (2)3 = 448𝑥 5

(b) (3𝑥 − 2)5 term in 𝑥 3

(3x – 2)5 = (a + b)n
a = 3x, b = -2
𝑈𝑟+1 = 𝑛∁𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
5Cr (3 x)5 r ( 2) r
5Cr 35 r x 5 r (2) r
5–r=3
r=2
U ( r 1)  5C2 (3x)(5 2) (2) 2
 5C2 (4)(27 x3 )
 1080 x3

1 12
(c) (2𝑥 − 2)
(2 x  12 )12  (a  b) n
1
a  2 x, b 
2
1 𝑟
= 12∁𝑟 (2𝑥)12−𝑟 (− )
2
1 𝑟
= 12∁𝑟 212−𝑟 𝑥 12−𝑟 (− )
2
12 − 𝑟 = 7
𝑟=5
1 5
𝑈6 = 12∁5 (2)7 𝑥 7 (− )
2
= −3168𝑥 7

(d) (2𝑥 + 𝑦)11 term in 𝑥 3

𝑈𝑟+1 = 𝑛∁𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
= 11∁𝑟 (2𝑥)11−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
= 11Cr 211 – r x11 – ry r
11 − 𝑟 = 3
𝑟=8
11∁ 8 (2)3 𝑥 3 𝑦 8

50
 = 1320 𝑥 3 𝑦 8
Example III
1 9
Find the term independent of x in expansion of (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥)
Solution
1 9
(𝑥 − ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
2
3𝑥
1
a  x2 , b 
3x
1 𝑟
= 9∁𝑟 (𝑥 2 )9−𝑟 (− 𝑥)
3
𝑟
1
= 9∁𝑟 𝑥 18−2𝑟 (− ) 𝑥 −𝑟
3
18−3𝑟
1 𝑟
= 9∁𝑟 𝑥 (− )
3
18 − 3𝑟 = 0
𝑟=6
9 0
1 6
= ∁ 6 𝑥 (− )
3
1
= 84 ( )
729
28
=
243

Example IV
2 10
Find the co-efficient of x in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )

Solution
2 10
(𝑥 + ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
𝑥2
2
a  x, b  2 , n = 10
x
𝑈𝑟+1 = 𝑛∁𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
2 𝑟
⇒ 10∁𝑟 𝑥 10−𝑟 ( 2 )
𝑥
= 10∁𝑟 𝑥 10−𝑟 (2)𝑟 (𝑥 −2 )𝑟
= 10∁𝑟 𝑥 10−𝑟 (2)𝑟 𝑥 −2𝑟
= 10∁𝑟 2𝑟 𝑥 10−3𝑟
 10 – 3r = 1
𝑟=3
= 10C323x
= 960x
The coefficient is 960

Example V
2 8
Find the co-efficient of the term in 𝑥 6 in the expansion (𝑥 − 𝑥)
Solution

51
 2 8
(𝑥 − ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛
𝑥
2
a  x, b 
x
𝑈𝑟+1 = 𝑛∁𝑟 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
8−𝑟
2 𝑟
= 8∁𝑟 𝑥 (− )
𝑥
(−2) 𝑟
8−𝑟
= 8∁𝑟 𝑥 ( 𝑟 )
𝑥
8−𝑟 (−2)𝑟 −𝑟
= 8∁𝑟 𝑥 𝑥
𝑟 8−2𝑟
= 8∁𝑟 (−2) 𝑥
8 − 2𝑟 = 6
2 = 2𝑟
𝑟=1
8∁1 (−2)1 𝑥 6
= −16𝑥 6
The coefficient is -16

Validity of a Binomial Expansion

n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3

(1  x)n  1  nx    ...
2! 3!
When n is not positive the binomial theorem is valid for −1 < 𝑥 < 1 or when |𝑥| < 1

Example I
State what values of x for which the following expansions are valid:
𝑥 −5
a) (1 − 2)
1
b) (1 + 2𝑥)2
1
c) ((2+𝑥)2 )
1
1 2
d) (1 + )
𝑥

Solution
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 is valid when |x|<1
𝑥 −5 𝑥
So (1 − 2) is valid |– 2| < 1
𝑥
⇒ ± (− ) < 1
2
𝑥
− <1
2
−𝑥 < 2
−𝑥 < 2
𝑥 > −2
𝑥
− (− ) < 1
2
𝑥
<1
2
𝑥<2

52
⇒ −2 < 𝑥 < 2
𝑥 −5
(1 − ) is valid when − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
2
1
(b) (1 + 2𝑥)2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 is valid when |𝑥| < 1
|2𝑥| < 1
±(2𝑥) < 1
1
𝑥<
2
−2𝑥 < 1
1
𝑥>−
2
−1 1
<𝑥<
2 2
1 1 1
⇒ (1 + 2𝑥)2 is valid when   x 
2 2

1
(c) (2+𝑥)2
= (2 + 𝑥)−2
𝑥 −2
= 2−2 (1 + )
2
𝑥
it is valid when | | < 1
2
𝑥
±( ) < 1
2
𝑥<2
𝑥
− <1
2
𝑥 > −2
−2 < 𝑥 < 2
1
⇒ is valid − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
(2 + 𝑥)2

1
1 2 1
(d) (1 + )
, for validity |𝑥| < 1
𝑥
1
< 1, 1 < |𝑥|
|𝑥|
1
1 2
|x| > 1 for expansion (1 + 𝑥) to be valid

More examples on Binomial Expansion

Example I (UNEB Question)
1
3
Expand (1 − 𝑥)3 as far as the term in x3. Hence evaluate √24
Solution
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3
(1  x)n  1  nx   
2! 3!
1 1 ( 13  1)( x) 2 1 ( 13  1)( 13  2)( x)3
(1  x) 3  1  (- x)    ...
1 3 3

3 2! 3!

53
 1 2 1 2 5
1 1 (3) (− 3) (−𝑥)2 (3) (− 3) (− 3) (−𝑥)3
(1 − 𝑥)3 = 1 + (−𝑥) + + …
3 2! 3!
1 1 1 5
(1 − 𝑥)3 = 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯
3 9 81
3 3
1
√24 = √27 − 3 = (27 − 3)3
1 1
1 1 3 3 1 3
(27 − 3)3 = 273 (1 − ) = 3 (1 − )
27 9
1
1
1 3 1
Comparing (1 − ) with (1 − 𝑥)3 ⇒ 𝑥 =
9 9
1
1 3 1 1 1 1 2 5 1 3
(1 − ) = 1 − ( ) − ( ) − ( ) + ⋯
9 3 9 9 9 81 9
1
1 3
(1 − 9) ≈0.961506545
1
1 1 3
(27)3 ≈ 3 (1 − )
9
= 3(0.961506545)
= 2.8845
3
⇒ √24 = 2.8845

Example II
1
𝑥 2
Determine the expansion of (1 − ) as far as the term in 𝑥 3 Hence evaluate √8
3
Solution
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3
(1  x)n  1  nx  
2! 3!
1 1 1 𝑥 2 1 1 3 𝑥 3
𝑥 2 1 𝑥 (2) (− 2) (− 3) (2) (− 2) (− 2) (− 3)
(1 − ) = 1 + (− ) + + +⋯
3 2 3 2! 3!
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥2 1 3
(1 − ) = 1 − − − 𝑥 +⋯
3 6 72 432
1 1
√8 = (8)2 = (9 − 1)2
1
1 1 2
= 92 (1 − )
9
1
1 2
= 3 (1 − )
9
1 1
1 2 𝑥 2
Comparing (1 − 9) with (1 − 3)
x 1 1
  , x
3 9 3
11 1 2
1 2
3
(
3
) 1 1 3
⇒ (1 − ) = 1 − − − ( ) +⋯
9 6 72 432 3
1
1 2
√8 = 3 (1 − )
9
1 1 1
√8 = 3 (1 − − − + ⋯………)
18 648 11664

54
 √8 = 2.8284

Example III
𝑥 15
Expand (1 + 3) up to and including the term in x3.
Solution
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3
(1  x)n  1  nx   
2! 3!
𝑥 2 𝑥
𝑥 15 𝑥 15(14) (3) (15)(14)(13) ( )
(1 + ) = 1 + 15 ( ) + + 3 +⋯
3 3 2! 3!
𝑥 15 15𝑥 35𝑥 2 455𝑥 3
(1 + ) = 1 + + + +⋯
3 3 3 27

Example IV
1
Expand (1 + 2𝑥)2 as far as the term in𝑥 4 .
Solution
1
(1 + 2𝑥)2
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) 3
(1  x)n  1  nx   x  ...
2! 3!
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 5
1 1 ( ) (− ) (2𝑥)2 ( ) (− ) (− ) (2𝑥)3 ( ) (− ) (− ) (− ) (2𝑥)4
(1 + 2𝑥)2 = 1 + (2𝑥) + 2 2 + 2 2 2 + 2 2 2 2 +⋯
2 2! 3! 4!
1 1 5
= 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 + ⋯
2 2 8
1 1 2 1 3 5 4
(1 + 2𝑥)2 = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + ⋯
2 2 8

Example V
Expand 1  2x 
5
as far as the fourth term
Solution
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3
(1  x)n  1  nx   
2! 3!
𝑥 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3
(1 − ) = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2 2! 3!
𝑥 2 𝑥 3
𝑥 −5 𝑥 (−5)(−6) (− ) (−5)(−6)(−7) (− )
(1 − ) = 1 + (−5) (− ) + 2 + 2 +⋯
2 2 2! 3!
𝑥 −5 5 15 35
(1 − ) = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯
2 2 4 8

Example VI
1
Expand (3  x) 2
as far as the third term
Solution
1
  x 
2
1
(3  x) 2
 3  1   
  3 
1
 x 2
1
 3 1  
2

 3

55
 1

 12 1 3 
1 x 2

3  x 

2 3  

1
1 𝑥 −2
= 1 (1 + )
3
32
1
𝑥 −2
But (1 + )
3
1 3 𝑥 2
1 𝑥 (− 2) (− 2) (3)
= 1 + (− ) ( ) + +⋯
2 3 2!
𝑥 𝑥2
=1− + +⋯
6 24
1
−
1
−
1 𝑥 −2
(3 + 𝑥) 2 = 3 2 (1 + )
3
1 𝑥 𝑥2
= (1 − + + ⋯)
√3 6 24

1 1 1
= − 𝑥+ 𝑥2 + ⋯
√3 6√3 24√3

Example VII
Find the expansion of 1  
1
1 2
x as far as the term x−3
Solution:
n(n  1) x 2 n(n  1)(n  2) x3
(1  x)n  1  nx   
2! 3!
1  1  1 ( 1 )( 1 ) 2 1 ( 1 )( 3 )( 1 )3
1  1 x 
1
2
1    2 2 x  2 2 2 x 
2 x 2! 3!
1
1 2 1 1 1
(1 + ) = 1 + − 2+ +⋯
𝑥 2𝑥 8𝑥 16𝑥 3

Example VIII
Expand (1 – x)3(2 + x)6 up to the term in x2.
Solution
(1 – x)3(2 + x)6
3(2)( x)2 6(5)(24 ) x 2
 (1  3( x)   )(26  6(2)5 x   )
2! 2!
= (1 − 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 … )(64 + 192𝑥 + 240𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
= 64 + 192x + 240x2 – 192x – 576x2 + 192x2+ …
= 64 – 144x2

Example IX
(1  x ) 2
Expand up to and including the term in x2.
(1  2x )3
Solution
(1 + 𝑥)2 2
𝑥 −3
= (1 + 𝑥) (1 − )
𝑥 3 2
(1 − 2)

56
  (3)(4)( 2x )2 
 (1  2 x  x 2 ) 1  (3)( 2x )   
 2! 
1  2 x  x 2 1  32 x  32 x 2 ...
3x 3x 2
1   2 x  3 x 2  x 2 ....
2 2
7 x 11x 2
1   ...
2 2
7 11
 1  x  x2  
2 2

Example X
Show that, if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected,
1 x 1
 1  x  x 2 
1 x 2
1
By putting x  , show that 7  2 128
83

8
Solution
1−𝑥 (1 − 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥)
√ =√
1+𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥)
1 x

1  x2
1
= (1 − 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥 2 )−2
From
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + +⋯
2!
1 1
(1 − 𝑥 2 )−2 = 1 + (− ) (−𝑥 2 ) + ⋯
2
1 1
(1 − 𝑥 2 )−2 = 1 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯
2
2 )−2
1 1
(1 − 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
2
1 2 1 3
=1+ 𝑥 −𝑥− 𝑥 +⋯
2 2
1 2
=1−𝑥+ 𝑥 +⋯
2
1−𝑥 𝑥2
⇒√ =1−𝑥+ +⋯
1+𝑥 2
1
By putting 𝑥 =
8
1 1 2
1− 1 ( )
√ 8= 1− + 8 +⋯
1 8 2
1+8
7 1 1
8
1  
9
8 8 128

57
 √7 128−16+1
⇒ 3
= 128
+ …
113
√7 = ×3
128
339
√7 =
128
83
√7 = 2
128
Example XI
1  2x 1.02
Use Binomial expansion to expand up to and including the term in x3. Hence find to 4 decimal places.
1  2x 0.98
Hence deduce the square root of 51
Solution
(1 + 2𝑥)(1 + 2𝑥) 1 + 2𝑥
√ =
(1 − 2𝑥)(1 + 2𝑥) √1 − 4𝑥 2
1
= (1 + 2𝑥)(1 − 4𝑥 2 )−2
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2
From (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + +⋯
2!
1 −1
(1 − 4𝑥 2 )−2 = 1 + (−4𝑥 2 ) + ⋯
2
1

 (1  2 x)(1  4 x )
2 2
 (1  2 x)(1  2 x 2 )
= 1 + 2x2 + 2x + 4x3 + …
1 + 2𝑥
⇒√ = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯
1 − 2𝑥
1 + 2𝑥 = 1.02
𝑥 = 0.01
1.02
√ = 1 + 2(0.01) + 2(0.01)2 + 4(0.01)3 + ⋯
0.98

102
√ = 1.020204
98

√2 × √51
= 1.020204
√2 × √49
√51
= 1.020204
7
√51 = (7 × 1.020204)

√51 = 7.1414
Example XII

58
Given that, the first three terms of the expansion in ascending powers of x of (1 + x + x2)n are the same as the first three
 1  ax 
3

terms in the expansion of   , find the values of a and n.

 1  3ax 
Solution
(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )𝑛 from
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + +⋯
2!
n(n  1)( x  x 2 )2
(1 + x + x2)n = 1  n( x  x 2 )   ...
2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥 2 + +⋯
2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + (𝑛 + ) 𝑥 2 + ⋯…… (1)
2

 1  ax 
3
3
  (1  ax) (1  3ax )
3

 1  3ax 
3(2)(𝑎𝑥)2
(1 + 𝑎𝑥)3 = 1 + 3(𝑎𝑥) + +⋯
2!
6𝑎2 𝑥 2
= 1 + 3𝑎𝑥 + +⋯
2
(1 + 𝑎𝑥)3 = 1 + 3𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯
−3
(−3)(−4)(−3𝑎𝑥)2
(1 − 3𝑎𝑥) = 1 + (−3)(−3𝑎𝑥) + +⋯
2
= 1 + 9𝑎𝑥 + 54𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯
(1 + 𝑎𝑥)3 (1 − 3𝑎𝑥)−3 = (1 + 3𝑎𝑥 + 3𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )(1 + 9𝑎𝑥 + 54𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
= 1 + 9𝑎𝑥 + 54𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑎𝑥 + 27𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 3𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯
= 1 + 12𝑎𝑥 + 84𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ (2)
Comparing Eqn (1) and Eqn (2);
 n = 12a
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑛+ = 84𝑎2
2
12a (12a  1)
12a   84a 2
2
24𝑎 + 144𝑎2 − 12𝑎 = 168𝑎2
2
12𝑎 − 24𝑎 = 0
12𝑎(1 − 2𝑎) = 0
1
𝑎=0 𝑎=
2
𝑛 = 12𝑎
1
⇒ 𝑛 = 12 × = 6
2

Example XIII
Find the first three terms of the expansion
1 1
(4 + 𝑥)−2 in ascending powers of x. Deduce the approximate value of
4.16
Solution
1
−
1
−
1 𝑥 −2
(4 + 𝑥) 2 =4 2 (1 + )
4
59
 1
1 𝑥 −2
= (1 + )
2 4
1  1 3
( )( )( x ) 2 
 1  ( 21)( 4x )  2 2 4  ...
2 2 
1 1 3 2
= (1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + ⋯)
2 8 128
1 1 1 3 2
(4 + 𝑥)−2 = ( − 𝑥 − 𝑥 +⋯)
2 16 256
1 1 1 1 3
    0.16   0.162
4.16 4  0.16 2 16 256
1
0.4903
4.16

Example XIV
Write down the expansions in ascending powers of x up to the term in x2.
1
(a) (1 + 𝑥)2
−1
(b) (1 − 𝑥) 2
1+𝑥 1
Hence or otherwise Expand √1−𝑥 in ascending power of x up to the term in x2. By substituting x  , use your
10
expansion to find the 11 .
Solution
1 1
1 1 (2) (− 2) 𝑥 2
(1 + 𝑥)2 = 1 + (𝑥) + +⋯
2 2
1 1 1
(1 + 𝑥)2 = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + ⋯
2 8
1 3
1
−1 (− )(− )(−𝑥)2
(1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + ( ) (−𝑥) + 2 2
+⋯
2 2
1 3
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
2 8
1
1 + 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)2 1
−
1
√ = 1 = (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥) 2
1−𝑥
(1 − 𝑥)2
1 1 1 3
= (1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
2 8 2 8
1 3 2 1 1 2 1 2
=1+ 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ 𝑥 − 𝑥 …
2 8 2 4 8
1
= 1 + 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 2 +…
1 x 1
  1  x  x2
1 x 2

1
When 𝑥 =
10

60
 1
1+
10 1 1 1 2
√ =1+ − ( ) +⋯
1 10 2 10
1 − 10
√11 1 1
=1+ − +⋯
√9 10 200
1 1
√11 = 3 (1 + − + ⋯)
10 200
Example (UNEB Question)

(a) By using the binomial theorem, expand 

8  24x  3 2 2
3
as far as the 4th term. Hence evaluate 4 to one decimal
place.
10
 2
x 2 
b) Find the coefficient of x in the expansion of  x 
Solution
a) By using binomial distribution theorem,
n  n  1 n  n  2
1  y   1  n  y  
n
y  y  ...
2 3

2! 3!

Now 
8  24 x   8 1  3x   4 1  3x 
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3

2
Here n = 3 and y = –3x
By substitution,
 4 x3 
 4 1  2 x  x 2  
 3 

    3 x 
     3 x  
2 3
2
3 2 2 1 2 1 4 16
4 1  3 x    3 x   
 4 1 
 4  8 x  4 x 2  x3
 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 6  3
2
3
Evaluating 4 :
 8  4 
2 2
3 3
4
2 2
 1 2 3
 1 3
 8 1   3
 4 1  
 2  2
2
 1 3
4 1  
4 1  3x 
2

with  2 
3
Comparing
1
 3x 
2
1
x
6
2
 1 3 1  1  16  1 
 4 1    4  8    4     
 2   
6  36  3  216 
 2.5 1dp 
10
 2 
x 2 
b) When expanding  x  , we could use Pascal’s triangle to get the coefficient of x, but this may seem tedious,
so by using binomial expansion
10 10
 2 10  2
 x  3   x 1  3 
 x   x 

61
 2
3
Here, y = x n = 10
 20 90  4  10  9  8 8 
10
 2
 x10 1  3   x10 1  3   6   9  ...
 x   x 2 x  6 x 
10
 2
x10 1  3   x10  20 x 7  18 x 4  960 x  ...
 x 
The coefficient of x is 960
OR By using the expansion of
n 1 n n 1a n  2b 2 n n 1 n  2 a n 3b3
 a b  n n
a n b   ..  b
n
2! 3!
10 8 7 3
 2  10 9  2  109 x  2  1098 x  2  ..
 x  2   x 10 x  2    2  2
 x  x  2 x  6 x 
10 2 4
 x  20 x  180 x  960 x
The coefficient of x is 960
OR We could handle it by using direct approach
3
 2 7
10C3 x  2 
The term in  x  is the one needed which is expanded as,
3
 2 8
10C3 x  2   10C3  x7  6  10C3  8 x
7

x  x
10C3  8
The coefficient =
= 120 × 8
= 960

Revision Exercise
1. Write down and simplify the terms indicated in the expression of the following in ascending powers of x.
(a) (1 + x)9, 4th term
(b)  2  x 2  , 4th term
12

(c) (3 + x)7, 5th term

(d) (x + 1)20, 3rd term.
2. Expand (1  32 x  x 2 )5 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x4.
3. Use the Binomial theorem to expand:
(a) (x + y)4
(b) (a – b)7
(c) (2 + p2)6
(d) (2h – k)5
 x  1x 
3
(e)
 z  21z 
8
(f)
4. Expand the following using the Binomial theorem
(a) (1 + 3x)4
(b) (2x + y)4
(c) (2 – 3x)6
5. Write down and simplify the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following
(a)  12 t  12  , term in t4
10

 4  34 x 
6
(b) , term in x3

62
 (c) (2x – 3)7, term in x5
7 x
6. Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x4.
(1  x)(1  x )
2

5 5
 1   1 
7. Expand and simplify  2 x  2    2 x  2 
 x   x 
8. Use the Binomial theorem to expand (1 + x)12 in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3.
9. Write down the coefficients of the terms indicated in the expansions of the following in ascending powers of x
(a) (1 + x)16, 3rd term
(b) (2 – x)20, 18th term
(c) (3 + 2x)6, 4th term
(d)  2  32 x  , 5th term
8

10. If x is so small that x3 and higher powers can be neglected, show that 1  32 x   2  3 x  = 64 + 96x – 720x2
5 6

11. The coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (1 + x)2 is four times the coefficient of x2. Find the value of n.
12. In the Binomial expansion of 1  13 x  , the fourth and fifth terms are equal. find the value of n
n

13. The coefficient of x5 in the expansion of (1 + 5x)8 is equal to the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of (a + 5x)7. Find
the value of a.
14. If the first three terms of the expansion of (1 + ax)n in ascending powers of x are 1 – 4x + 7x2, find n and a.
15. Use the expansion of (a + b)4 to evaluate (1.03)4 correct to 2 decimal places.
16. If x is so small to allow any term in x5 or higher powers of x to be neglected, show that (1 + x)6(1 – 2x3)10 ≈ 1 + 6x +
15x2 – 105x4.
15 x 2
17. When (1 + ax)n is expanded in ascending powers of x, the expansion is 1 + 2x + + …. Find the values of n and
8
a.
18. When (1 + ax)10 is expanded in ascending powers of x, the series expansion is A + Bx + Cx2 + 15x3 + …. Find the
values of a, A, B and C.
19. Find the ratio of the term in x7 to the term in x8 in the expansion of 1  13 x   3 x  32 
n 7

20. Expand the following in ascending powers of x as far as the terms in x3 and state the values of x for which the
expansions are valid.
(a) (1 + x)-2
(b) (1  x) 3
1

(c) (1  x)
3
2

(d) (1  2x ) 3
21. Write down and simplify the term independent of x in the expansion of  3x 2  21x  which is the numerically greatest
9

1
term in this expansion when x = .
2
22. In the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n+1, n being an integer greater than 2, the coefficient of x4 is six times the coefficient
of x2 in the expansion of (1 + x)n-1. Determine the value of n.
23. Find the value of n for which the coefficients of x, x2 and x3 in the expansion of (1 + x)n are in arithmetical progression.
2 x3
24. Express as a sum of three partial fractions and obtain an expansion in ascending powers of x of this
(1  x 2 )(1  x) 2
expression as far as the term involving x7.
25. If n Cr denotes the coefficient of xr in the expansion of (1 + x)n, prove that n Cr  2(n Cr 1 )  nCr  2  n 2Cr  2
26. If the coefficients of xr-1, xr, xr+1 in the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n are in arithmetical progression. Prove that n2 –
n(4r + 1) + 4r2 – 2 = 0.
27. Show that if x is so small that x4 and higher powers of x can be neglected, then

63
 15 x 2
(1  x 2 )3  (1  3x) 2   (1  56x ) 
1

  8
1 1 1
28. (a) If x   u , express x 3  3 and x 5  5 in terms of u.
4 x x
2 1 2
(b) Assuming that (1  2kx  x ) may be expanded in a series of ascending powers of x, obtain the expansion as far
as the term in x3. Simplify the coefficients.
29. Write down the expansion in ascending powers of x. up to the term in x2 of (i) (1  x) 2
1

1
(ii) (1  x) 2
and simplify the coefficients.
1 x 1
Hence or otherwise, expand in ascending powers of x up to the term in x2. By using x  , obtain an estimate,
1 x 10
to three decimal places for π.
30. Find the term independent of x in the expansion of
9 8 4
 1   1  1 
(a)  x 2   (b)  x    x  2 
 3x   x  x 

Answers
1. (a) 84x3 (b) -14080x3
(c) 945x4 (d) 190x2.
2. 1 – 152 x  352 x 2  154 x3  515
16
x4 . …
3. (a) x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4
(b) a7 – 7a6b + 21a5b2 – 35a4b3 + 35a3b4 – 21a2b5 + 7ab6 – b7
(c) 64 + 192p2 + 240p4 + 160p6 + 60p8 + 12p10 + p12
(d) 32h5 – 80h4c + 80h3k2 – 40h2k3 + 10hk4 – k5
3 1
(e) x3 + 3x + + 3
x x
7 7 1 1
(f) z 8 – 4 z 6  7 z 4 – 7 z 2  2
 4 6

4z 6 z 16 z 256 z 8
4. (a) 1 + 12x + 54x2 + 108x3 + 81x4
(b) 16x4 + 32x3y + 24x2y2 + 8xy3 + y4
(c) 64 – 576x + 2160x2 – 4320x3 + 4860x4 – 2916x5 + 729x6
105
5. (a) (b) 540 (c) 6048
512
6. 7 – 6x – x2 + 7x4 + ….
160 20
7. 64x5 +  7 .
x x
8. 1 + 12x + 66x + 220x3
2

9. (a) 120 (b) -9120 (c) 4320 (d) 5670.

11. 14 12. 15 13. 2 14. 18, -½
15. 1.13 17. 16, 81 18. 2 , 1, 5, 11 14
1

8
19.
45x
20. (a) 1 – 2x + 3x2 – 4x3, -1 < x < 1
DIFFERENTIATION I

64
Suppose we have a smooth function f(x) which is represented graphically by the curve y = f(x). Then we
can draw a tangent to the curve at point P. It is important to be able to calculate the slope of the tangent of
the curve. A graphical method can be used but this is rather imprecise, so we use the following analytical
method.
We chose a second point Q on the curve which is near P and join the two points with a tangent line PQ
called secant and calculate the slope of the line.
Then we can allow Q to approach P so that the secant swings around until it just touches the curve and
become a tangent. The limit of the slope of the secant is required to find the slope of the tangent.

y = f(x)
y + δy Q(x+δx, y+δy)

P(x, y)

The gradient of the secant PQ =

y y f ( x  x )  f ( x )
 
x x x  x  x
f ( x  x )  f ( x )

x
 The gradient of the tangent at P(f '(x))
f ( x  x )  f ( x )
f '( x )  lim
x
as x 
0
Example
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2.
Solution
The gradient of the tangent to the curve y = f(x)
dy f ( x  x)  f ( x)
( f ' x)  lim
dx x
x  0
2
f(x) = x
f ( x  x)  ( x  x) 2
 x 2  2 xx  x 2
 x 2  2 xx  (x) 2  x 2 
 f '( x)  lim 
 x 
x  0

104
 f '( x)  lim(2 x  x)
x  0
= 2x
dy
 = 2x
dx
dy
If y = xn, then  nx n 1  f '( x )
dx
For example: If y = x4
dy
 4 x 41
dx
 4 x3
Example I
Differentiate the following functions:
(a) x3 + 2x2 + 3x
(b) 4x4 – 3x2 + 5
(c) ax2 + bx + c
Solution
(a) y = x3 + 2x2 + 3x
dy
= 3x3 – 1 + 2 × 2x2 – 1 + 3 × 1(x1 – 1)
dx
= 3x2 + 4x + 3x0
= 3x2 + 4x + 3
(b) y = 4x4 – 3x2 + 5
dy
= 4x4 – 1 – 2 × 3x2 – 1 + 0
dx
= 4x3 – 6x
(c) y = ax2 + bx + c
dy
= 2ax + b
dx

Example III
Find the gradient of the curve y = x(2 – x) at x = 2
Solution
y = x(2 – x)
y = 2x – x2
dy
 2  2x
dx
dy
=2–2×2
dx x  2
= -2
Example IV
Find the gradient of the curves at the given points:
(a) y = (4x – 5)2 ( 12 , 9)

105
 (b) y = 3x3 – 2x2 (-2, -24)
(c) y = (x + 2)(x – 4) (3, -5)
Solution
(a) y = (4x – 5)2
y = 16x2 – 40x + 25
dy
= 32x – 40
dx
dy 1
= 32 × − 40
dx ( 1 , 9) 2
2

= 16 – 40
= -24
(b) y = 3x3 – 2x2
dy
= 9x2 – 4x
dx
dy
= 9 × -22 – 4(-2)
dx ( 2,  24)
= 36 + 8
= 44
(c) (x + 2)(x – 4)
y = x2 – 2x – 8
dy
= 2x – 2
dx
dy
=2×3–2
dx (3, 5)
=4

Tangents and Normals to curves

A tangent is a line which touches a curve at only one point. A normal is a line which is perpendicular to
the tangent.

Normal

Normal

Example I
Find the equations of the tangents and normal to the curve at the given points:
(a) y = x2 (2, 4)
(b) y = 3x2 + 2 (4, 50)
(c) y = 3x – x + 1 (0, 1)
2

(d) 3 – 4x – 2x2 (0, 1)

Solution

106
(a) y = x2
dy
= 2x
dx
dy
=2×2
dx (2, 4)
=4
 The gradient of the tangent = 4
Let n be the gradient of the normal
n × 4 = -1
1
n=
4
Equation of the tangent:
y4
 4
x2
y – 4 = 4(x – 2)
y – 4 = 4x – 8
y = 4x – 4
Equation of the normal:
y  4 1
 
x2 4
4(y – 4) = 1(x – 2)
4y – 16 = x – 2
4y = x – 14

(b) y = (3x2 + 2)
dy
= 6x
dx
dy
=6×4
dx (4,50)
= 24
Gradient of tangent = 24
Let the gradient of the normal be n
n × 24 = -1
1
n=
24
Equation of the tangent:
y  50
  24
x4
y – 50 = 24(x – 4)
y – 50 = 24x – 96
y = 24x – 96 + 50
y = 24x – 46

Equation of the normal:

107
 y  50 1
 
x  4 24
24(y – 50) = -1(x – 4)
24y – 1200 = -x + 4
24y + x = 1204

(c) y = 3x2 – x + 1 (0, 1)

dy
= 6x – 1
dx
dy
= 6 × 0 – 1 = -1
dx (0, 1)
dy
= -1
dx (0, 1)
Let the gradient of the normal be n
n × -1 = -1
n=1
Equation of the tangent:
y 1
 = -1
x0
y – 1 = -x
y = -x + 1
Equation of the normal:
y 1
 =1
x0
y–1=x
y=x+1

(d) y = 3 – 4x – 2x2 (1, -3)

dy
= -4 – 4x
dx
dy
= -4 – 4 × 1
dx (1, 3)
= -8
Let the gradient of the normal be n
n × -8 = -1
1
n=
8
Equation of the tangent:
y  3
 = -8
x 1
y + 3 = -8(x – 1)
y + 3 = -8x + 8
y = -8x + 5

108
 Equation of the normal:
y  3 1
 
x 1 8
8(y + 3) = x – 1
8y + 24 = x – 1
8y + 25 = x

Example II
Find the coordinates of a point on y = x2 at which the gradient is 2. Hence find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y = x2 whose gradient is 2.
Solution
y = x2
dy
= 2x
dx
 2x = 2
x=1
If x = 1, from y = x2;
y = 12
y=1
 The point is (1, 1)
Equation of the tangent:
y 1
=2
x 1
y – 1 = 2(x – 1)
y = 2x – 1

Example III
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x2 + 3x – 2 at the point where it cuts the x-axis.
Solution
y = x2 + 3x – 2
dy
= 2x + 3
dx
At the y-axis, x = 0
From y = x2 + 3x – 2,
 y = 02 + 3 × 0 – 2
y = -2
(0, -2)
dy
=2×0+3
dx (0,  2)
=3
The gradient of the tangent = 3
Let the gradient of the normal be n
n × 3 = -1
1
n=
3

109
 y   2 1

x0 3
3(y – -2) = -1(x)
3(y + 2) = -x
3y + 6 = -x
3y + x + 6 = 0

Example IV
Find the value of k for which y = 2x + k is a normal to the curve y = 2x2 – 3.
Solution
y = 2x + k
Comparing y = 2x + k with y = mx + c;
m= 2
∴ Gradient of the normal = 2
y = 2x2 – 3
dy
= 4x
dx
Let the gradient of the normal be n.
4x × n = -1
1
n=
4x
Since the gradient of the normal = 2,
1
 =2
4x
1
x=
8
y = 2x2 – 3
 1 
y  2  − 3
 64 
2
y −3
64
190 95
y 
64 32
 8 32 
1 , 95

From y = 2x + k
95 1
 2  k
32 8
95 1
 k
32 4
95 1 87
k  
32 4 32

Example V
Find the equations of the tangents to the curve

110
y = (2x – 1)(x + 1) at the points where the curve cuts the x-axis. Find the point of intersection of these
tangents.
Solution
y = (2x – 1)(x + 1)
y = 2x2 + x – 1
At the x-axis, y = 0
 0 = (2x – 1)(x + 1)
1
x , x = -1
2
(½, 0) and (-1, 0)
 The curve cuts the x-axis at (½, 0) and (-1, 0)
y = 2x2 + x – 1
dy
= 4x + 1
dx
dy 1
=4× + 1
dx ( 12 , 0) 2
=3
y 0
=3
x  12
3
y = 3x – …………………….. (i)
2
dy
= 4 × -1 + 1
dx ( 1, 0)

= -3
y 0
 = -3
x  1
y = -3(x + 1)
y = -3x – 3 ……………………..(ii)
Equating Eqn (i) and Eqn (ii);
3
 3 x   3 x  3
2
3
6 x  3 
2
3
6x 
2
1
x
4
1
Substituting x = in Eqn (i);
4
1 3
y=3× 
4 2
9
y=
4

111
  The two tangents intersect at  1 4 , 9
4 
Example VI
Find the coordinates of the point on y = x2 – 5 at which the gradient is 3. Hence find the value of c for
which the line
y = 3x + c is a tangent to y = x2 – 5
Solution
y = x2 – 5
dy
= 2x
dx
3
2x = 3  x =
2
3
When x = ,
2
2
3
y   5
2
9
y  5
4
11
y
4
 2 4
3 , 11

y = 3x + c
 3 2 , 11 4  satisfies y = 3x + c
11 3
 3  c
4 2
11 9
 c
4 2
29
c
4
Example VII
A tangent to the parabola x2 = 16y is perpendicular to the line x – 2y – 3 = 0. Find the equation of this
tangent and the coordinates of its point of contact.
Solution
x2 = 16y
2x dx = 16 dy
dy 2 x x
 
dx 16 8
x – 2y – 3 = 0
x – 3 = 2y
1 3
y= x
2 2
1 3
Since the tangent is perpendicular to the line y  x  ,
2 2
Let the gradient of the tangent be t.

112
 1
t  1
2
t = -2
x
= -2
8
x = -16
When x = -16,
-162 = 16y
y = 16
(-16, 16)
y  16
 = -2
x  16
y – 16 = -2(x + 16)
y – 16 = -2x – 32
y + 2x + 16 = 0
 The equation of the tangent is y + 2x + 16 = 0 and the point of contact is (-16, 16)

Example VIII
Find the equation of the tangents to the curve y = x3 – 6x2 + 12x + 2 which are parallel to the line y = 3x.
Solution
y = x3 – 6x2 + 12x + 2
Comparing y = 3x with y = mx + c gives m = 3
dy
= 3x2 – 12x + 12
dx
 3x2 – 12x + 12 = 3
3x2 – 12x + 9 = 0
x2 – 4x + 3 = 0
(x – 1)(x – 3) = 0
x = 1 and x = 3
If x = 1,
y = 13 – 6 × 12 + 12 × 1 + 2
y = 1 – 6 + 12 + 2
y=9
If x = 3, y = 33 – 6 × 32 + 36 + 2
y = 27 – 54 + 38
y = 11
 The points are (1, 9) and (3, 11)
y 9
 =3
x 1
y – 9 = 3(x – 1)
y – 9 = 3x – 3
y = 3x + 6
y  11
=3
x3
y – 11 = 3(x – 3)
y – 11 = 3x – 9

113
 y = 3x + 2

Maximum, Minimum and Inflexion points of a curve

A Maximum

D I
C B (point of inflexion)

E F
B (minimum)
x =a x =b x =c

Points A, B, and I are stationary (turning points) of the curve. We say that f(x) has a maximum value at x =
a, if f(a) is greater than any value immediately preceding or following, we say that a function f(x) has a
minimum value at x = b, if f(b) is less than any value immediately preceding or following.
The tangent to the curve at points A, B and C are horizontal (parallel to the x-axis).
 The gradient of each tangent to the curve is zero;
f(x) = 0
At points immediately to the left of the maximum point, C the slope of the tangent is positive. i.e. f '(x) > 0
while points immediately to the right at point D, the slope is negative i.e. f '(x) < 0.
In other words, at the maximum f '(x) changes sign from + to (−).
At the minimum point, f '(x) changes sign from – to +. We can see this at E and F.
dy
Recall f '(x) = .
dx
Maximum Minimum Inflexion
dy + 0 − − + 0 + 0 +, − 0 −
Sign of
dx
changes when
moving through
stationary
values.
To locate maximum, minimum, and inflexion points of a curve without necessarily drawing the curve, we
proceed as follows:
dy
(a) Find the gradient of the curve
dx
dy
(b) Equate to zero the expression for .
dx
(c) Find the values of x which satisfy this equation.
dy
(d) Consider the sign of on either sides of these points.
dx
(e) Find the value(s) of y which correspond(s) to the values of x.

Distinguishing stationary points using the second derivative method

114
In order to distinguish the turning points, we find the second derivative.
d2y
If < 0 at (x1, y2),  (x1, y1) is a point of maximum
dx 2
d2y
If > 0 at (x1, y1),  (x1, y1) is a minimum point;
dx 2
d2y
If = 0 at (x1, y1),  (x1, y1) is a point of inflexion.
dx 2

Example I
Find the coordinates of the stationary points of the
curve y = 2x3 – 24x and distinguish between them.
Solution
y = 2x3 – 24x
dy
= 6x2 – 24
dx
dy
At stationary points, =0
dx
 6x2 – 24 = 0
x2 – 4 = 0
(x + 2)(x – 2) = 0
x = -2 and x = 2
If x = -2, y = 2(-2)3 – 24(-2)
y = -16 + 48
y = 32
 (-2, 32) is a stationary point.
If x = 2, y = 2(2)3 – 24(2)
y = 16 – 48
y = -32
 (2, -32) is a stationary point
dy
= 6x2 – 24
dx
d2y
= 12x
dx 2
d2y
= 12 × -2
dx 2 ( 2, 32)
= -24 < 0
2
d y
Since < 0,  (-2, 32) is a point of maxima.
dx 2
d2y
= 12x
dx 2
d2y
= 12 × 2
dx 2 (2, 32)
= 24 > 0

115
 d2y
Since >0,  (2, -32) is a point of minima.
dx 2

Example II
Investigate the nature of stationary points of the following curves.
(a) y = x(x2 – 12)
(b) y = x2(3 – x)
(c) y = x(x – 8)(x – 15)
(d) y = x3(2 – x)
(e) y = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x + 3

Solution
(a) y = x(x2 – 12)
y = x3 – 12x
dy
= 3x2 – 12
dx
dy
At a stationary point, =0
dx
 3x2 – 12 = 0
x2 – 4 = 0
x = ±2
If x = 2, y = x(x2 – 12)
y = 2(4 – 12)
y = 2(-8)
 (2, -16) is a stationary point.
If x = -2, y = -2(-22 – 12)
y = -2(4 – 12)
y = -2(-8)
y = 16
(-2, 16) is a turning point.
d2y
= 6x
dx 2
d2y
= 6 × 2 = 12
dx 2 (2, 16)
 (2, -16) is a point of minima
d2y
= 6 × -2 = -12 < 0
dx 2 ( 2, 16)
 (-2, 16) is a point of maxima.

(b) y = x2(3 – x)
y = 3x2 – x3
dy
= 6x – 3x2
dx
dy
At a turning point, =0
dx
6x – 3x2 = 0

116
 3x(2 – x) = 0
x = 0 and x = 2
If x = 0, y = x2(3 – x)
y=0
 (0, 0) is a stationary point.
If x = 2, y = 22(3 – 2)
y=4
 (2, 4) is a stationary point
Turning points:
dy
= 6x – 3x2
dx
d2y
= 6 – 6x
dx 2
d2y
=6
dx 2 (0, 0)
 (0, 0) is a point of minima
d2y
=6–6×2
dx 2 (2, 4)

= -6 < 0
 (2, 4) is a point of maxima.

(c) y = x(x – 8)(x – 15)

y = x3 – 23x2 + 120x
dy
= 3x2 – 46x + 120
dx
dy
At stationary points, =0
dx
3x2 – 46x + 120 = 0
10
x = 12, x =
3
If x = 12, y = x(x – 8)(x – 15)
y = 12(12 – 8)(12 – 15)
y = 12(4)(-3)
y = -144
 (12, -144) is a stationary point
10 10
When x = , y   103  8  103  15 
3 3
10  14  35  4900
y    27
3  3   3 
 10 3 , 4900 27  is a stationary point.
d2y
= 6x – 46
dx 2
d2y
= 6 × 12 – 46
dx 2 (12, 144)

117
 = 26 > 0
 (12, -144) is a point of minima.
d2y 10
 6  46
dx 2 (10 4900
3
3, 9)

= -26 < 0
 10 3 , 4900
9 is a point of maxima.

(d) y = x3(2 – x)
y = 2x3 – x4
dy
= 6x2 – 4x3
dx
dy
At stationary points, =0
dx
6x2 – 4x3 = 0
2x2(3 – 2x) = 0
3
x = 0, x =
2
If x = 0, y = x3(2 – x)
y = 03(2 – 0)
y=0
(0, 0) is a stationary point.
3
3 3  3
If x = ,y=   2 
2 2  2
27  1  27
y=   = 16
8 2
  32 , 27
16  is a stationary point
2
d y
= 12x – 12x2
dx 2
d2y
=0
dx 2 (0, 0)
 (0, 0) is a point of inflexion.
2
d2y 3 3
 12   12   = -9
2
2
dx  3 , 27  2
2 16

  2,3 27
16  is a point of maxima
(e) y = 3x4 + 16x3 + 24x2 + 3
dy
= 12x3 + 48x2 + 48x
dx
dy
At stationary points, =0
dx
12x3 + 48x2 + 48x = 0
12x(x + 4x + 4) = 0
x = 0, x = -2

118
 If x = 0, y = 3
 (0, 3) is a stationary point.
If x = -2, y = 3(-2)4 + 16(-2)3 + 24(-2)2 + 3
y = 48 – 128 + 96 + 3
y = 19
 (-2, 19) is a stationary point.
2
d y
= 36x2 + 96x + 48
dx 2
d2y
= 48 > 0
dx 2 (0, 3)
 (0, 3) is a point of minima.
d2y
= 36(-2)2 + 96(-2) + 48 = 0
dx 2 ( 2, 19)
 (-2, 19) is a point of inflexion.

Example II
If p = 4s2 – 10s + 7, find the minimum value of p and the values of s which gives the minimum value of p.
Solution
p = 4s2 – 10s + 7
dp
= 8s – 10
ds
dp
For minimum value of p, =0
ds
8s – 10 = 0
10 5
s= 
8 4
p = 4s2 – 10s + 7
2
5 5
pmin = 4    10    7
4 4
100 50
pmin =  7
16 4
3
pmin =
4
dp
= 8s – 10
ds
d2p
=8>0
ds 2
5 3
 p is minimum when S = and the minimum value of p is .
4 4

Example IV
A cylindrical can is made so that the sum of the height and the circumference of its base is 45π cm. Find
the radius of the base of the cylinder if the volume of the can is maximum.
Solution
Let the radius of the base be r and the height h cm.

119
 h

(Height + circumference) = 45π.

h + 2πr = 45π
h = 45π − 2πr ………………………………. (i)
V = πr2h …………………………….. (ii)
Substituting Eqn (i) in Eqn (ii);
V = πr2(45π - 2πr)
V = 45π2r2 - 2π2r3
dV
= 90π2r - 6π2r2
dr
dV
For the maximum volume, = 0.
dr
90π2r - 6π2r2 = 0
6π2r(15 – r) = 0
r = 0 or r = 15
But r ≠ 0
 r = 15 cm

Example V
Onyango wishes to fence a rectangular farm. He wants the sum of the length and the width of the farm to
be 42 cm. Calculate the length and width of the farm for the area of the farm to be as maximum as
possible.
Solution

l
Let the length and width of the rectangular farm be l and w respectively.
l × w = 42
l = 42 – w
A=l×w
A = (42 – w)w
A = 42w – w2

120
 dA
= 42 – 2w
dw
dA
For the maximum area, =0
dw
 42 – 2w = 0
w = 21
l = 42 – w
= 42 – 21
= 21
Example VI
The length of a rectangular block is twice its width, and the total surface area is 108 cm2. Show that if the
4
width of the block is x cm, the volume is x(27 – x2). Find the dimensions of the block if the volume is
3
maximum.
Solution
Let the width be x cm

x
2x
V=l×w×h
V = 2x × x × h
V = 2x2h ………………………………(i)
Total surface area A = 2(lw + wh + hl)
108 = 2(2x2 + xh + 2xh)
54 = 2x2 + 3xh
54  2 x 2
= h ………………… (ii)
3x
Substituting Eqn (ii) in Eqn (i);
 54  2 x 2 
 V  2 x2  
 3x 
 54  2 x 2 
V  2x  
 3 
4x
V= (27 – x2)
3
dV
For the maximum volume, =0
dx
4x
V= (27 – x2)
3
4
V = (27x – x3)
3

121
 dV 4
= (27 – 3x2)
dx 3
dV
For Vmax, =0
dx
4
(27 – 3x2)= 0
3
 27 – 3x2 = 0
x2 = 9
 x=3
l = 2x
l=6
54  2 x 2
h=
3x
54  2(32 )
=
3 3
54  18
=
9
h=4

Example VII
A cylindrical volume V is to be cut from a solid sphere of radius R. Prove that the maximum volume of
4 R3
the cylindar, V is V 
3 3
Solution
Let the height of the cylinder be h
h

r
2
h
r 2 +   = R2
2
h2
r2 + = R2
4
h2
r2 = R2 −
4
V = πr2h
 h2 
V =   R2   h
 4
 h3
V = πR2h –
4

122
 dV 3
  R 2   h2
dh 4
dV
For the maximum volume, =0
dh
3
 R 2   h2 = 0
4
2
4 R
h2 =
3
2R
h=
3
V = πr2h
 2R 
V = πr2  
 3
h2
But r 2  R 2 
4
1  4R2 
 r2 = R2 –  
4 3 
1 2
r2 = R2 – R
3
2 2
r2 = R
3
V = πr2h
2R 2 2 2
h= ,r = R
3 3
 2R   2R 
2
Vmax =    
 3  3 
4 R 3
Vmax =
3 3

Example VIII
A cylinder is inscribed in a hemisphere of radius r as shown in the figure below.

Find the maximum volume of the cylinder in terms of r.

Solution

123
 r h

x2 + h2 = r2
x2 = r2 – h2
Volume of the cylinder, V = πx2h
V = π(r2 – h2)h
V = πr2h – πh3
dV
= πr2 − 3πh2
dh
dV
For maximum volume, =0
dh
πr2 – 3πh2 = 0
π(r2 – 3h2) = 0
r2
= h2
3
r
h=
3
x =r –h
2 2 2

r2
x2 = r 2 –
3
2
2r
x2 =
3
V = πx2h
2r r
x2 = , h=
3 3
2r 2  r  2 r 3
Vmax =    
3  3  3 3

Example IX
A rectangular block has a base x cm square. Its surface area is 150 cm2. Prove that the volume of the
1
block is (75x – x3).
2
(a) Calculate the dimensions of the block when the volume is maximum.
(b) The maximum volume.
Solution

124
 h

x
x
S.A = 2(lw + wh + hl)
150 = 2(x2 + xh + xh)
75 = (x2 + 2xh)
75  x 2
=h
2x
V=l×w×h
V = x2h
2  75  x 
2
V=x  
 2x 
x
V= (75 – x2)
2
1
V = (75x – x3)
2
dV 1
= (75 – 3x2)
dx 2
dV
For maximum volume, = 0.
dx
1
(75 – 3x2) = 0
2
75 – 3x2 = 0
x2 = 25
x=5
75  x 2
h=
2x
75  25
h=
10
h=5

Example X
(a) A variable rectangular flower garden has a constant perimeter of 40. Find the length of the side when
the area is maximum.
(b) A variable rectangle has a constant area of 36 cm2. Find the length of the sides when the perimeter is
maximum.
Solution

125
 l

w 40 w

l
Perimeter of the flower garden P = 2(l + w)
40 = 2(l + w)
20 = l + w
l = 20 – w
A = lw
A = (20 – w)w
A = 20w – w2
dA
= 20 – 2w
dw
dA
For the maximum area, =0
dw
20 – 2w = 0
w = 10
l = 20 – w
l = 10
(b) P = 2(l + w)
lw = 36
36
l=
w
 36 
P = 2  w
w 
72
P= + 2w
w
P = 72w-1 + 2w
dP
= -72w-2 + 2
dw
72
= 2 2
w
dP
For the maximum perimeter, =0
dw
72
2 =0
w2
72
2
w2
w2 = 36
w=6
l=6
Example XI
Mukasa wishes to enclose a rectangular piece of land of area 1250 cm2 whose one side is bound by a straight
bank of a river. Find the least possible length of barbed wire required.

126
Solution
x

y y

xy = 1250
1250
y=
x
P = x+ y + y
P = x + 2y
 1250 
P = x + 2 
 x 
2500
P=x+
x
dP 2500
1 2
dx x
dP
For the least possible length, =0
dx
2500
1 =0
x2
2500
1=
x2
x = 50
1250
y= = 25
50

Example XII
A closed right circular cylinder of base radius r cm and height h cm has volume of 54π cm3. Show that S,
108
the total surface area of the cylinder, is given by S   2 r 2 hence find the radius and height which
r
makes the surface area minimum.
Solution

V = πr2h
54𝜋 = 𝜋r2h
54
=h
r2

127
 Surface area of a cylinder A = 2πr2 + 2πrh
 54 
A = 2πr2 + 2πr  2 
r 
108 
A = 2πr2 +
r3
dA 108
 4 r  2
dr r
dA
For the minimum surface area, =0
dr
108
4πr – =0
r2
4πr3 − 108π = 0
108
r3 =
4
r3 = 27
r=3
54 54
h 2 
r 9
h=6
Example XIII
A company that manufactures dog food wishes to pack the feed in closed cylindrical tins. What should be
the dimensions of each tin if each is to have a volume of 250π cm3 and the minimum possible surface area?
Solution
A = 2πr2 + 2πrh
V = πr2h
250π = πr2h
250
h= 2
r
 250 
A = 2πr2 + 2πr  2 
 r 
500 
A = 2πr2 +
r
dA 500
 4 r  2
dr r
dA
For minimum surface area, =0
dr
500
4 r  2 = 0
r
π(4r3 – 500) = 0
r3 = 125
r = 5 cm
250
h= 2
r
h = 10 cm

Example (UNEB Question)

128
 Write down the expression of the volume V and surface area S of a cylinder of radius r and height h. If the
surface area S of the cylinder is kept constant, show that the volume of the cylinder will be maximum when
h = 2r
Solution
S = 2πr2 + 2πrh
S  2 r 2
h=
2 r
V = πr2h
 S  2 r 2 
V =  r2  
 2 r 
1
V= (Sr – 2πr3)
2
dV 1
= (S – 6πr2)
dr 2
dV
For maximum volume, =0
dr
 S – 6πr2 = 0
S = 6πr2
S  2 r 2
h=
2 r
6 r 2  2 r 2
h=
2 r
h = 2r
For maximum volume, h = 2r

Example (UNEB Question)

A right circular cone of radius r cm has a maximum volume. The sum of its vertical height h and
circumference of its base is 15 cm. If the radius varies, show that the maximum volume of the cone is
125
cm3.
3
Solution
The base is circular
 The circumference of the base = 2πr
2πr + h = 15
h = 15 - 2πr
1
Volume of the cone = πr2h
3
1
V = πr2(15 – 2πr)
3
1
= 𝜋(15r2 – 2πr3)
3
dV  (30r  6 r 2 )

dr 3
dV
For maximum volume, =0
dr

129
 
(30r – 6πr2) = 0
3
30r – 6πr2 = 0
6r(5 – πr) = 0
5 = πr
5
r=

1
V = πr2h
3
5
h = 15 – 2πr; But r =

5
h = 15 – 2π  
 
h=5
5
2

V =   5
3  
125
V= cm3
3
Example
A match box consists of an outer cover open at both ends into which a rectangular box without a top. The
length of the box is one and a half times the width. The thickness of the material is negligible and the
volume of the match box is 25 cm3. If the width is x cm, find in terms of x the area of the material used.
Hence show that if the least area of the material is to be used to make the box, the length should be 3.7
approximately.
Solution
Area of the inner surface = 2(lw) + 2(lh)
 3x   3x 
= 2  x   2  h 
 2   2 
= 3x2 + 3xh
Area of the water surface = (lw + 2lh + 2wh)
3x 3x
=  x   2  h  2 xh
2 2
2
3x
= + 5xh
2
The total surface of the match box
3x 2
= + 5xh + 3xh + 3x2
2
9 x2
A= + 8xh ………………… (i)
2
From volume = l × w × h,
3x 2 h
V=
2
3x 2 h
 25 =
2

130
 50
h= ………………………….. (ii)
3x 2
Substituting Eqn (2) in Eqn (i);
9 x2  50 
A=  8x  2 
2  3x 
2
9x 400
A= 
2 3x
dA
For the least area, =0
dx
dA 400
 9x  2
dx 3x
dA 400
 9x  2 = 0
dx 3x
27x3 – 400 = 0
400
x3 =
27
400
x= 3
27
3x
l=
2
3 400
l= 3
2 27
l = 3.68403 cm
l ≈ 3.7 cm

131
 Techniques of Differentiation
Chain, Product, and Quotient rules

We can now move to some more properties involved in differentiation. To summarise, so far we have
found that:
1. The derivative of a sum is a sum of its derivatives.
2. The derivative of a difference is the difference of the derivatives.

However, it turns out that:

1. The derivative of a product of derivative f(x)g(x) is not a product of the derivative.
d
(f(x)g(x)) ≠ f '(x)g'(x)
dx
2. The derivative of a quotient is not the quotient of the derivative
d  f ( x )  f '( x )
 
dx  g ( x )  g '( x )
3. The derivative of the composition f(x) is not the composition of the derivatives.
The chain, product and quotient rules tell us how to differentiate in these three situations.

Chain Rule
The chain rule states that:
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
Example I
dy
Given that y = (x2 + 7)100, find
dx
Solution
y = (x2 + 7)100
Let t = x2 + 7
dt
= 2x
dx
 y = t100
dy
= 100t99
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
= 100t99 × 2x
= 200xt99
= 200x(x2 + 7)99.

Example II
dy
Given that y = (x7 – x2)42, find .
dx
Solution
y = (x7 – x2)42
Let t = x7 – x2  y = t42

132
 dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
y = t42
dy
= 42t41
dt
t = x7 – x 2
dt
= 7x6 – 2x
dx
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
= 42(t41) × (7x6 – 2x)
= 42(7x6 – 2x)t41
= 42(7x6 – 2x)(x7 – x2)41

Example III
dy
Find in terms of t in the following expressions:
dx
(a) x = t2, y = 4t – 1
(b) y = 3t2 + 2t, x = 1 – 2t
(c) x = 2 2 , y = 5t – 4
1
(d) x = , y = t2 + 4t – 3
t
2
(e) x = , y= t
3 t
Solution
(a) x = t2, y = 4t – 1
y = 4t – 1
dy
=4
dt
x = t2
dx
= 2t
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
dy 1 2
=4× =
dx 2t t

(b) y = 3t2 + 2t, x = 1 – 2t

dy
= 6t + 2
dt
dx
= -2
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
dy 1
= (6t + 2) ×
dx 2

133
 dy
= -3t – 1
dx

(c) x = 2 t , y = 5t − 4
dx 1 1
 2 t 2
dt 2
1

t
y = 5t – 4
dy
=5
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
 5 t
5 t

1
(d) x = , y = t2 + 4t – 3.
t
dx 1
= -1t-1-1 = 2
dt t
y = t2 + 4t – 3
dy
= (2t + 4)
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
= (2t + 4) × -t2
= -2t3 – 4t2

2
(e) x = , y= t
3 t
x  2(3  t ) 1
1
dx t 2
= -2(3 + t ) 2 
dt 2
1
=
(3  t )2 t
y= t
dy 1 1 1
= t 2
dt 2 2 t
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx

134
 dy 1 
  (3  t ) 2 t
dx 2 t

(3  t ) 2

2

Example IV
dy
Find in terms of t if x = at2 and y = 2at
dx
Solution
x = at2
dx
= 2at
dt
y = 2at
dy
= 2a
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
dy 1
= 2a × =1
dx 2at t

Example V (UNEB Question)

A curve is defined by the parametric equations
x = t2 – t
y = 3t + 4
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at (2, 10)
Solution
x = t2 – t and y = 3t + 4.
dx
 2t  1
dt
dy
3
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
1
 3
2t  1
3

2t  1
At point (2, 10), x = 2 and y = 10.
x = t2 – t
y = 3t + 10
Substituting, for x = 2,
2 = t2 − t
t2 − t − 2 = 0
t2 − 2t + t − 2 = 0
t(t − 2) + 1(t − 2) = 0
(t − 2)(t + 1) = 0
Either t − 2 = 0,
t=2

135
Or t+1=0
t = -1
Substituting for y = 10,
10 = 3t + 4
3t = 6
t=2
dy 3
For 
dx 2t  1
dy 3 3
  1
dx t  2 2(2)  1 4  1
y  10
 1
x2
y – 10 = x – 2
y = x – 2 + 10
y=x+8

Example VI
dy d2y
If x = at2, y = 2at, find and in terms of t.
dx dx 2
Solution
x = at2, y = 2at
dx dy
= 2at ; = 2a
dt dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
1
 2a 
2at
1

t
d y d  dy  dt
2
  
dx 2 dt  dx  dx
1 1 1
= 2  
t 2at 2at 3

Example VII
A curve is represented parametrically by
x = (t2 – 1)2; y = t3
dy
Find
dx
Solution
x = (t2 – 1)2, y = t3
dx
= 2(t2 – 1)2t
dt
= 4t(t2 – 1)
y = t3

136
 dy
= 3t2
dt
dy dy dt
 
dx dt dx
= 3t2 × 1
4t (t 2  1)
3t
=
4(t 2  1)

Product Rule
Consider y = uv, where v and u are functions of x.
y + y = (u + u )(v + v)
y + y = uv + u v + v u + uv
As u   0, v  0
uv  0
 y + y = uv + u v + v u
y = uv + u v + v u − y
y = uv + u v + v u – uv
y = u v + v u
y v u
u v
x x x
As x  0
y dy v dv u du
 ,  and 
x dx x dx x dx
dy dv du
 u v
dx dx dx
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx

Example I
Differentiate the following
(a) (x2 + 1)(x3 + 2)
(b) x2(x + 1)3
(c) (1  x) 2 ( x 1) 4
3 5

(d) ( x  1) x 2  1
(e) ( x  1)( x  2)3
(f) ( x  1) 2 3 1  2 x

Solution
(a) y = (x2 + 1)(x3 + 2)
Let u = x2 + 1, v = x3 + 2
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx

137
 dy
= (x2 + 1)(3x2) + (x3 + 2)2x
dx
= 3x4 + 3x2 + 2x4 + 4x
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 4x
= 5x4 + 3x2 + 4x
dy
 = 5x4 + 3x2 + 4x.
dx

(b) y = x2(x + 1)3

Let u = x2, v = (x + 1)3
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx
dy
= x23(x + 1)2  1 + (x + 1)32x
dx
= x(x + 1)2[3x + 2(x + 1)]
= x(x + 1)2(5x + 2)
= x(x+ 1)2(5x + 2)

(c) y = (1  x) 2 ( x  1)
3 5
4

u = (1  x) 2 , v = ( x  1)
3 5
4

dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx
dy 5 3
  (1  x) 2  ( x  1) 4  1  ( x  1) 4  ( x  1) 2  1
3 1 5 1

dx 4 2
dy 1 1 5 3( x  1) 
 ( x  1) 4 ( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 
1

dx 2 2 1 
dy 1 1  5  5 x  6( x  1) 
 ( x  1) 4 ( x  1) 2 
1


dx 2  2 
dy 1 1  11x  6 
 ( x  1) 4 ( x  1) 2 
1


dx 2  2 
dy ( x  1) 4 ( x  1) 2 (11x  6)
1 1


dx 4

(d) y = ( x  1) x 2  1
Let u = x – 1, v = x2  1
dy
dx
1

 ( x  1)  ( x 2  1)  2  2 x  x 2  1  1
2
1


dy 1
 x( x  1)( x 2  1) 2  ( x 2  1) 2
1

dx
dy
 ( x 2  1) 2  x( x  1)  x 2  1
1

dx
dy 1
  x 2  x  x 2  1
dx ( x 2  1) 2 
1

138
 dy 1
  2 x 2  x  1
dx x 1
2

(e) y= ( x  1)( x  2)3

1

y =  ( x  1)( x  2)3 
2

y = ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) 2
1 3

dy 3 3 1 1
 ( x  1) 2  ( x  2) 2  1  ( x  2) 2 ( x  1) 2
1 1

dx 2 2
dy 1
 ( x  1) 2 ( x  2) 2 3( x  1)  ( x  2) 
1 1

dx 2
dy ( x  2) 2
1

 1 3 x  3  x  2
dx 2( x  1) 2
dy 1 x  2
  4 x  1
dx 2 x  1

(f) y = (1 – x)2 3 1  2x
1
Let u = (1 – x)2, v = (1 – 2x) 3

y = uv
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx
dy 1 2
 (1  x) 2  (1  2 x) 3  2  (1  2 x) 3  2(1  x)( 1)
1

dx 3
dy 2  1 
 2(1  x)(1  2 x) 3  (1  x)  1(1  2 x) 
dx  3 
dy 2(1  x)  1  x  3(1  2 x) 
  
dx (1  2 x) 3  
2
3
dy 2(1  x)  1  3  x  6 x 

dx (1  2 x) 3  

2
3
dy 2(1  x)  7 x  4 
  
dx 3
(1  2 x) 2  3 

dy 2  1  x 
   (4 x  8)
dx 3  3 (1  2 x) 2 
 

Example (UNEB Question)

Given that R  q (1000  q 2 ) , find:
dR
(a)
dq
(b) The value of q when R is maximum.
Solution
(a) R  q (1000  q 2 )

139
 Let u = q, v = (1000  q 2 ) ;
dR dv du
u v
dq dq dq
dR 1 1
 q  (1000  q 2 ) 2  2q  1000  q 2  1
dq 2
dR 1
  q 2 (1000  q 2 ) 2  1000  q 2
dq
 (1000  q 2 ) 2 (  q 2  1000  q 2 ) 
1

1000  2q 2

1000  q 2

dR
(b) For Rmax, =0
dq
1000  2q 2
 =0
1000  q 2
1000 – 2q2 = 0
q2 = 500
q2 = 100 × 5
q = 100  5
q = ±10 5
q = 10 5 or q = -10 5

Quotient Rule
u
Consider y = , where u and v are functions of x.
v
u
y=
v
u  u
y  y 
v  v
u  u
y  y
v  v
u  u u
y  
v  v v
(u  u )(v  v) u
y  
(v  v)(v  v) v
uv  uv  vu  uv u
 
v 2  (v) 2 v
As v   0 and vu  0 , (v)2  0
 0, u 

140
 uv  vu  uv u
y  
v2 v
u vu  uv u
y   
u v2 v
vu  uv

v2
y v x  u vx
u

x v2
y dy
As x   0,  
x dx
u du
 
x dx
v dv
 
x dx
du dv
dy v dx - u dx
=
dx v2

Example
Differentiate the following:
x2  1 x
(a) (b)
x2  1 x 12

( x  2) 3
( x  1)3
(c) (d)
x 1 x2
(1  x ) 2 2 x 2  x3
(e) (f)
x2  1 x2  1
Solutions
x2  1
(a)
x2  1
u
y
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
u = x2 + 1; v = x2 – 1
dy ( x 2  1)2 x  ( x 2  1)2 x

dx ( x 2  1) 2
dy 2 x[( x 2  1)  ( x 2  1)]

dx ( x 2  1) 2
dy  2 
 2x  2 2 
dx  ( x  1) 
dy 4 x
 2
dx ( x  1) 2

141
 x
(b)
x2  1
u = x, v = x2  1
u
y
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
1
dy x 2  1  (1)  x  12 ( x 2  1) 2  2 x

 
2
dx x2  1
1
dy ( x 2  1) 2 [( x 2  1)  x 2 ]

dx x2  1
1
dy ( x 2  1) 2 [1]

dx x2  1
dy 1
 2
dx ( x  1) 2
3

dy 1

dx ( x  1)3
2

( x  2)3
(c) y
x 1
( x  2) 2
3

y
( x  1) 2
1

dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
1
dy ( x  1) 2  32 ( x  2) 2  ( x  2) 2  12 ( x  1) 2
1 1 3

 2
dx ( x  1) 2 
1

 
dy 2 ( x  2)
1
1 2

 (3 x  3  x  2)
( x  1) 2
3
dx
dy 1 x  2
 (2 x  5)
dx 2 ( x  1)3

( x  1)3
(d) y =
x2
( x  1) 2
3

y=
( x  2) 2
1

u
y
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v

142
 1
dy ( x  2) 2  32 ( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 2  12 ( x  2) 2  1
1 1 3


[( x  2) 2 ]2
1
dx
1
dy 12 ( x  2) 2 ( x  1) 2 [3( x  2)  ( x  1)]
1


dx x2
dy 1 ( x  1) 2
1

 3 (3 x  6  x  1)
dx 2 ( x  2) 2
dy 1 x 1
 (2 x  5)
dx 2 ( x  2)3
dy (2 x  5) x 1

dx 2 ( x  2)3

(1  x ) 2
(e) y
x2  1
u  (1  x )2 , v  x2  1
u
y
v
1 1
dy ( x 2  1)2(1  x )  21 x 2  (1  x ) 2 12 ( x 2  1) 2  2 x

dx ( x 2  1) 2
1

dy ( x  1) (1  x ) x
2 2
1
2  2( x 2  1)  1  (1  x ) x 
  2 x 
dx x2  1
dy 1 x  x 2  1  ( x ) x(1  x ) 
  
x ( x 2  1) 2 
3
dx x 
dy 1 x  x  1 x x  x
2 2

 3  
dx x ( x  1) 
2 2
x 
dy 1  x 1  x x 
  
dx ( x 2  1)3  x 

Example (UNEB Question)

Differentiate:
(a) ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)2
1

2 x 2  3x
(b)
( x  4)2
Solution
(a) ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)2
1

y = uv
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx

143
 dy 1 1
 ( x  1) 2 2( x  2)  ( x  2) 2  ( x  1) 2
1

dx 2
dy 1  1 
 ( x  1) 2 ( x  2)  2( x  1)  ( x  2) 
dx  2 
dy x  2  4( x  1)  x  2 

dx x  1  2 

dy x2
  4 x  4  x  2
dx x 1
dy x2
 5 x  6
dx x 1

2 x 2  3x
(b) y =
( x  4)2
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
dy ( x  4) 2  (4 x  3)  (2 x 2  3 x)  2( x  4)

dx [( x  4) 2 ]2
dy ( x  4) ( x  4)(4 x  3)  2(2 x  3 x) 
2


dx ( x  4) 4
dy 19 x  12

dx ( x  4)3

Differentiation of Implicit Functions

Example I
dy
Find when x2 + 2xy + y2 = 8
dx
Solution
d 2 d
(x + 2xy + y2) = (8)
dx dx
2xdx + 2(xdy + ydx) + 2ydy = 0
dy dy
2x+2x + 2y + 2y =0
dx dx
dy
(2x + 2y) = -2x – 2y
dx
dy 2( x  y )

dx 2( x  y )
dy
 1
dx
Example II
dy
If x2 – 3xy + y2 – 2y + 4x = 0, find
dx
Solution

144
 x2 – 3xy + y2 – 2y + 4x = 0
d 2 d
(x – 3xy + y2 – 2y + 4x) = (0)
dx dx
2x dx – 3(xdy + ydx) + 2ydy – 2dy + 4dx = 0
dy dy dy
2x – 3x – 3y + 2y –2 +4=0
dx dx dx
dy
(2y – 3x – 2) = -4 – 2x
dx
dy 4  2 x
=
dx 2 y  3x  2

Example III
dy
Find when 3x2 – 4xy = 7
dx
Solution
3x2 – 4xy = 7
d d
(3x2 – 4xy) = (7)
dx dx
6x dx – 4(x dy + y dx) = 0
dy
6x – 4x − 4y = 0
dx
dy
6x – 4y = 4x
dx
dy 6 x  4 y

dx 4x

Example IV
dy
If x2 + 3xy – y2 = 0, find at (1, 1).
dx
Find the equation of the tangent and normal at (1, 1)
Solution
x2 + 3xy – y2 = 0
d 2 d
(x + 3xy – y2) = (3)
dx dx
2x dx + 3(x dy + y dx) – 2y dy = 0
dy dy
2x + 3x + 3y – 2y =0
dx dx
dy
(3x – 2y) = -2x – 3y
dx
dy 2 x  3 y

dx 3x  2 y
dy 2  3
 = -5
dx (1, 1) 3  2
y 1
  5
x 1

145
 y – 1 = -5(x – 1)
y – 1 = -5x + 5
y = -5x + 6 is the equation of the tangent
Let the gradient of the normal be n
n × -5 = -1
1
n
5
y 1 1
 
x 1 5
5(y – 1) = x – 1
5y – 5 = x – 1
5y – 4 = x is the equation of the normal.

Example V
Find the x-stationary points of the curve
x3 – y3 – 4x2 + 3y = 11x + 4
Solution
x3 – y3 – 4x2 + 3y = 11x + 4
d 3 3 d
(x – y – 4x2 + 3y) = (11x + 4)
dx dx
3x2 dx – 3y2 dy – 8x dx + 3dy = 11 dx
(3 – 3y2) dy = (11 – 3x2 – 8x) dx
dy 11  3x 2  8 x
=
dx 3  3y2
dy
At stationary points, =0
dx
11  3 x 2  8 x
 =0
3  3y2
11 – 3x2 – 8x = 0
3x2 + 8x – 11 = 0
11
x = 1, x =
3

Application of Differentiation
Small Changes
If A(x, y) is a general point in the curve with equation y = f(x) and B(x+δx, y+δy) is a point in the curve
close to A, then δx is a small increase in x and δy is a small increase in y
We know from differentiation that
 y  dy
 lim   
 x  dx
x  0
y dy
So when x is small, we can say that 
x dx
dy
y   x
dx

146
The approximation can be used to estimate the value of a function close to a known value y + δy can be
estimated if y is known.

Example I
Given that y = 3x2 + 2x – 4. Use small changes to find the small change in y when x increases from 2 to
2.02.
Solution
y = 3x2 + 2x – 4
dy
= 6x + 2
dx
dy
y   x
dx
x = (2.02 – 2) = 0.02
x = 2; x = 0.02
dy
y   x
dx
y = (6x + 2) x
y = [(6 × 2) + 2] × 0.02
y = 0.28

Example II
Use small changes to estimate 101
Solution
y = 101
y  y  x  x
y x
dy 1 12 1
 x 
dx 2 2 x
x = 100, x = 1
dy
y   x
dx
1
y   (x)
2 x
1
y   (1)
2 100
1
y 
20
y  0.05
y  y  x  x
x = 100, y  x
y  100  10
10 + 0.05 = 100  1
10.05 = 101

147
Example III
In an experiment, the diameter x of a metal is measured and the volume V cm3 is calculated using the
1
formula V   x 3 . If the diameter is found to be 10 cm with a possible error of 0.1cm, estimate the
6
possible error in the volume calculated.
Solution
1
V   x3
6
dy
y   x
dx
x = 0.1, x = 10
1
y   x 2  (0.1)
2
1
y   (10)2  (0.1)
2
 5
Hence the possible error in the volume is 5π cm3

Example IV
Find the approximate value of 3 1003
Solution
y3 x
x = 1000, x = 3
y  y  3 1000  3
y  y  3 1003
y3 x
yx3
1

dy 1 2 3 1
 x  2
dx 3 3x 3
dy
y   x
dx
dy
y  2  3
3x 3
1
 2 3
3(1000) 3
3
  0.01
300
y  y  3 1003
y3 x
y  3 1000  10
10  0.01  3 1003
10.01  3 1003

148
Example I
Use small changes to find the cube root of 1005
Solution
y  3 1005
y  y  3 x  x
yx
1
3

dy 1 2 3 1
 x  2
dx 3 3x 3
x = 100, x = 5
y  y  3 x  x
yx
1
3

y  1000
1
3

y  10
y  y  3 1005
10  y  3 1005
dy
y   x
dx
1
y  2  5
3x 3
1
y  2 5
3(1000) 3
5
y 
300
y  0.016667
10  0.016667  3 1005
10.016667  3 1005
3
1005  10.01667

Example
Use small changes to find 627 .
Solution
y x
y  y  x  x
y x
dy 1 12 1
 x  1
dx 2 2x 2
dy
y   x
dx
x = 625, x = 2

149
 1
y  2
2  625
1
y 
25
y x
y  625
y  25
1
25   625  2
25
625  25  0.04
625  25.04

Percentage Small Changes

An error of 3% is made in measuring the radius of the sphere. Find the percentage error in the volume.
Solution
4
V   r3
3
dV
 4 r 2
dr
3
r  r
100
V
V   r
r
3
V  4 r 2  r
100
12 r 3
V  
100
V 12 r 3 12 r 3
 100  100  100  4 100 3  100
V V 3r

 9%

Example II
The height of a cylinder is 10 cm and the radius is 4 cm. Find the approximate percentage increase in the
volume when the radius increases from 4 to 4.02 cm.
Solution
V   r 2h
dV
 2 rh
dr
V
V   r
r
r  4.02  4  0.02

150
 V  2 rh(0.02)
V  2  10  4(0.02)
V  1.6
V = 𝜋r2h
V = 𝜋 (4)2 × 10
V = 160π
V
Percentage increase in the volume is  100
V
1.6
  100  1%
160

Example III
l
The period T of a simple pendulum is calculated from the formula T  2 where l is the length of the
g
pendulum and g is the acceleration due to gravity constant. find the percentage change in the period
caused by lengthening the pendulum by 2%.
Solution
l
T  2
g
2 l 2
1

T 1
g2
dT  l 2 
1

 1  1 1
dl g 2
g 2l 2
dT
T   l
dl
 2
T  1 1  l
g l 100
2 2

2 12
T  1 l
100 g 2
2 l
T 
100 g
T
Percentage change in period =  100
T
2 l
  100
100 g

2 l
g

 1%

Example
An error of 2.5% is made in measuring the area of a circle. What is the percentage error in the
circumference?
Solution

151
 A
A   r
r
A   r2
dA
 2 r
dr
2.5 A
A 
100
A  2 r  r
2.5
A  2 r r
100
2.5 2
 r  2 r r
100
1.25r
r 
100
C = 2πr
C
 2
r
C
C   r
r
1.25
C  2  r
100
2.5 r
C 
100
C
Percentage error in circumference =   100
C
2.5 r
 100
 100  1.25%
2 r

Example
If l is the length of a pendulum and t is the time of a complete swing, it is known that l = kt2. The length of
the pendulum is increased by x%. x is so small. Find the corresponding increase in the time of the string.
Solution
l  kt 2
dl
 2 kt
dt
dl
l    t
dt
l  2kt  t
x
l  2kt  t
100
xl
xl
t  100 
2kt 200kt
x(kt 2 ) xt
t  
200kt 200

152
 t
Percentage increase in time =  100
t
xt
x
 200
 100  %
t 2

153
Rates of Change
Application of derivatives
Example I
A side of a cube is increasing at a rate of 6cm/s. Find the rate of increase in the volume of the cube when
the length of the side is 8cm.
Solution

x
x
3
V=x
dV
 3x 2
dx
dx
= 6 cm/s
dt
dV dV dx
 
dt dx dt
dV
 3x 2  6
dt
dV
 18x2
dt
dV
 18  82
dt x 8
 1152
dV
 1152 cm3/s
dt

Example II
The volume of a cube is increasing at a rate of 2 cm3/s. Find the rate of change of the side of the base when
the length is 3 cm.
Solution

l
l
V = l3
dV
= 2cm3/s
dt
dV
= 3l2
dl

154
 dV dV dl
 
dt dl dt
dV dl
 3l 2 
dt dt
dl
2 = 3l 2
dt
dl 2

dt 3l 2
dl 2 2
 
dt l 3 3  3 3  9
2

dt 2
 cm/s
dl 27

Example III
The area of the circle is increasing at a rate of 3cm2/s. Find the rate of change of the circumference when
its radius is 2cm.
Solution
dA
3
dt
A   r2
dA dA dr
 
dt dr dt
dA dr
 2 r 
dt dt
dr
3  2 r
dt
dr 3

dt 2 r
dr 3

dt r  2 2  2
dr 3

dt 4
C  2 r
dC dC dr
 
dt dr dt
dC 3
 2 
dt 4
dC 6

dt 4
dC
 1.5cm/s
dt

Example III (UNEB Question)

A spherical balloon is inflated such that the rate at which its radius is increasing is 0.5cm/s. Find the rate at
which:

155
(a) the volume is increasing at the instant when r = 5.0cm
(b) the surface area is increasing when r = 8.5 cm
Solution
4 dr
V   r3,  0.5 m/s
3 dt
dV
 4 r 2
dr
dV dV dr
 
dt dr dt
dV
= 2πr2
dt
dV
 2 (5) 2  50π cm2/s
dt r 5
A = 4𝜋r2
dA dA dr
 
dt dr dt
dA
= 8πr × 0.5
dt
dA
 4 r
dt
dA
 4 (8.5)
dt r 8.5
dA
 34 cm2/s
dt r 8.5

Example IV
A hollow circular cone is held vertex downwards beneath a tap leaking at a rate of 2cm3/s. Find the rise of
water level when the level is 6 cm. Given that the height of the cone is 18 cm and its radius is 12 cm.
Solution
12cm

18cm

1
V   r 2h
3
dV
 2 cm3/s
dt

156
 r 12 2
 
h 18 3
2
r h
3
1 1
V   r 2 h    23 h  h
2

3 3
1  4h 2
V   h
3  9 
4
V  h3
27
dV 12 2
 h
dh 27
dV dV dh
 
dt dh dt
dV 12 h 2 dh
 
dt 27 dt
12 h dh2
2 
27 dt
dh 54

dt 12 h 2
h6
dh 54

dt 12 (6) 2
dh 54 1
  cm/s
dt 432 8

Example V
An inverted right circular cone of vertical angle 120° is collecting water from a tap at a steady rate of 18π
cm3/min. Find:
(a) the depth of the water after 12 minutes
(b) the rate of increase of the depth at this instant.
Solution
r

60° 60°

1 2
Volume of the cone V = r h
3
dV
 18 cm3/min
dt

157
 1 min   18π cm3
12 min   x cm3
x = 12 × 18π
= 216𝜋 cm3
r r
tan 60   3 
h h
r  3h
1
V   r 2h
3
1
V   ( 3 h) 2 h
3
V   h3
V = πh3
216 π = πh3
216 = h3
h = 6 cm
V = πh3
dV
 3 h 2
dh
dV dV dh
 
dt dh dt
dh
18  3 h 2 
dt
dh 18

dt 3h 2
dh 18 1
  cm/min
dt h 6 3  6 2
6
Example VI
An inverted cone with vertical angle of 60° is collecting water leaking from a tap at a rate of 2cm3/s. If the
height of water collected is 10cm, find the rate at which the depth is decreasing at that instant.
Solution
r

30°30°

158
 r
tan 30 
h
1 r
 h  3 h
3 h
h
r
3
1
V   r 2h
3
2
1  h  1  h2 
V      h
3  3  3  3 
1
  h3
9
dV 1 2
 h
dh 3
dV dV dh
 
dt dh dt
1 dh
0.2   h 2 
3 dt
0.6 dh

 h 2 dt
When h = 10,
dh 0.6

dt  h 2
dh 0.6

dt  (10) 2
dh 0.6

dt 100
dh 6
 cm/s
dt 1000

Example
A hemispherical bowl is being filled with water at a uniform rate when the height of water is h cm. The
volume is  (rh2  13 h3 ) cm3, r being the radius of the sphere. Find the rate at which the water level is rising
when it is half-way to the top, given that r = 6 and the bowl fills in 1 minute.
r

V =  (rh 2  13 h3 )
When it is full, r = h

159
 V =  (h3  13 h3 )
2 h3
V
3
r h6
2
V    63
3
 144 cm3
dV
 144π cm
dt
(Because the bowl fills in a minute)
When the bowl is not full, r  h
r = 6 cm
V   (rh 2  13 h 2 )
V   (6h 2  13 h 2 )
dV
  (12h  h 2 )
dh
dV
When h = 3,   (36  9)
dh
dV
 27
dh
dV dV dh
 
dt dh dt
dV dh
 27 
dt dt
dh
144  27 
dt
dh 144 48
 
dt 27 9
dh 16 4
 cm/min  cm/s
dt 3 45

Example
A horse trough has a triangular cross-section area of height 50 cm and base 60cm and height 2m long. A
horse is drinking steadily and when the water level is 5cm below the top, it is being lowered at a rate of
1cm/min. Find the rate of consumption in litres per minute.
Solution
h/2
h/2
h

h = 50
1 
V   b hl
 2 
l = 200 cm

160
 1
V  b  h  200
2
V = 100bh
h 50

b
2 30
2h 5

b 3
5
2h  b
3
6h
b
5
 6h 
V  100   h  120h2
 5 
dV
 240h
dh
dV dV dh
 
dt dh dt
dV
 240h  1
dt
dV
 240h
dt
dV
 (240  20)  4800 cm 3 /min
dt
dV
 4.8 litres/minute
dt

Example (UNEB Question)

A hemispherical bowl of radius a cm is initially full of water. The water runs out through a small hole at
the bottom of the bowl at a constant rate such that it empties the bucket in 24 s. Given that when the depth
1
of water is x cm and the volume of water is  x 2 (3a  x) cm3, show that the depth of water at that instant
3
1
is decreasing at a rate of a3(36(2a – x))-1. Find how long it will take for the depth of water to be a cm and
3
the rate at which the depth is increasing at that instant.
Solution
1
V   x 2 (3a  x)
3
a

When it is full of water, x = a

161
 1
V   a 2 (3a  a )
3
1
V   a 2 (2a )
3
2
V   a3
3
Because it empties in 24s
2
24s    a 3 cm3
3
1 s  x
2
x  a 3 cm3/s
72
dV  a 3
 cm3/s
dt 36
When x  a
1
V   x 2 (3a  x)
3
dV dV dx
 
dt dx dt
 a3 dx
 (2 ax   x 2 )
36 dt
dx a 3

dt 36 x(2a  x)
dx
 a 3 [36 x (2a  x )]1
dt
1
h a
3
1
V   x 2 (3a  x)
3
1
V    13 a  (3a  13 a )
2

3
1  a 2   8a 
V     
3  9  3 
8 a 3
V
81
8 a 3
Volume of water in the bowl =
81
Volume of the water emptied
2 a3 8 a3 46 a 3
=  
3 81 81
dV  a 3

dt 36

162
  a3
1 s 

36
46 a3
x s  
81
46 a 3
46 a 3 36
x  81a3   3
36
81 a
x = 20.4445 cm

(b) 1 + 1
3
x− 1
9
x2 + 5
81
x 3 , -1 < x < 1
(c) 1 + 3
2
x + 83 x 2 – 1
16
x 3 , -1 < x < 1
(d) 1 – 3
2
x + 3
2
x2 – 5
15
x 3 , -2 < x < 2
567 th
21. ,6 22. 8 23. 7
16
1 1 2
24.   , 2x3 + 4x4 + 4x5 + 4x6 + 6x2
1 x 2
(1  x) 1  x
2

23 (a) u + 3u, u5 + 5u3 + 5u

3

1 k
(b) 1 + kx + (3k 2  1) x 2  (5k 2  3) x 3
2 2
1 1
29(i) 1 + x − x2
2 8
(ii) 1  2 x  8 x , 1 + x + 12 x2; 3.315
1 3 2

258
30(a) (b) -307.
243

CIRCLES
A circle is a 2-dimensional shape in Euclidean geometry made by drawing a curve that is always the same
distance from the center
A circle can also be defined as a locus of all points P(x, y) which are equidistant from the same given point
fixed point C(a, b) [center]
Suppose that the distance of the points P from the given point C (a, b) is r

y-axis
y P(x, y)
r y-b
b CC
(a, b) x-a

a x x-axis

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

163
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 is the equation of the circle wit center (a, b) and radius r
If the center C is (0, 0) then the equation of the circle is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2
For (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2 = 0
2

Suppose −𝑎 = 𝑔, −𝑏 = 𝑓, 𝐶 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 𝑟 2
 𝐶 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑟 2
The equation of the circle becomes

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 is the standard equation of a circle with center (-g, -f) and radius 𝑟 =
√𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝐶

Example I
Find the center and the radius of the circles below
(a) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9
(b) (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 4
(d) 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1

Solution
(a) (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9
Comparing (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9 with (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑟 2 = 9
 The center is C (1, 2) and 𝑟 = 3
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9 is a circle with radius 3 units and center (1, 2)

(b) (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25

Compare ( x  1)2  ( y  3)2  25 with ( x  a)2  ( y  b)2  r 2
𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑟 2 = 25
r=5
The center is (-1, 3)
∴ (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 25 is the equation of the circle with center (-1, 3) and radius 5.

(c) 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟒
x2 + y2 – 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
2𝑔 = −4, 2𝑓 = −2
𝐶 = −4
𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −1
𝐶 = −4
Since the center is (-g, -f),
The center is (2, 1)
Radius =√𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝐶

164
 𝑟 = √(−2)2 + (−1)2 − (−4)
𝑟 = √4 + 1 + 4
𝑟=3
2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 4 is a circle with radius 3 units and center (2, 1)

(d) 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏

2𝑥 2 2𝑦 2 2𝑥 2𝑦 1
+ − + =
2 2 2 2 2
1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − = 0
2
1
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
1
2gx = -x, 2fy = y, c 
2
1 1
g , f 
2 2
Center (-g, -f)
1 1
Centre ( 2 , − 2)
Radius = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝐶
1 2 −1 2 −1
Radius = √( ) + ( ) −
2 2 2
1 1 1
Radius = √4 + 4 + 2
= √1
=1
1 1
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 1 is the equation of the circle with center (2 , − 2) and radius 1.

Example III
Find the equation of the circle with the following centers and radii
(a) Center (2, 3) radius 1
(b) Center (3, -4) radius 5
−3 1
(c) Center ( 2 , 2) and radius 2
−1 1 1
(d) Center ( 4 , 2) and radius 2 √2
(e) Center (0, -5) and radius 5

Solution
(a) Center (2, 3) radius 1
Given a circle of centre (a, b) and radius r. The equation of the circle is (x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2.
Consider the equation of the circle
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 with center (a, b) and radius r
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 12
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 1

165
 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 13 − 1 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 12 = 0

The equation of the circle with center (2, 3) and radius 1 is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 12 = 0

(b) Center (3, -4) radius 5

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − −4)2 = 52
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 52
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 16 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 0
The equation of the circle with center (3, -4) and radius 5 is 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 = 0

−3 1
(c) Center ( , 2) and radius
2 2
−3 2 2
1 2
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − 2) = ( )
2 2

3 2 1
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 − 2)2 =
2 4
9 1
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 =
4 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 6 = 0
−3 1
Equation of the circle with center ( 2 , 2) and radius 𝑟 = 2 is x2  y 2  3x  4 y  6  0

−1 1 1
(d) Center ( 4 , 2) and radius 2 √2
−1 2 1 2 1 2
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − ) = ( √2)
4 2 2
1 2 1 2 1
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 − ) = (2)
4 2 4
1 2 1 2 1
(𝑥 + ) + (𝑦 − ) =
4 2 2
1 1 1 1
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + + 𝑦2 − 𝑦 + =
2 16 4 2
2 2
1 1 1 1
𝑥 +𝑦 + 𝑥−𝑦+ + − =0
2 16 4 2
1 3
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥 − 𝑦 − =0
2 16
16𝑥 2 + 16𝑦 2 + 8𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 3 = 0

(e) Center (0, -5) and radius 5

(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − −5)2 = 52

166
 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 5)2 = 52
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 + 25 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10𝑦 = 0

Example III
State which of the following are equations of the circles
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5 = 0
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10 = 0
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑐 = 0
(d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 1
(e) 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 1
(f) 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 16
(g) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 7
(h) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 1
(i) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 4

Solution

(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 5
2
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = (√5)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5 = 0 is an equation of a circle

(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = −10
2
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = (√−10)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 10 = 0 is not an equation of a circle, since 𝑟 = √−10 is not real.

(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = −𝑐
2
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = (√−𝑐)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑐 = 0 is an equation of the circle when c < 0.
(d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 1
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 1
Comparing 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 1 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
2 2

 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑏𝑥𝑦 = 1 is not an equation of a circle because of the component of 𝑏𝑥𝑦

(e) 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 1
9𝑥 2 9𝑦 2 1
+ =
9 9 9
2 2
1
𝑥 +𝑦 =
9
1 2
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = ( )
3

167
 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 1 is a circle

(f) 7𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 16
Is not a circle because the co-efficient of 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 2 are not the same

(g) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑦 2 = 7
Is not a circle because the co-efficient of x2 and y2 are not the same.

(h) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 = 1
Is a circle

(i) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 4

Is not a circle

Example IV (UNEB Question)

The equation of the circle with center O is given by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 where A, B and C are
constants. Given that 4A = 3B, 3A = 2C and C = 9
Determine
(a) The coordinates of the center of the circle
(b) The radius of the circle

Solution
4A = 3B …………………… (1)
3A = 2C …………………… (2)
C = 9 ………………………. (3)
Substituting eqn. (3) in eqn. (2)
3𝐴 = 2(9)
3𝐴 = 18
𝐴=6
Substituting A = 6 in Eqn (1)
4 × 6 = 3B
𝐵=8
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 9 = 0
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 9 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
2g = 6  g = 3
2f = 8,  f = 4
C=9
Centre (-3, -4)
Radius = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝐶
Radius = √(−3)2 + (−4)2 − 9
= √9 + 16 − 9
=4

168
Example V
Find the equation of a circle whose center is (2, 1) and passes through (4, -3)
Solution

(4, -3)

(2, 1)

𝑟 = √(2 − 4)2 + (1 − −3)2

𝑟 = √4 + 16
𝑟 = √20
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = (√20)2
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 20

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 15 = 0

Example VI
The points (8, 4) and (2, 2) are end points of the diameter of the circle. Find the center, the radius and the
equation of the circle
Solution

(8, 4)

(2, 2)

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝐶( , )
2 2
2+8 2+4
𝐶( , )
2 2
𝐶(5, 3)

(8, 4)

(5, 3)

169
 𝑟 = √(5 − 8)2 + (3 − 4)2

𝑟 = √9 + 1

𝑟 = √10
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 10
𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 10
2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 34 − 10 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 24 = 0

Example VI
Find the equation of a circle passing through points (2, 3) and (4, 5) having its center on the line
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3
Solution
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3
Let the center be (x, y). Since it lies on the line
𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3 = 0, let the x-co-ordinate of the center be a.
Then the y-co-ordinate
𝑦 = 4𝑎 + 3

y = 4x + 3
(2, 3)

(a, 4a+3)

(4, 5)

r1  ( a  2) 2  (4a  3  3) 2
r1  ( a  2) 2  (4a ) 2
r1  a 2  4a  4  16a 2
r1  17 a 2  4a  4

r2  ( a  4) 2  (4a  3  5) 2
r2  ( a  4) 2  (4a  2) 2
r2  a 2  8a  16  16a 2  16a  4
r2  17 a 2  24a  20

r1 = r2 = r
17a2  4a  4  17a2  24a  20

170
 17a2 – 4a + 4 = 17a2 – 24a + 20
20a = 16
16 4
a 
20 5
r1  r  17  ( 54 ) 2  4( 54 )  4
r 1716
25
 165  4
292
r
25

Centre(a, 4a+3)
centre  54 , 454  3
centre  54 , 315 
 
2
( x  54 ) 2  ( y  315 ) 2  292
25

292
( x  54 ) 2  ( y  315 ) 2 
25
8 x 16 62 y 961 292
x2    y2   
5 25 5 25 25
8 x 62 y 977 292
x2  y 2     0
5 5 25 25
8 x 62 y 685
x2  y 2    0
5 5 25
 5x2 + 5y2 – 8x – 62y + 137 = 0
Example
What is the equation of the circle whose center lies on the 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2 = 0 which touches the positive axes.
Solution
Let the y-coordinate of the centre be a
x – 2y + 2 = 0
x – 2a + 2 = 0
x = 2a– 2
(2a – 2, a)

(0, 2a - 2) r
(2a - 2, a)

171
 2a – 2 = a
a=2
The center is (2, 2); radius r = 2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 22
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0

172
Equation of circle passing through three points
Example I
Find the equation of the circle passing through the points
(a) A(-2, 1) B(6, 1) and C(-2, 7)
(b) A(-1, 4) B(2, 5) and C(0, 1)
(c) A(3, 1) B(8, 2) and C(2, 6)
(d) A(5, 7) B(1, 6) and C(2, 2)

Solution
(a) A(-2, 1) B(6, 1) and C(-2, 7)
(-2, 1)
(6, 1)

(a, b)

(-2, 7)

r1  (a   2) 2  (b  1) 2
r2  (a  6) 2  (b  1) 2
r3  (a   2) 2  (b  7) 2

Equating the radii; r1 = r2 = r

(a   2) 2  (b  1) 2  (a  6) 2  (b  1) 2

(𝑎 + 2)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = (𝑎 − 6)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2

𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏 + 1 = 𝑎2 − 12𝑎 + 36 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏 + 1
a2 + b2 + 4a – 2b + 5 = a2 + b2 – 12a – 2b + 37
4𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 5 = −12𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 37
16𝑎 = 32
𝑎=2
Also r1 = r3 = r
√(𝑎 − −2)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = √(𝑎 − −2)2 + (𝑏 − 7)2

(𝑎 + 2)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = (𝑎 + 2)2 + (𝑏 − 7)2

𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏 + 1 = 𝑎2 + 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 14𝑏 + 49
b2 – 2b + 1 = b2 – 14b + 49
12𝑏 = 48
𝑏=4
Center (a, b) = (2, 4)

173
 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = √(𝑎 − −2)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2
= √(2 − −2)2 + (4 − 1)2
= √16 + 9
=5
(x – a)2 + (y – b) = r2
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 52
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 16 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 20 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 5 = 0

Alternatively; Consider the general equation of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

At (-2, 1)
−22 + 12 + 2𝑔(−2) + 2𝑓(1) + 𝑐 = 0
−4𝑔 + 2𝑓 + 𝑐 = −5…………………. (1)

At (6, 1), 62  12  2 g (6)  2 f (1)  c  0

36 + 1 + 12𝑔 + 2𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
12𝑔 + 2𝑓 + 𝑐 = −37……………….. (2)

At (-2, 7), 22  72  2 g (2)  2 f (7)  c  0

4 + 49 − 4𝑔 + 14𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
−4𝑔 + 14𝑓 + 𝑐 = −53……………… (3)
Solving equation (1), 2 and 3 simultaneously
𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −4, 𝑐 = −5

Substituting 𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −4, 𝑐 = −5 in the general equation of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 =
0

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥(−2) + 2𝑦(−4) + −5 = 0

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 5 = 0
(As before)
(b) A(-1, 4) B(2, 5) and C(0, 1)
(2, 5)

r
(-1, 4) (a, b)

(0, 1)

𝑟1 = √(𝑎 − −1)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2

174
 𝑟2 = √(𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 5)2

𝑟3 = √(𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2

r1 = r2= r
(a  1)  (b  4) 2  (a  2) 2  (b  5) 2
2

(𝑎 + 1)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2 = (𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 5)2

𝑎 + 2𝑎 + 1 + 𝑏 2 − 8𝑏 + 16 = 𝑎2 − 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 10𝑏 + 25
2

2𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 17 = −4𝑎 − 10𝑏 + 29
6𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 12
 3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 6………………………… (1)
Similarly, r1 = r3 = r

√(𝑎 + 1)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2 = √(𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2

(𝑎 + 1)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2 = (𝑎 − 0)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2

𝑎2 + 2𝑎 + 1 + 𝑏 2 − 8𝑏 + 16 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑏 + 1
2𝑎 − 8𝑏 + 17 = −2𝑏 + 1
2𝑎 − 6𝑏 = −16
𝑎 − 3𝑏 = −8…………………………. (2)
From eqn. (1)
𝑏 = 6 − 3𝑎
Substituting 𝑏 = 6 − 3𝑎 in eqn. (2)
𝑎 − 3(6 − 3𝑎) = −8
𝑎 − 18 + 9𝑎 = −8
10𝑎 = 10
𝑎=1
b = 6 – 3× 1
𝑏=3
Center (1, 3)
𝑟 = √(𝑎 + 1)2 + (𝑏 − 4)2
𝑟 = √(1 − −1)2 + (3 − 4)2
𝑟 = √4 + 1
𝑟 = √5
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = (√5)2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 5
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5 = 0
Alternatively
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
At (-1, 4): (1)2  42  2 g (1)  2 f (4)  c  0
1 + 16 − 2𝑔 + 8𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
−2𝑔 + 8𝑓 + 𝑐 = −17

175
At (2, 5): (2)2  52  2 g (2)  2 f (5)  c  0
4 + 25 + 4𝑔 + 10𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
4𝑔 + 10𝑓 + 𝑐 = −29………………… (2)

At (0, 1): 02  12  2 g (0)  2 f (1)  c  0

2𝑓 + 𝑐 = −1…………………………. (3)
Solving eqn. 1, 2 and 3 simultaneously
𝑔 = 1, 𝑓 = −3, 𝑐 = 5
Substituting 𝑔 = −1, 𝑓 = −3, 𝑐 = 5 in the general equation of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥(1) + 2𝑦(−3) + 5 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 5 = 0 (as before)
(c) A(3, 1) B(8, 2) and C(2, 6)

(2, 6)

r
(3, 1) (a, b)

(8, 2)

𝑟1 = √(𝑎 − 3)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2

𝑟2 = √(𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 6)2
𝑟2 = √(𝑎 − 8)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2
r1 = r2 = r
√(𝑎 − 3) + (𝑏 − 1)2 = √(𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 6)2
2

(𝑎 − 3)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = (𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 6)2

a2  6a  9  b2  2b  1  a 2  4a  4  b2  12b  36
−6𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 10 = −4𝑎 − 12𝑏 + 40
−2𝑎 + 10𝑏 = 30
−𝑎 + 5𝑏 = 15
𝑎 = 5𝑏 − 15………………………….. (1)
Similarly; r1 = r3 = r

√(𝑎 − 3)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = √(𝑎 − 8)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2

(𝑎 − 3)2 + (𝑏 − 1)2 = (𝑎 − 8)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2

a2  6a  9  b2  2b  1  a 2  16a  64  b2  4b  4
−6𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 10 = −16𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 68

176
 10𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 58
 5𝑎 + 𝑏 = 29…………………………. (2)
Substituting equation (1) in (2)
5(5𝑏 − 15) + 𝑏 = 29
25𝑏 − 75 + 𝑏 = 29
26𝑏 = 104
𝑏=4
𝑎 = 5𝑏 − 15
𝑎 = 5 × 4 − 15
𝑎=5
Center (5, 4)
𝑟 = √(5 − 3)2 + (4 − 1)2
𝑟 = √4 + 9
𝑟 = √13
(𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = (√13)2
𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + 16 = 13
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 41 = 13
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 28 = 0
Alternatively
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

At (3, 1): 32  12  2 g  3  2 f 1  c  0

9 + 1 + 6𝑔 + 2𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
6𝑔 + 2𝑓 + 𝑐 = −10…………………… (1)

At (8, 2): 82  22  2 g 8   2 f  2   c  0

64 + 4 + 16𝑔 + 4𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
16𝑔 + 4𝑓 + 𝑐 = −68…………………. (2)

At (2, 2): 22  22  2 g  2   2 f  2   c  0
4 + 4 + 4𝑔 + 4𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
4𝑔 + 4𝑓 + 𝑐 = −8……………………. (3)
Solving eqn. 1, 2 and 3 simultaneously
𝑔 = −5, 𝑓 = −4, 𝑐 = 28
Substituting the values of g, f and c in the general equation
2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2(−5)𝑥 + 2𝑦(−4) + 28 = 0

177
 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 28 = 0
(As before)
(d) A(5, 7) B(1, 6) and C(2, 2)

(a, b)

𝑟1 = √(𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2

𝑟2 = √(𝑎 − 1)2 + (𝑏 − 6)2

𝑟3 = √(𝑎 − 5)2 + (𝑏 − 7)2

Equating the radii
r1 = r2 = r
(a  2)  (b  2)  (a  1) 2  (b  6) 2 ……… (1)
2 2

(a  2) 2  (b  2) 2  (a  5) 2  (b  7) 2 ……… (2)

From equation (1)

(𝑎 − 2)2 + (𝑏 − 2)2 = (𝑎 − 1)2 + (𝑏 − 6)2
𝑎 − 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 + 4 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 1 + 𝑏 2 − 12𝑏 + 36
2

−4𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 8 = −2𝑎 − 12𝑏 + 37

12𝑏 − 4𝑏 − 4𝑎 + 2𝑎 = 37 − 8
8𝑏 − 2𝑎 = 29………………………… (3)
From eqn. (2)
(a – 2)2 + (b – 2)2 = (a – 5)2 + (b – 7)2
𝑎2 − 4𝑎 + 4 + 𝑏 2 − 4𝑏 + 4 = 𝑎2 − 10𝑎 + 25 + 𝑏 2 − 14𝑏 + 49
−4𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 8 = −10𝑎 − 14𝑏 + 74
6𝑎 + 10𝑏 = 74 − 8
6𝑎 + 10𝑏 = 66
3𝑎 + 5𝑏 = 33………………………. (4)
Solving Eqn (3) and (4) simultaneously
7 9
 𝑎 = , and 𝑏 =
2 2
7 9
Center ( , )
2 2

178
 2 2
7 9
𝑟 = √( − 2) + ( − 2)
2 2

9 25
𝑟=√ +
4 4

√34
𝑟=
2
(x – a)2 + (y – b)2 = r2
7 2 9 2 34
(𝑥 − ) + (𝑦 − ) =
2 2 4
49 81 34
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + + 𝑦 2 − 9𝑦 + =
4 4 4
96
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 7𝑥 − 9𝑦 + =0
4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 7𝑥 − 9𝑦 + 24 = 0
Alternatively
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

At (5, 7): 52  7 2  2 g  5   2 f  7   c  0
25 + 49 + 10𝑔 + 14𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
10𝑔 + 14𝑓 + 𝑐 = −74………………… (1)

At (1, 6): 12  62  2 g 1  2 f  6   c  0

1 + 36 + 2𝑔 + 12𝑓 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑔 + 12𝑓 + 𝑐 = −37………………… (2)

At (2, 2): 22  22  2 g  2   2 f  2   c  0
4𝑔 + 4𝑓 + 𝑐 = −8…………………… (3)
Solving eqn. 1, 2 and 3 simultaneously
−7 −9
𝑔= ,𝑓 = , 𝑐 = 24
2 2
Substituting g, f and c in the general equation of the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.
−7 −9
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 2 ( )𝑥 + 2( )𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
2 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 7𝑥 − 9𝑦 + 24 = 0

Parametric Equations of circle

Consider a circle (𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 the parametric equations of the above circles are 𝑥 − 𝑎 =
2

𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

179
 ∴ 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Example I
Find the parametric equation of the circle (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 4

Solution
(𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 22
𝑥 − 4 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 3 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑟=2
𝑥 − 4 = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 3 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 4 + 2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 3 + 2 sin 𝜃
The parametric equations of the circle (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 4 are
𝑥 = 4 + 2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 3 + 2 sin 𝜃

Example II
Find the parametric equations of the circle
(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9
Solution
Comparing (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 9 with the equation of the circle (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2
𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑟 = 3
𝑥 + 1 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 2 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥 + 1 = 3 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 2 = 3 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃 − 1
𝑦 = 2 + 3 sin 𝜃
Example III
Find the parametric equations of the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
By completing squares;s
(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) − 4 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4
𝑥 − 2 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 1 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥 − 2 = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 − 1 = 2 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 1 + 2 sin 𝜃

180
Example IV
Find the parametric equation of a circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0
By completing squares;
x2  6 x  9  9  y 2  4 y 2  4  4  12  0
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 25
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 52
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑟 = 5
𝑥 − 3 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 + 2 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥 − 3 = 5 cos 𝜃
𝑦 + 2 = 5 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 3 + 5 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = −2 + 5 sin 𝜃

Example V
Find the Cartesian equation of the circle with parametric equations
𝑥 = −2 + 3 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 3 + 3 sin 𝜃
Solution
𝑥+2
= cos 𝜃
3
𝑦−3
= sin 𝜃
3
cos2   sin 2   1
(𝑥+2)2 (𝑦−3)2
9
+ 9
=1
( x  2)
2
( y  3)
2
But  1
9 9
(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 = 9
𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 9
2

𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 4 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 4 = 0

Tangents to the Circle

A tangent to the circle is a line which touches the circle at only one point and makes 900 with the radius of
the circle.

181
Length of the tangent to a circle

Example
Find the length of the tangent from (5, 7) to the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 9 = 0
Solution
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 9 = 0 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.
𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −3, 𝑐 = 9
Center (-g, -f)
Center (2, 3)
𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √4 + 9 − 9
𝑟=2

A B(5, 7)

C(2, 3)

𝐶𝐵 = √(2 − 5)2 + (3 − 7)2

𝐶𝐵 = √9 + 16
𝐶𝐵 = 5
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝐵2
2

𝐴𝐵2 + 22 = 52
𝐴𝐵2 = 52 − 22
𝐴𝐵2 = 21
𝐴𝐵 = √21 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
The length of the tangent is 21 units
Example II
Find the lengths of the tangents from the given points to the following circles

(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 10 = 0, (0, 0)
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 2 = 0, (−2, 3)

182
Solution
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 10 = 0, (0, 0)
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 10 = 0 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.
2𝑔𝑥 = −4𝑥
𝑔 = −2
2𝑓𝑦 = −6𝑦
𝑓 = −3
Center (-g, -f)
Center (2, 3)
𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √4 + 9 − 10
𝑟 = √3

C(2, 3)

√3

A(0,0)
B

𝐴𝐶 = √(0 − 2)2 + (0 − 3)2

𝐴𝐶 = √4 + 9
𝐴𝐶 = √13
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 2
2

𝐴𝐵2 + (√3)2 = (√13)2

𝐴𝐵2 + 3 = 13
𝐴𝐵2 = 10
𝐴𝐵 = √10

(b) 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎𝒚 − 𝟐 = 𝟎, (−𝟐, 𝟑)

Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 + 10𝑦 − 2 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0.
𝑔 = 3, 𝑓 = 5, 𝑐 = −2
Center (-3, -5)

𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √9 + 25 − −2
𝑟=6

C(-3, -5)

A(-2,3)
B

183
 𝐴𝐶 = √(−2 − −3)2 + (3 − −5)2
𝐴𝐶 = √1 + 64
𝐴𝐶 = √65
2
𝐴𝐵2 + 62 = (√65)
𝐴𝐵2 + 36 = 65
𝐴𝐵2 = 65 − 36
𝐴𝐵2 = 29
𝐴𝐵 = √29

Alternative method of finding length of the tangent to a circle

The length of a tangent drawn from a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 is given
by

𝐿 = √𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔𝑥1 + 2𝑓𝑦1 + 𝑐

= √𝑆1 where L = length of the tangent

The square of the length of the tangent from the point P is called a power point with respect to the circle.
Example I
Find the length of the tangent drawn from the point (5, 1) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 3 = 0

Solution
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 3 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0
𝑔 = 3, 𝑓 = −2, 𝑐 = 3
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (5, 1)

L  x12  y12  2 gx1  2 fy1  c

𝐿 = √52 + 12 + 2𝑔(5) + 2𝑓(1) + 𝑐

𝐿 = √52 + 12 + 2 × 3(5) + 2(−2)(1) − 3

𝐿 = √25 + 1 + 30 − 4 − 3
𝐿 = 7 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
Example II
If the length of the tangent from the point (f, g) to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 is four times the length of the
tangent from (f1, g1) it to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥, show that 15 f12  15g12  64 f1  4  0

Solution
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 − 4 = 0
𝑔 = 0, 𝑓 = 0, 𝑐 = −4
𝐿1 = √𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔𝑥1 + 2𝑓𝑦1 + 𝑐

184
 𝐿1 = √𝑔12 + 𝑓12 + 0 + 0 + −4

L1  g12  f12  4
For x2 + y2 – 4x = 0, g = -2 and f = 0

𝐿2 = √𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔𝑥1 + 2𝑓𝑦1 + 𝑐

L2  g12  f12  2  2  g1  0  0

L2  g12  f12  4 g1
But L1 = 4L2
g12  f12  4  4 g12  f12  4 g1
g12  f12  4  16  g12  f12  4 g1 
g12  f12  4  16g12  16 f12  64g1
15 g1  15 f1  64 g1  4  0 (as required)

Equation of a Tangent
Example I
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0 𝑎𝑡 (2, 2)
Solution
𝑑 𝑑
( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8) = (0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 + 2𝑑𝑥 − 2𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 +2−2 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(2𝑦 − 2) = −2 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −2 − 2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 − 2
𝑑𝑦 −2(1 + 𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 2(𝑦 − 1)
𝑑𝑦 −1(1 + 𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦−1
𝑑𝑦 −1 − 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦−1
𝑑𝑦 −1 − 2
| =
𝑑𝑥 (2,2) 2−1

𝑑𝑦
= −3
𝑑𝑥
𝑦−2
= −3
𝑥−2

185
 𝑦 − 2 = −3(𝑥 − 2)

𝑦 − 2 = −3𝑥 + 6
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 8
Alternatively
Note: The equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑡 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑎2

The equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0 at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +
𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0

We can now find the equation of the tangent to the 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0 𝑎𝑡 (2, 2)

Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

𝑔 = 1, 𝑓 = −1, 𝑐 = −8
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0
𝑥(2) + 𝑦(2) + 𝑔(𝑥 + 2) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 2) − 8 = 0
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1(𝑥 + 2) − 1(𝑦 + 2) − 8 = 0
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2 − 𝑦 − 2 − 8 = 0
3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 8
𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 8 (𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 )
Example II
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 1 = 0 at C (1, -1)
Solution
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 1 = 0
4𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 8𝑑𝑥 − 5𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
4𝑥 + 4𝑦 −8−5 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(4𝑦 − 5) = 8 − 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 8 − 4𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 4𝑦 − 5
dy 8  4 1 4
 
=
dx (1, 1) 4  1  5 −9

𝑦 − −1 −4
=
𝑥−1 9
9(𝑦 + 1) = −4(𝑥 − 1)
9𝑦 + 9 = −4𝑥 + 4
9𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 5

Alternative method
From 2x2 + 2y2 – 8x – 5y – 1 = 0,

186
 5y 1
x2 + y2 – 4x – − =0
2 2
2 2
x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
5 1
 g = -2, f = ,c=
4 2
x1 = 1, y1 = -1
The equation of the tangent is given by
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
x(1) + y(-1) + -2(x + 1) + 5 (y – 1) + 1 = 0
4 2
5 y 5 1
x – y – 2x – 2 + +  =0
4 4 2
9y 5
x   0
4 4
-4x – 9y – 5 = 0
4x + 9y + 5 = 0

Example III
The tangent to the circle x2 + y2 – 4x + 6y – 77 = 0 at the point (5, 6) meets the axes at A and B. find A and
B
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 77 = 0
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 4𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 −4+6 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(2𝑦 + 6) = 4 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4 − 2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 + 6
dy 4−2(5)
= 2(6)+6
dx (5, 6)

𝑑𝑦 −6
=
𝑑𝑥 18
−1
=
3
𝑦 − 6 −1
=
𝑥−5 3
3(𝑦 − 6) = −1(𝑥 − 5)
3𝑦 − 18 = −𝑥 + 5
3𝑦 = −𝑥 + 23
x + 3y = 23
Alternative method
Comparing x2 + y2 – 4x + 6y – 77 = 0 with x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

187
 g = -2, f = 3, c = -77
x1 = 5, y1 = 6
The equation of the tangent is
x1x + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
 5x + 6y + -2(x + 5) + 3(y + 6) – 77 = 0
5x + 6y – 2x – 10 + 3y + 18 – 77 = 0
3x + 9y = 69
 x + 3y = 23, as before.
At the x- axis (A), y = 0
0 = −𝑥 + 23
𝑥 = 23
The tangent meets the x- axis at (23, 0)
At the y- axis (B), x = 0
3𝑦 = 23
23
𝑦=
3
23
The curve cuts the y- axis at (0, 3 )

Example VII
Find the equation of the tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 30𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 109 = 0 𝑎𝑡 (4, −1)
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 30𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 109 = 0
𝑑 𝑑
( 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 30𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 109) = (0)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 30𝑑𝑥 + 6𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 30 + 6 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(2𝑦 + 6) = 30 − 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 30 − 2𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 + 6
𝑑𝑦 15 − 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦+3
dy 15  4 11
 
dx (4, 1) 1  3 2
𝑦 − −1 11
=
𝑥−4 2
2𝑦 + 2 = 11𝑥 − 44
2𝑦 = 11𝑥 − 46
0 = 11𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 46
Alternatively

188
Given a circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 the equation of the tangent at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +
𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0

Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 30𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 109 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑔 = −15, 𝑓 = 3, 𝑐 = 109, x1 = 4, y1 = -1
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑔(𝑥 + 𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑦 + 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 = 0
 x  4   y  1  15  x  4   3  y  1  109  0
4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 15𝑥 − 60 + 3𝑦 − 3 + 109 = 0
−11𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 46 = 0
11𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 46 = 0 (𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒)

Example IV
Show that 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is a tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 if 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑚2 )
Solution
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
𝑐 + (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2
𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑚𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2
𝑥 2 + 𝑚2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑚𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 = 0
(1 + 𝑚2 )𝑥 2 + (2𝑚𝑐)𝑥 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 = 0
𝐵2 = 4𝐴𝐶 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦)
(2𝑚𝑐)2 = 4(1 + 𝑚2 )[𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ]
4𝑚2 𝑐 2 = 4(1 + 𝑚2 )[𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ]
𝑚2 𝑐 2 = (1 + 𝑚2 )[𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ]
𝑚2 𝑐 2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 + 𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑎2
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑚2 𝑎2
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑚2 )
Example V
Show that the line y = x + 1 touches the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 9 = 0.
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 9 = 0
y=x+1
𝑥 2 + (𝑥 + 1)2 − 8𝑥 − 2(𝑥 + 1) + 9 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 8𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 2 + 9 = 0
2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 8 = 0
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 = 0
For the line to touch the circle
𝐵2 = 4𝐴𝐶
(−4)2 = 4(4)(1)
16 = 16
The line y = x + 1 touches the circle

189
 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 9 = 0
Note:
If 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 is a line and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is a
circle then
(i) 𝐶 2 > 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑚2 ) the line is a secant to
the circle
(ii) If 𝐶 2 = 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑚2 ) the line touches the
circle
(iii) If 𝐶 2 < 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑚2 ) the line doesn’t
meet the circle

Example VI
For what values of c will the line y = 2x + c be tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 52

Solution
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 52
𝑥 2 + (2𝑥 + 𝑐)2 = 5
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑐 + 𝑐 2 = 5
5𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑐 + 𝑐 2 − 5 = 0
For tangency 𝐵2 = 4𝐴𝐶
(4𝑐)2 = 4(5)(𝑐 2 − 5)
16𝑐 2 = 20𝑐 2 − 100
100 = 4𝑐 2
25 = 𝑐 2
𝑐=5
Example VII
For what values of 𝛼, does the line 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 𝛼 touch the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 = 0?
Solution
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 𝛼 …………. (i)
x2 + y2 – 10x = 10 ………. (ii)
𝛼−3𝑥
Substituting 𝑦 = 4
in Eqn (ii)
𝛼 − 3𝑥 2
 𝑥2 + ( ) − 10𝑥 = 0
4
𝛼 2 − 6𝛼𝑥 + 9𝑥 2
𝑥2 + − 10𝑥 = 0
16
16𝑥 2 + 𝛼 2 − 6𝑥𝛼 + 9𝑥 2 − 160𝑥 = 0
25𝑥 2 + (−6𝛼 − 160)𝑥 + 𝛼 2 = 0
For tangency 𝐵2 = 4𝐴𝐶
(−6𝛼 − 160)2 = 4 × 25 (𝛼 2 )
36𝛼 2 + 1920𝛼 + 25600 = 100𝛼 2

190
 64𝛼 2 − 1920𝛼 − 25600 = 0
𝛼 2 − 30𝛼 − 400 = 0
(𝛼 − 40)(𝛼 + 10) = 0
𝛼 = 40, 𝛼 = −10

Example VIII
Find the equation of the tangents to the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 which are parallel to the line 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5 = 0
Solution
Let the tangent be 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
4𝑥 5
Since the tangent is parallel to 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5 = 0 (𝑦 = − − )
3 3
−4
𝑚=
3
4𝑥
𝑦=− +𝑐
3
3𝑦 + 4𝑥 = 3𝑐 is equation of the tangent
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑔 = −3, 𝑓 = 2, 𝑐 = −12
Center (+3, -2)

(3, -2)

B 4x + 3y = 3c

𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √9 + 4 − −12
𝑟=5
But we can obtain r using the formula for perpendicular distance of a point from a line
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
𝑑=| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4(3) + 3(−2) + −3𝑐
𝑟=| |
√42 + 32
12 − 6 − 3𝑐
5=| |
5
6 − 3𝑐
5 = ±( )
5

191
 25 = 6 − 3𝑐
3𝑐 = 6 − 25
3𝑐 = −19
6 − 3𝑐
5 = −( )
5
25 = −6 + 3𝑐
31 = 3𝑐
Since the tangents to the circle are given by
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 3𝑐
 The equations of the tangents are 4x + 3y = -19 and 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = +31

Example ix
(i) Find the equation of the tangents to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0 which are parallel to line
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0
(ii) Which are perpendicular to the line 3x–4y – 1=0
Solution
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 4 = 0
𝑔 = −1, 𝑓 = −2, 𝑐 = −4
Center (1, 2)
𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
𝑟 = √1 + 4 − −4
𝑟=3
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0
3𝑥 1
− =𝑦
4 4
Since the tangents are parallel to the line
3
⇒ 𝑚 = 4 for the tangent 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
3𝑥
𝑦= 4
+ 𝐶, (4𝑦 − 3𝑥) = 4𝐶 are the equations of the tangents

(1, 2)

B -3x + 4y = 4c

𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
𝑟=| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

192
 −3(1) + 4(2) + 4𝑐
3=| |
√−32 + 42
5 + 4𝑐
3=| |
5
5 + 4𝑐
3 = ±( )
5
5 + 4𝑐
3=
5
15 = 5 + 4𝑐
4𝑐 = 10
5 + 4𝑐
3 = −( )
5
15 = −5 − 4𝑐
4𝑐 = −20
Since the equations of the tangent that are parallel to the line 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0 are −3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 4𝑐
 The required tangents are:
−3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 10
−3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −20
(ii) Let the tangents that are perpendicular to the line 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0 be 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 1 = 0
4𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 1
3𝑥 1
𝑦= −
4 4
3
m
4
4
 m1 
3
4 x
y c
3
3𝑦 + 4𝑥 = 3𝑐
Center (1, 2)
𝑟=3

(1, 2)

B 4x + 3y = 3c

193
 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
𝑟=| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
4(1) + 3(2) − 3𝑐
3=| |
√42 + 32
4 + 6 − 3𝑐
3=| |
5
10 − 3𝑐
3=
5
15 = 10 − 3𝑐
3𝑐 = −5
−(10 − 3𝑐)
3=
5
15 = −10 + 3𝑐
3𝑐 = 25
Since the tangent are;
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 3𝑐
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 25
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = −5

Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents is called the Director circle of a given
circle. The Director circle of a circle is a concentric circle having radius equal to √2 times the original
radius.

Example
Find the equation of the director circle of the circle (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 2
Solution
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 2
Center (2, -1)
Radius r = √2
The center of the director circle is (2, -1) and the radius of the director circle is
√2 × 𝑟
= √2 𝑋 √2
=2
The equation of the director circle is
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 = 22
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0

Example II

194
Find the equation of a director circle of the circle whose diameters are 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0 and 𝑥 + 4𝑦 −
5 = 0 and has an area of 154.
Solution
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 12 = 0…………………… (1)
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 5 = 0………………………. (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and (2) simultaneously
𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 2
The center of a circle is (-3, 2)
𝜋𝑟 2 = 154
22
𝑋 𝑟 2 = 154
7
𝑟=7
Radius of the director circle is 7√2
The equation of the director circle is
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = (7√2)2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2 = 98
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 98
Therefore, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 85 = 0 is the equation of the director circle.

Equation of a common chord of two circles

Let the equations of two intersecting circles be
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔1 𝑥 + 2𝑓1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0…… (1)
And
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔2 𝑥 + 2𝑓2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0……. (2)
Intersect at 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

P(x1, y1)

Q(x2, y2)

Now we observe from the figure that 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) lies on both given equations therefore, we get
𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔1 𝑥1 + 2𝑓1 𝑦1 + 𝑐1 = 0…… (3)
𝑥12 + 𝑦12 + 2𝑔2 𝑥1 + 2𝑓2 𝑦1 + 𝑐2 = 0 ….. (4)
Eqn. (3) − Eqn. (4)
2(𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )𝑥1 + 2(𝑓1 − 𝑓2 )𝑦1 + 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 = 0 … (5)
Again we observe from the above figure that point 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) lies on both circles

195
 𝑥22 + 𝑦22 + 2𝑔1 𝑥2 + 2𝑓1 𝑦2 + 𝑐1 = 0 …... (6)
𝑥22 + 𝑦22 + 2𝑔2 𝑥2 + 2𝑓2 𝑦2 + 𝑐2 = 0 …... (7)
Eqn. 6 – eqn. 7
2( g1  g 2 ) x2  2( f1  f 2 ) y2  c1  c2  0 …… (8)
From eqn. 5 and 8, it’s evident that the points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) lie on 2(𝑔1 − 𝑔2 )𝑥 + 2(𝑓1 − 𝑓2 )𝑦 +
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 = 0 which is a linear equation in x and y.
Note: While finding the equation of the common chord of two given intersecting circle, we fast express
each equation in the form
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

Example
Determine the equation of the chord of the two intersecting circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 31 = 0 and
2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 35 = 0 and prove that the common chord is perpendicular to the line joining the
two centres of the circles.
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 31 = 0……….. (1)
2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 − 35 = 0
35
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2
= 0………… (2)
Eqn. (1) – Eqn. (2)
27
−𝑥 − 6𝑦 + =0
2
−2𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 27 = 0
−2𝑥 27
𝑦= +
12 12
The equation of the chord:
−1
The gradient of the chord is
6
Comparing 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 31 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
2 2

𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −1
Center (2, 1) = C1
35
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2
= 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
3
𝑔 = − ,𝑓 = 2
2
3
Center ( 2 , −2) = C2
The gradient joining the two centers
−2 − 1
=
3
2−2
−3
= =6
1
−2

196
 Gradient of chord × gradient of line joining the two centres
−1
6× = −1
6
The chord is perpendicular to the line joining the two centers

Example
Show that the common chord of the circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4 = 0 passes through
the origin
Solution
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4 = 0 ……………………. (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4 = 0 ………... (2)
Eqn. (2) – eqn. (1)
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑦 = −2𝑥 is the equation of the common chord
At (0, 0), 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
0 = −2 × 0
0=0
The common chord passes through the origin.

Example
Find the equation of the common chord of the circles
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 10 = 0
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 0 ………… (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 10 = 0 ………. (2)
Eqn. (2) – eqn. (1)
+8𝑥 − 14𝑦 − 11 = 0
14𝑦 = −11 + 8𝑥
Example
Find the point of intersection of the two circles
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 6 = 0 and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 14 = 0
Solution
When we are finding the point of intersection, we first find the equation of the common chord and then we
solve it simultaneously with one of the equations of the circles
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 6 = 0 ……….. (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 14 = 0 ……… (2)
Eqn. (1) – eqn. (2)

197
 4𝑥 − 8 = 0
𝑥=2
𝑥 = 2 is the equation of the common chord
Substituting 𝑥 = 2, in eqn. (1)
22 + 𝑦 2 − 2 × 2 − 6𝑦 + 6 = 0
𝑦 2 − 6𝑦 + 6 = 0
6 ± √36 − 4 × 1 × 6
𝑦=
2𝑋1
6 ± √12
𝑦=
2
𝑦 = 3 ± √3
(2, 3 − √3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, 3 + √3)
The point of intersection of both circles is (2, 3 − √3)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2, 3 + √3)
Example
Find the point of intersection of the circles
x2  y 2  2 x  2 y  23  0 and x2  y 2  10x  7 y  31  0
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 23 = 0…………. (1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 31 = 0 ………. (2)
Eqn (1) – Eqn (2)
12𝑥 + 9𝑦 − 54 = 0
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 18
18 − 4𝑥
𝑦=
3
2
18 − 4𝑥 18 − 4𝑥
𝑥2 + ( ) + 2𝑥 + 2 ( ) − 23 = 0
3 3
324  144 x  16 x 2 36  8 x
x2   2x   23  0
9 3
9 𝑥 2 + 16𝑥 2 − 144𝑥 + 18𝑥 + 108 − 24𝑥 + 324 + 108 − 207 = 0
25𝑥 2 − 150𝑥 + 225 = 0
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 = 0
(𝑥 − 3)2 = 0
𝑥=3
18 − 4 × 3
𝑦=
3
𝑦=2
The point of intersection is (3, 2)

198
Types of intersecting circles
(1) Touching each other internally
Two circles touch each other internally if the distance between their centers is equal to the distance
between their radii
𝐶1 𝐶2 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2

C1 C2 r
2

r1

𝐶1 𝐶2 = 𝑟1 − 𝑟2
(2) Circle intersect at two distinct points when 𝐶1 𝐶2 < 𝑟1 − 𝑟2

C1 C2

(3) Concentric circles

These are circles with the same center.

(4) Circle which touches each other externally if the distance between their centers is equal to the sum of
their radii.

r1 r2

Example
Prove that the circles x2  y 2  10x  7 y  31  0 and x2  y 2  2 x  2 y  23  0 touch each other
externally.
Solution
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 31 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 23 = 0
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 − 7𝑦 + 31 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

199
 7
𝑔 = −5, 𝑓 = − , 𝑐 = 31
2
7
Center (5, 2 )
Radius = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐

−7 2
𝑟 = √(−5)2 + ( ) − 31
2

5
𝑟=
2
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 23 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑔 = 1, 𝑓 = 1, 𝑐 = −23
Center (-1, -1)
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = √(−1)2 + (1)2 − −23
𝑟=5
7
𝐶1 (5, ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 (−1, −1)
2
C1C2  (5  1) 2   72  1
2

81
= √36 +
4
15
𝐶1 𝐶2 =
2
𝐶1 𝐶2 = 7.5
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 7.5
Since 𝐶1 𝐶2 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
The two circles touch each other externally

Orthogonal Circle
Two circles are said to be orthogonal if the tangents at their point of intersection cut at right angles as
illustrated below.

r1 r2
C1 C2

𝑟12 + 𝑟22 = (𝐶1 𝐶2 )2

200
 Example
Prove that the circles 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 11 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 11 = 0 are orthogonal
Solution
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 11 = 0
𝑔 = 2, 𝑓 = −1, 𝑐 = −11
Center 𝐶1 (−2, 1)
𝑟1 = √22 + −12 − −11
𝑟1 = 4
Similarly
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 11 = 0 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑔 = −2, 𝑓 = −4, 𝑐 = 11
Center 𝐶2 (2, 4)
𝑟2 = √(−2)2 + (−4)2 − 11
𝑟2 = √4 + 16 − 11
𝑟2 = 3

4 3
(-2,1) (2,4)

𝐶1 𝐶2 = √(−2 − 2)2 + (1 − 4)2

̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐶1 𝐶2 = 5
2
Since 𝑟12 + 𝑟22 = 𝐶̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 𝐶2
The two circles are orthogonal

Example (UNEB Question)

13. a) Form the equation of a circle that passes through the points A (-1, 4), B (2, 5) and C (0, 1)
b) The line x + y = c is a tangent to the circle
x2 + y2 −4y + 2 = 0. Find the coordinates of the point of contact of the tangent for each value of c.
Solution
General equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
At A(-1, 4),
-2g + 8f + c = -17............................. (i)
At B(2, 5);
4g +10f + c = -29............................. (ii)
At C(0, 1):
2f + c = -1........................................ (iii)
2 Eqn (i) + Eqn (ii)
10c = 50

201
 c=5
From Eqn (iii);
2f + 5 = -1
2f = -6
f = -6
From Eqn (i)
-2g +8(-3) + 5 = -17
-2g = 24 − 17 − 5
g=-1
Hence the equation of the circle is
x2 + y2 − 2x − 6y + 5 = 0

Alternatively
A(-1, 4)

O
(x, y)
B(2, 5)
C(0, 1)

(0 − x)2 + (1 − y)2 = (-1 − x)2 + (4 − y)2

3y − x = 8................................. (i)
Also
(0 − x)2 + (1 − y)2 = (2 − x)2 + (5 − y)2
2y + x = 7...................................... (ii)
Eqn (i) + Eqn (ii)
5y = 15
y=3
3(3) − x = 8
x=1
Centre of the circle = (1, 3) and the radius is
(0  1) 2  (1  3) 2  5
Equation of the circle is x2 + y2 − 2x − 6y + 5 = 0

b) x2 + y2 − 4y + 2 = 0,
And y = c − x
At the point of contact,
x2 + (c − x)2 − 4(c − x) + 2 = 0
2x2 + (4 − 2c)x + (c2 − 4c + 2) = 0
For tangency, b2 = 4ac
(4 − 2c)2 = 4×2 × (c2 − 4c + 2)
4(2 − c)2 = 8 (c2 − 4c + 2)
(2 − c)2 = 2(c2 − 4c + 2)
4 − 4c + c2 = 2c2 − 8c + 4
c2 − 4c = c(c − 4) = 0
Either c = 0 or c = 4
If c = 0, y = -x
⟹ x2 + x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
2x2 + 4x + 2 = 0
x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 = 0
⟹ x = -1

202
Therefore y = 1
The point is (-1, 1)
If c = 4, y = 4 − x
(4 − x)2 + x2 − 4(4 − x) + 2 = 0
16 − 8x + x2 + x2 − 16 + 4x + 2 = 0
2x2 − 4x + 2 = 0
x2 − 2x + 1 = (x − 1)2 = 0
x = 1, y = 3
The point is (1, 3)

Example (UNEB Question)

a) Find the equation of a circle which passes through the points (5, 7), (1, 3) and (2, 2).
b) i) If x = 0 and y = 0 are tangents to the circle, x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, show that c = g2 = f 2.
ii) Given that the line 3x – 4y + 6 = 0 is also a tangent to the circle in (b) (i) above, determine the equation of
the circle lying in the first quadrant. (06 marks)
Solution
(a) The equation of the circle is given by;
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Substituting for (5, 7),
25 + 49 + 10g + 14f + c = 0
74 + 10g + 14f + c = 0
10g + 14f + c = -74 …………..(i)
Substituting for (1, 3)
1 + 9 + 2g + 4f + c = 0
2g + 6f + c = -10 ……………(ii)
Substituting for (2, 2)
4 + 4 + 4g + 4f + c = 0
4g + 4f + c = -8........................... (iii)
Eqn (i) − Eqn (ii)
6g + 10f = -64
g + 6f = -8................................... (iv)
Eqn (i) − Eqn (iii)
6g + 10f = -66
3g + 5f = -33................................. (v)
3 Eqn (iv) − Eqn (v)
3g + 3f = -24
3g + 5f = -33
-2f = 9
9
f 
2
Substituting for f in Eqn (iv)
9
g   8  7
2 2
Substituting for f and g in Eqn (iii)

 2   4  29   c  8

4 7

-28 − 36 + 2c = -16
2c = 64 − 16
48
c  24
2
The equation of the circle is x2 + y2 − 7x − 9y + 24 = 0

203
b) Given x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
When y = 0, x2 + 2gx + c = 0
2
For tangency, b = 4ac
(2g)2 = 4c
4g2 = 4c
g2 = c
When x = 0, y2 + (2f)2 + c = 0
For tangency, b2 = 4ac
(2f)2 = 4c
4f 2 = 4c
f2 = c
Hence c = g2 = f 2
ii) From the line 3x − 4y + 6 = 0
4y = 3x + 6
3x  6
y
4
 3 x  6 2
y 
2
16
Substituting for y and y2 in the equation
x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
 3 x  6 2  3x  6 
x 
2
 2 fx  2 f   f  0
2
16  4 
16x2 + (3x + 6)2 + 32fx + 8f(3x + 6) + 16f 2 = 0
16x2 + 9x2 + 36x + 36 + 32fx + 24fx + 48f + 32f 2 = 0
25x2 + (36 + 54f)x + (36 + 48f + 16f 2) = 0
For tangency, b2 = 4ac
(36 + 54f)2 = 4 × 24(36 + 48f + 16f 2)
(36 + 54f)2 = 100(36 + 48f + 16f 2)
By opening brackets and simplifying we obtain
2f 2 − f − 3 = 0
2f2 − 3f + 2f − 3 = 0
f(2f − 3) + 1(2f − 3) = 0
(2f − 3)(f + 1) = 0
Either 2f − 3 = 0
2f = 3
f = 3/2
Or f+1=0
f = -1
Now f = g
⟹ g = 3/2 or -1
Centre of the circle is (-g, -f). Since it is in the first quadrant, then the centre is (1, 1)
But c = g2 = f 2 = 1
The equation of the circle is x2 + y2 − 2x − 2y +1 = 0

204
 LOCI
When a point moves in the plane according to some given conditions, the path along which it moves is
called a locus.
A locus is a set of points which satisfy certain geometric conditions. Many geometric shapes are most
naturally and easily described as a loci. For example a circle is a set of points in the plane which are fixed
at distance r from a given point P (center).
Problems involving describing a certain locus is often solved by explicitly finding equations for the
coordinates of the points in the locus. Here is a step by step procedure for finding plane loci
Step I: If possible, choose a coordinate system that will make computations and equations as simple as
possible
Step II: Write the given conditions in mathematics from involving the coordinates (x, y).
Step III: Simplify the equations.
Step IV: Identify the shape out by the equations.

Example I
Find the locus of a circle with center at the origin and radius 5 units.
Solution
y
P(x,y)

(0,0) x

√(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 5

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 5
The locus is x2 + y2 = 5

Example II
What is the locus of a point which moves so that its distance from the point (3, 1) is 2 units?
Solution

205
 y P(x, y)

(3, y)

√(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 2

(𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 22
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 6 = 0
The locus is a circle with center (3, 1) and radius 2
Example III
What is the locus of point which is equidistant from the origin (0, 0) and the point (-2, 5)
Solution

y
A(-2, 5)
P(x, y)

(0, 0) x

𝐴𝑝=𝑝𝐵

√(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

(𝑥 + 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 − 10𝑦 + 25 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
4𝑥 − 10𝑦 + 29 = 0
The locus is a straight line with a positive gradient.
Example IV
Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the line 𝑥 = −1 and the origin.
Solution

206
 y

A P(x, y)

(0, 0) x
x = -1
(x + 1 = 0)
𝑎𝑥1 +𝑏𝑦1 +𝑐
The perpendicular distance of the line ax + by + c=0 from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is | |
√𝑎 2 +𝑏2
Comparing 𝑥 + 1 = 0 with 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 0, 𝑐 = 1
The perpendicular distance of the point (𝑥, 𝑦) from the line 𝑥 + 1 = 0 is
1(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1
𝐴𝑃 = | |=𝑥+1
√(1)2 + 02
𝐴𝑝 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑝𝐵 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝐴𝑝 = 𝑝𝐵
𝑥 + 1 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 + 1)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 + 1
The locus is a parabola
Example
Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the point (0, 1) and the line 𝑦 = −1
y
(0, 1)
P(x, y)

x
y = -1
A

Comparing 𝑦 + 1 = 0 (𝑦 = −1) with general equation of the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 1, 𝑐 = 1
The perpendicular distance of the point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) from the line is 𝑦 = −1 (𝑦 + 1 = 0)
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
⇒| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

207
 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 1
| |=𝑦+1
√02 + 12
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑦 + 1
𝑃𝐵 = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
𝑃𝐵 = √(𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝐵
𝑦 + 1 = √𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
(𝑦 + 1)2 = 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2
𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1
𝑥 2 = 4𝑦
The locus is a parabola

Example VI (UNEB Question)

A point p is twice as far from the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5 as from the point (3, 0). Find the locus of P.
Solution
y

P(x, y)

B(3, 0) x
x+y = 5

𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝐵
The perpendicular distance of point (𝑥, 𝑦) from the line 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5 = 0 is
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐
| |
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
1(𝑥)+1(𝑦)−5
| |
√12 +12
𝑥+𝑦−5
𝐴𝑃 = | |
√2
𝑃𝐵 = √(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2
𝐴𝑃 = 2𝑃𝐵
𝑥+𝑦−5
= 2√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2
√2
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5 = 2√2 [√(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 ]
(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 5)2 = 8[(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 ]
7 x2  7 y 2  2 xy  58x  10 y  47  0
Example VII
Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of squares of its distances from (−2, 0) and
(2, 0) is 26

208
 P(x, y)

A(-2, 0) B(2, 0)
Solution
̅̅̅̅)2 + (𝑃𝐵
(𝐴𝑃 ̅̅̅̅)2 = 26

     26
2 2
 x  2  ( y  0)2  x  2  y2
2 2

(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 26
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 = 26
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 18
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 9
The locus is a circle with center (0, 0) and radius 3 units
Example VIII
Find the locus of the point P which moves so that its distance from the point (5, 0) is a half its distance from
the line 𝑥 − 8 = 0
Solution
y
P(x, y)
A

B(5, 0) x

x=8

1
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴
2
2𝑃𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑃𝐴 = 8 − 𝑥
𝑃𝐵 = √(𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦 2
2PB = PA
2√(𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦 2 = (8 − 𝑥)
4[(𝑥 − 5)2 + 𝑦 2 ] = (8 − 𝑥)2
4[𝑥 − 10𝑥 + 25 + 𝑦 2 ] = 64 − 16𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2

3𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 24𝑥 + 36 = 0
Example IX
Find the locus of a point which is equidistant from the line x = 2 and the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
Solution

209
 y
P(x, y)
B
2 2
x +y =1
A

(0, 0) x

x=2

𝐴𝑃 = 𝑃𝐵
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 1 = 2 − 𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 3 − 𝑥
𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = (3 − 𝑥)2
2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 − 6𝑥 + 𝑥 2
𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 9 = 0
The locus is a parabola
Example X
The points R(2, 0) and P(3, 0) lie on the x-axis and Q(0, -y) on the y- axis. The perpendicular from the
origin to QR meets PQ at point S(X, -Y). Find the locus of S.
Solution
y

O R(2, 0) P(3, 0) x

S(X, -Y)

Q(0, -y)

Since S is in terms of X and Y

Then the locus of S must be in terms of X and Y
From the figure above,
(The gradient of PQ) = (Gradient of SQ)
0   y Y   y

30 X 0
𝑦 −𝑌 + 𝑦
=
3 𝑋
𝑦𝑋 = −3𝑌 + 3𝑦 …………….. (1)
(Gradient of RQ) X (Gradient of OS) = -1
−𝑌 𝑦
( ) 𝑋 ( ) = −1
𝑋 2

210
 −𝑌𝑦
= −1
2𝑋
2𝑋
𝑦 = 𝑌 ……………………...(2)
Substituting eqn. 2 in (1)
2𝑋 2 2𝑋
= −3𝑌 + 3 ( )
𝑌 𝑌
2𝑋 2 = −3𝑌 2 + 6𝑋
3𝑌 2 = −2𝑋 2 + 6𝑋
3𝑌 2 = 2𝑋(3 − 𝑋) is the locus of S

Example XI
Variable lines through the point O(0, 0) and A(2, 0) intersect at right angles at the point P. Show that the
locus of the midpoint of OP is 𝑦 2 + 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 0
Solution

P(x, y)

M(X, Y)

O(0, 0) A(2, 0)

(The gradient of OP) × (Gradient AP) = -1

𝑦 −𝑦
( ) × = −1
𝑥 2−𝑥
𝑦 2 = 𝑥(2 − 𝑥)………………………… (1)
Let the midpoint Op be M(X, Y)
0+𝑥
𝑋=
2
𝑥 = 2𝑋
0+𝑦
𝑌=
2
2𝑌 = 𝑦
𝑦 = 2𝑌
But x and y satisfy the above equation.
Substituting x = 2X and y = 2Y in Eqn (1);
(2𝑌)2 = 2𝑋[(2 − (2𝑋)]
4𝑌 2 = 2𝑋[2 − 2𝑋]
𝑌 2 = +𝑋[1 − 𝑋]
𝑌 2 = −𝑋[𝑋 − 1]
𝑌 2 + 𝑋[𝑋 − 1] = 0
Example XII
P is a point on a line of length 12 units, which moves so that it’s length lie on the axes. Find the locus of P
when its
(a) The midpoint of line,
(b) The point of trisection near the y-axis.

211
Solution

M(0, Y) ML = 12 Units

P(x, y)

(0, 0) L(X, 0) x

Since P is a midpoint of LM
0+𝑋
𝑥=
2
2𝑥 = 𝑋
0+𝑌
Similarly, 𝑦= 2
2𝑦 = 𝑌
Applying Pythagoras theorem on triangle OLM
𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 = 122
𝑋 2 + 𝑌 2 = 144
2 2
𝑋 + 𝑌 = 144……………………. (1)
Substituting 𝑋 = 2𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = 2𝑦 in equation (1)
(2𝑥)2 + (2𝑦)2 = 144
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 144
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 36
The locus of p is a circle with center (0, 0) and radius 6

(0, Y)

P( , )

P( , )

(0, 0) (X, 0)

Since P(x, y) is a point of intersection near the y-axis

1 2
𝑥 = 𝑋, 𝑦 = 𝑌
3 3
3𝑦
3𝑥 = 𝑋, =𝑌
2
3𝑦
Substituting 𝑋 = 3𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑌 = 2 in Eqn (1)

212
 3𝑦 2
(3𝑥)2 + ( ) = 144
2
2
9𝑦
9𝑥 2 + = 144
4
𝑦2
𝑥2 + = 16
4
4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 64
Example XIII
The fixed points A and B have coordinates (-3a, 0) and (a, 0) respectively. Find the locus of P which moves
in the coordinate plane so that AP = 3pB. Show that the locus is a circle, S which touches the axis of y and
3𝑎
has a center at the point( 2 , 0). A point Q moves in such a way that the perpendicular distance of Q from
the y-axis is equal to the length of the tangent from Q to the circle S. find the equation of the locus of Q.
show that this locus is also a locus of points which are equidistant from the line 4x + 3a = 0 and the point
3𝑎
( 4 , 0).
Solution
P(x, y)

A(-3a, 0) B(a, 0)

𝐴𝑃 = 3𝑃𝐵
 √(𝑥 + 3𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = 3√(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 + 3𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 = 3[(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 ]
𝑥 2 + 6𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 = 9[𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 ]
𝑥 2 + 6𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎2 + 𝑦 2 = 9𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 − 18𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎2
8𝑥 2 + 8𝑦 2 − 24𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑎𝑥 = 0
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑔 = −3𝑎
3𝑎
𝑔=−
2
𝑓=0
3𝑎
Center ( 2 , 0)

3𝑎 2
𝑟 = √( ) + 02 − 0
2
3𝑎
𝑟=
2

213
 Q(x, y)
A

C( , 0)

𝐶𝑆 2 + 𝑄𝑆 2 = 𝐶𝑄 2
9𝑎2 3𝑎 2
+ 𝑆𝑄 2 = (𝑥 − ) + 𝑦 2
4 2
2
2
3𝑎 2
9𝑎2
𝑆𝑄 = (𝑥 − ) + 𝑦 −
2 4
2
9𝑎 9𝑎2
𝑆𝑄 2 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑎𝑥 + + 𝑦2 −
4 4
𝑆𝑄 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑄 = 𝑆𝑄
𝐴𝑄 2 = 𝑆𝑄 2
𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 3𝑎𝑥
𝑦 2 = 3𝑎𝑥

P(x, y)
B( , y)

A (3a/4, 0)
X=
 3a
x
4
4𝑥 + 3𝑎𝑥 = 0
4(𝑥) + 3𝑎
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑑 = | |
√42
4𝑥 + 3𝑎
𝑃𝐵 =
4
4𝑥 + 3𝑎 3𝑎 2
= √(𝑥 − ) + 𝑦 2
4 4

214
 16𝑥 2 + 24𝑎𝑥 + 9𝑎2 3 9
= 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2
16 2 16
3 9 3 9
𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2
2 16 2 16
𝑦 2 = 3𝑎𝑥

Revision Exercise
1. Find the equation of the circle which passes through the origin and the points (2, 0), (3, -1).
2. Fid the radii and coordinates of the centres of the following circles.
(a) x2 + y2 + 4x – 6y + 12 = 0
(b) x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 1 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 – 3x = 0
(d) x2 + y2 + 3x – 4y – 6 = 0
3. Find the equations of the circle with the following centres and radii:
(a) (3, 2), 4
(b) (-1, -2), 1
(c) (0, 0), 5
(d) (½, 0), 3 2
(e) (4, -1), 3
4. Find the equation of the circle which has the points (0, -1) and (2, 3) as ends of its diameter.
5. What is the equation of the circle with centre (2, -3) and touches the x-axis?
6. Find the equation of the curve having AB as diameter where A is the point (1, 8) and B(3, 14).
7. Find the range of the values of k for which each of the following represents a circle with non-zero radius.
(a) x2 + y2 = k
(b) x2 + ky2 – 2x – 8 = 0
(c) kx2 + y2 + 4y + 9 = 0
(d) 2x2 + 2y2 + kxy – 9 = 0
8. Find the equation of the diameter of the circle x2 + y2 – 6x + 2y = 15, which when produced passes
through the point (8, -2).
9. Find the radii of the two circles with centres at the origin which touch the circle x2 + y2 – 8x – 6y + 24 =
0
10. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle (x – 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 16 at the general point ((2 + 4cosθ),
(3 + 4sinθ)). Hence find the equation of the tangent at the point (4, 3+2 3) .
11. Find the equation of the tangents to the following circles at the given points:
(a) x2 + y2 = 5, (-2, 1)
(b) x + y – 4x + 2y = 3. (0, -3)
2 2

(c) x2 + y2 + 6y – 1 = 0, (3, -4)

(d) 2x2 + 2y2 + 9x – 4y + 4 = 0, (-2, 3)
12. Find the equation of the circle whose centres lies on the line y = 3x – 7 and which passes through the
points (1, 1) and (2, -1).
13. Show that the distance of the centre of the circle x2 + y2 – 6x – 4y + 4 = 0 from the y-axis is equal to
the radius. What does this prove about the y-axis and the centre?
14. Prove that the circles x2 + y2 – 4x – 6y = 0 and x2 + y2 – 4x – 6y = 3 are concentric. Find the radius of
the common centre.

215
15. Find the lengths of the tangents drawn from the following points to the given circles:
(a) (6, -1), x2 + y2 = 12
(b) (-1, 3), x2 + y2 – 8x + 4y + 19 = 0
(c) (4, -2), x2 + y2 – 10y – 4 = 0
(d) (3, -4), x2 + y2 + x – 3y = 0.
16. If O is the origin and P, Q are the intersections of the circle x2 + y2 + 4x + 2y – 20 = 0 and the straight
line
x – 7y + 20 = 0. Show that OP and OQ are perpendicular. Find the equation to the circle through O, P
and Q.
17. The circle x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 passes through the points A(-1, -2), B(1, 2), C(2, 3). Write down
three equations which must be satisfied by g, f, c. Solve these equations and write down the equations
of the circle ABC.
18. Prove that the line y = 3x – 1 neither cuts nor touches the circle (x – 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 9
19. Find the greatest and least distance of a point P from the origin as it moves round the circle
(a) x2 + y2 – 24x – 10y + 48 = 0
(b) x2 + y2 + 6x – 8y – 24 = 0
20. A circle which passes through the origin cuts off intercepts of lengths 4 and 6 units on the positive x
and y-axes respectively. Find the equation to the circle and the equations to the tangents to the circle
at the points other than the origin where it cuts the axes.
21. A is the point (3, -1) and B is the point (5, 3). Show that the locus of the point P, which moves so that
PA2 + PB2 = 28 is a circle Find its centre and radius.
22. Prove that the line y = 2x – 3 is a tangent to the circle (x – 5)2 + (y – 2)2 = 5
23. Find the equation of the circle which has the points
(-7, 3) and (1, 9) at the end of a diameter. Find also the equation of the tangents to the circle which are
parallel
(a) to the x-axis
(b) to the y-axis
24. The point (a, b) is the midpoint of a chord of the circle x2 + y2 = R2. Show that the equation to the
chord is ax + by = a2 + b2.
25. A circle touches the x-axis and cuts off a constant length 2a from the y-axis. Show that the equation to
the locus of its centre is a curve y2 – x2 = a2.
26. Find the length of the chord joining the points in which the straight line ( a a )  ( y b ) = 1 meets the circle
x2 + y2 = R2.
27. Show that the line 2x – 3y + 26 = 0 is a tangent to the circle x2 + y2 – 4x + 6y – 104 = 0 and find the
equation to the diameter through the point of contact.
28. Find the length of the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 – 4 = 0 from the point (x, y) and deduce the equation
of the locus of P, when it moves so that the length of the tangents to the circle is always equal to the
distance of P from the point (1, 0).
29. Prove that the line x – y – 3 = 0 is a common tangent to the circles x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y – 3 = 0 and x2 + y2
+ 4x – 7y – 13 = 0. What are the coordinates of the point in which it meets the other common tangent?
30. Show that the common chord of the circles x2 + y2 = 4 and x2 + y2 – 4x – 7y – 4 = 0 passes through the
origin.
31. Show that the following pair of circle are orthogonal:
(a) x2 + y2 – 6x – 8y + 9 = 0, x2 + y2 = 9

216
 (b) x2 + y2 – 4x + 2 = 0, x2 + y2 + 6y – 2 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 – 6y + 8 = 0, x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y – 14 = 0
(d) x2 + y2 + 10x – 4y – 3=0, x2 + y2 – 2x – 6y + 5=0
32. Prove that the line y = 2x is a tangent to the curve x2 + y2 – 8x – y + 5 = 0 and find the coordinates of
the point of contact.
33. A and B have coordinates (-3, 0) and (3, 0). Show that the locus of a point P which moves such that
PB = 2PA is a circle with centre (-5, 0) and radius 4.
34. A triangle has vertices (0, 6), (4, 0), (6, 0). Find the equation of the circle through the midpoint of the
sides and show that it passes through the origin.
35. Prove that the following pairs of circles touch each other and state whether the contact is external or
internal.
(a) x2 + y2 – 2x = 0, x2 + y2 – 8x + 12 = 0
(b) x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y = 18, x2 + y2 – 14x – 8y + 60 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 – 12x – 2y = 12, x2 + y2 – 4x + 4y + 4 = 0
(d) x2 + y2 – 4x + 2y = 8, x2 + y2 + 6x – 13y + 22 = 0
36. Prove that the circle x2 + y2 – 2x – 6y + 1 = 0 cuts the circle x2 + y2 – 8x – 8y + 31 = 0 in two
distinct places and find the equation of the common chord.
37. Points A(0, 2) and B(4, -2) lie on the circumference of a given circle. Points C(-3, -3) and D(7, 2) lie
outside the circle but the centres of the circle lie on the CD. Find the equation of the circle.
38. Show that the x2 + y2 + 4x – 2y – 11 = 0 and x2 + y2 – 4x – 8y + 11 = 0 intersect at right angles.
39. Show that the line x + 3y – 1 = 0 touches the circle x2 + y2 – 3x – 3y + 2 = 0
40. Show that the locus of a point which moves such that the square of its distance from the point (3, 4) is
proportional to its distance from the line x + y = 0, one of the locus being the point (1, 2), is a circle
and find its centre and radius.

Answers
1. x2 + y2 – 2x + 4y = 0
2. (a) 1, (-2, 3) (b) 2, (1, 2)
(c) 2 , ( 2 , 0)
3 3 (d) 7 2 , ( 7 2 , 2)
3. (a) x2 + y2 – 6x – 4y – 3 = 0
(b) x2 + y2 + 2x + 4y + 4 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 = 25
(d) x2 + y2 – x – 2 = 0
4. x2 + y2 – 2x – 2y – 3 = 0
5. x2 + y2 – 4x + 6y + 4 = 0
6. x2 + y2 – 4x – 22y + 115 = 0
7. (a) k > 0 (b) k = 1
(b) No value of k (c) k = 0
8. x + 5y + 2 = 0
9. (4, 6)
10. (y – 3)sinθ + (x – 2)cosθ = 4, y 3 + x = 10 + 3 3 .
11. (a) y = 2x + 5 (b) x + y + 3 = 0
(c) x + y + 3 = 0 (d) x + 8y = 32.
12. x + y – 5x – y + 4 = 0
2 2

217
13.
14. (2, 3)
15. (a) 5 (b) 7 (c) 6 (d) 2 10
16. x2 + y2 + 5x – 5y = 0
17. x2 + y2 – 16x + 8y – 5 = 0
18.
19. (a) 24, 2 (b) 12, 2
20.
21. (4, 1), 3
22.
23. x2 + y2 – 4x – 6y = 0
2x – 3y = 8
y = 1, y = 11
x = 2, x = -8
24.
25.
 a 2b 2 
26. 2  R 2  2 
 a  b2 
27. 3x + 2y = 0
28. ( x 2  y 2  4 , 2x – 5 = 0
29. (7, 4)
30. (1, 2)
31.
32. x2 + y2 – 5x – y = 0
33.
34. 3x + y = 15
35.
36.
37. x2 + y2 – 2x + 2y = 8

Locus
1. L and M are the feet of perpendiculars from a point P onto the axes. Find the locus of P when it moves
so that LM is length 4 units.
2. A variable line through the point (3, 4) cuts the axes at Q and R. and the perpendiculars to the axes at
Q and R intersect at P. What is the locus of the point P?
3. A variable joint P lies on the curve xy = 12. Q is the midpoint of the line joining P to the origin. Find
the locus of Q.
4. P is a variable line on the curve y = 2x2 + 3 and O is the origin. Q is the point of intersection of OP
nearer the origin. Find the locus of Q.
5. A line parallel to the x-axis cuts the curve y2 = 4x at P and the line x = -1 at Q. Find the locus of the
midpoint of PQ.
6. Find the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares of its distance from the lines x +
y = 0 and x – y = 0 is 4.
7. A is the point (1, 0), B is the point (2, o) and O is the origin. A point P moves so that the angle BPO is
a right angle and Q is the midpoint of AP. What is the locus of Q?
8. A line parallel to the y-axis meets the curve y = x2 at P and the line y = x + 2 at Q. Find the locus of the
midpoint of PQ.

218
 Answers to Locus Questions
1. x2 + y2 = 16
2. xy = 3y + 4x
3. xy = 3
4. y = 6x2 + 1
5. y2 = 8x + 4
6. x2 + y2 = 4
7. 4x2 + 4y2 – 8x + 3 = 0
8. 2y = x2 + x + 2
SERIES AND SEQUENCES
Objectives:
After reading this book, you should be able to
- Recognize the difference between a sequence and series
- Recognize an arithmetic progression
- Find the nth term of an arithmetic progression
- Find the sum of an arithmetic progression
- Recognize a geometric progression
- Find the nth term of a geometric progression A. P
- Find the sum to infinity of an a G.P with common ratio when |𝑟| < 1
- Understand ∑ 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 for sum of series
- Be familiar with standard formula for ∑ 𝑟 , ∑ 𝑟 2 , ∑ 𝑟 3 .
- Prove expressions by mathematical induction.
- Apply geometric and arithmetic progression to solve word problems.

Introduction
A sequence is a set of number stated in a definite order such that each number forming a set can be
obtained from the previous one according to some rule.
For example
(𝑎) {2, 4, 6, 8,10 … … }
(𝑏) {1, −1,1, −1,1 … … … … . }
(𝑐) {10,11,9,12,8,13 … … … . }
(𝑑) {1,4,9,16,25 … … … … … . }
1
(𝑒) {8, −4,2, −1, … … … … }
2
(𝑓) {1,1,2,3,5,8 … … … … … . }
A series is obtained by adding up all the terms of the sequence for example. Suppose we have a sequence
u1, u2, u3………………………un
The serie can be obtained from the above sequence. The serie is u1+u2+u3+…………………………un
From the examples of sequences above. It is possible to give a formular for the general or nth term of each
of the above series.
Thus for a, un=2n , where n = 1, 2, 3, .…
For b, 𝑢𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 where n = 1, 2, 3, .…

219
For c , un is not easy to find but we can give a separate formulae for odd and even terms of the sequence.
𝑢2𝑛 = 10 + 𝑛
𝑢2𝑛+1 = 10 − 𝑛
For d 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑛2 where n = 1, 2, 3, .…
For e, the formula 𝑢𝑛 is not obvious
To obtain each successive term we divide by 2 then change sign. Thus at each stage we multiply by
1
(− ) which means that
2
1 𝑛−1
𝑢𝑛 = 8 (− )
2
For f, each term is a sum of two previous terms. This can be expressed formally as a relation between
𝑢𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛−1 , 𝑢𝑛−2 (un = un – 1 + un – 2). In this case more advanced technique are needed to find the
formula.
If the sequence ends after a certain number of terms it’s said to be finite. A sequence which continues
indefinitely is said to be infinite.

ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (A.P)

Arithmetic progression is a serie in which one term is obtained from the previous one by adding a
constant number.
For example:
(𝑎) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯ 98 + 99
(𝑏) 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 + ⋯46+50
(𝑐)10 + 7 + 4 + 1 + ⋯ . −47 − 50
The constant number is called a common difference. In the above examples the common differences are 1
for a, 4 for b and -3 for c respectively.
The arithmetic progression is completely defined when the first term (a) and common difference, (d) are
given
Generally, the arithmetic progression series is given by
𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

Example 1
Which of the following series are arithmetic progression. Write down the common difference of those that
are
(𝑎) 7 + 11 + 15 + ⋯
(𝑏) − 7 − 5 − 3 + ⋯
(𝑐) − 17 − 12 − 7 + ⋯ + 13
1 1 3
(𝑑) 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ 9
4 2 4
(𝑒) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 …
Solution
(𝑎) 7 + 11 + 15 + ⋯

134
 𝑎=7
𝑑1 = 11 − 7 = 4
𝑑2 = 15 − 11 = 4
 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 = 𝑑 = 4(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
 7 + 11 + 15 + ⋯
Is an arithmetic progression with first term a = 7 and common difference d = 4
(𝑏) − 7 − 5 − 3 + ⋯
𝑎 = −7, 𝑑1 = −5 − −7 = 2
𝑑2 = −3 − −5 = 2
𝑑1 = 𝑑2 = 𝑑 = 2 (common difference)
It is an arithmetic progression with first term a = -7 and common difference 2
(𝑐) − 17 − 12 − 7 + ⋯ 13
𝑎 = −17
𝑑1 = −12 − −17 = 5
𝑑2 = −7 − −12 = 5
It is an arithmetic progression with the first term
a = -17 and common difference (d) = 5
5 3 39
(𝑑) 1 + + + ⋯
4 2 4
𝑎=1
5 1
𝑑1 = − 1 =
4 4
3 5 1
𝑑2 = − =
2 4 4
1
𝑎 = 1, 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 = 𝑑 =
4
5 3 39
 1    ... is an arithmetic progression
4 2 4
(𝑒) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 …
𝑎 = 12 = 1
𝑑1 = 22 − 12 = 3

𝑑2 = 32 − 22 = 5

𝑑3 = 42 − 32 = 7
𝑑1 ≠ 𝑑2 ≠ 𝑑3 .
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + … is not an arithmetic progression.
Example II
Write down the terms indicated in each of the following arithmetic progression
(𝑖) 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + ⋯ 12𝑡ℎ
(𝑖𝑖) 10 + 8 + 6 + 4 … 15𝑡ℎ
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 10 + 8 + 6 + 4 + ⋯
1 1
(𝑖𝑣) − 6 − 5 − 3 − 2 + ⋯ 12𝑡ℎ
2 2

Solution
2 + 6 + 10 + 14 + … 12th

135
The nth term of an A.P (un) is given by:
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
a = 2, d = 4
⟹ 𝑢𝑛 = 2 + (𝑛 − 1)4
𝑢𝑛 = 2 + 4𝑛 − 4
𝑢𝑛 = 4𝑛 − 2
12th term, n=12
⟹ 𝑢12 = 4 × 12 − 2
= 48 − 2
= 46
(𝑖𝑖)10 + 8 + 6 + 4 … 15𝑡ℎ
nth 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚, 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑢15 = 10 + 14 × −2
= 10 − 28
= −18
(𝑖𝑖) 7 + 3 − 1 − 5 + ⋯ 19𝑡ℎ
𝑎=7
𝑑 = 3 − 7 = −4
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑢19 = 7 + (19 − 1)(−4)
= 7 + −72
𝑢19 = −65

1 1
(iv) − 6 + −5 − 3 − 2 + ⋯
2 2
𝑎 = −6.5
𝑑 = 1.5
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑢𝑛 = −6.5 + (𝑛 − 1)(1.5)
𝑢12 = −6.5 + (12 − 1) × 1.5
= −6.5 + 16.5
= 10
Example III
Find the number of terms in each of the following progression
(𝑎) 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + ⋯ 59 + 62
(𝑏) 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ⋯ 501 + 506
(𝑐) − 193 − 189 − 185 + ⋯ − 21 − 17
1 17 9 1 17
(𝑑)2 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ 20 + 20
4 20 20 4 20

Solution
5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + ⋯ 59 + 62
𝑎=5 𝑑 =8−5=3
𝑡ℎ
𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
62 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
62 = 5 + (𝑛 − 1)3
62 − 5 = 3(𝑛 − 1)

136
 57
=𝑛−1
3
20 = 𝑛

(𝑏) 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ⋯ 501 + 506

𝑎=1 𝑑 =6−1=5
𝑡ℎ
𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑢𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)5
506 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)5
505 = 5(𝑛 − 1)
101 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 = 102

(𝑐) − 193 + −189 + −185 + ⋯ − 21 + −17

𝑎 = −193
𝑑 = −189 − −193
𝑑=4

The nth term

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑢𝑛 = −193 + (𝑛 − 1)4
−17 = −193 + (𝑛 − 1)4
−17 + 193 = 4(𝑛 − 1)
176
= 𝑛−1
4
𝑛 = 45

Example IV
2𝑘 𝑘
An AP is given by 𝑘, , ,0…
3 3
(i) Find the sixth term
(ii) Find the nth term
(iii) If the 20th term is 15. Find K
Solution
2𝑘 −𝑘
𝑎 = 𝑘, 𝑑 = −𝑘 =
3 3
−𝑘
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 (𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑘 + (𝑛 − 1) ( )
3
𝑘
6𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 (𝑢6 ) = 𝑘 + 5 (− )
3
5𝑘
=𝑘−
3
2𝑘
=−
3
𝑘
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑘 + (𝑛 − 1) (− ( ))
3
𝑛𝑘 𝑘
=𝑘− +
3 3

137
 4𝑘 𝑛𝑘
= −
3 3
𝑘
= (4 − 𝑛)
3
But 𝑢20 = 15
𝑘
⇒ 15 = (4 − 20)
3
45 = 𝑘(−16)
−45
𝑘=
16
Sum of Arithmetic Progression
Generally, the arithmetic progression is given by
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + … a + (n – 2)d + a + (n–1)d
Let the sum of the arithmetic progression be 𝑆𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑……….. (1)
Suppose the terms are added in opposite order
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑑 + ⋯ (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎………….. (2)
𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2)
⇒ 2𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
+2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + ⋯ 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
+2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 + 2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 ………….. (3)
Since there are n terms of equation (3) that have been added together. The total is 2𝑆𝑛 =
𝑛(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
⇒ 2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2

This is the formula for the sum of arithmetic progression

Example I
Find the sum of the first 50 terms of an A.P
1+3+5+7+9+⋯
Solution
𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = 2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
50
𝑆50 = (2 × 1 + 49 × 2)
2
𝑆50 = 25(2 + 98)
𝑆50 = 25(100)
𝑆50 = 2500
Example II
Find the sum of 5 + 9 + 13 + ⋯ to 20 terms
Solution
𝑎 = 5, 𝑑 = 4

138
 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
20
𝑆20 = (2 × 5 + (20 − 1) × 4)
2
𝑆20 = 10(10 + 19 × 4)
𝑆20 = 10(86)
𝑆20 = 860

Example III
Find the sum 27 + 22 + 17 + … to 10 terms
Solution
𝑎 = 27, 𝑑 = 22 − 27
𝑑 = −5
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
10
𝑆10 = (2 × 27 + (10 − 1) × −5)
2
10
𝑆10 = (54 + −45)
2
𝑆10 = 45

Example IV
Find the sum of the following A.P
(i) 6+10+14+…50
(ii) 10+7+4+…-50
(iii) 5+9+13+…101
1 1 3
(iv) 1 + 1 4 + 1 2 + ⋯ 9 4
(v) 83+80+77+…5

Solution
(𝑖) 𝑎 = 6, 𝑑 = 4
𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
50 = 6 + (𝑛 − 1)4
44 = 4(𝑛 − 1)
11 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 = 12
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
12
𝑆12 = (2 × 6 + (12 − 1) × 4)
2
= 6(12 + 44)
𝑆12 = 6(56)
= 336

(𝑖𝑖) 10 + 7 + 4 + ⋯ − 50
𝑎 = 10, 𝑑 = 7 − 10 = −3
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
−50 = 10 + (𝑛 − 1)(-3)
−60 = −3(𝑛 − 1)

139
 20 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 = 21
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
21
𝑆21 = [2 × 10 + (21 − 1) × −3]
2
21
= (20 + −60)
2
21
= (−40)
2
= −420

(iii) 5 + 9 + 13 … 101
𝑎 = 5, 𝑑 = 4,
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
101 = 5 + (𝑛 − 1)4
96 = 4(𝑛 − 1)
24 = 𝑛 − 1
𝑛 = 25
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
25
𝑆25 = (2 × 5 + (25 − 1) × 4)
2
25
= (10 + 96)
2
25
= (106)
2
𝑆25 = 1325

1 1 3
(iv) 1 + 1 + 1 … 9
4 2 4
5 3 39
1+ + …
4 2 4
1
𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 =
4
39
= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
4
39 1
= 1 + (𝑛 − 1)
4 4
39 1 1
=1+ 𝑛−
4 4 4
39 3 1
= + 𝑛
4 4 4
39 = 3 + 𝑛
𝑛 = 36
36 1
𝑆36 = (2 × 1 + (36 − 1) × )
2 4

140
 𝑆36 = 18(2 + 8.75)
= 193.5

(𝑣) 83 + 80 + 77 + ⋯ 5
𝑎 = 83, 𝑑 = 80 − 83
𝑑 = −3
𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
5 = 83 + (𝑛 − 1)(−3)
5 = 83 + −3𝑛 + 3
5 = 86 − 3𝑛
3𝑛 = 81, 𝑛 = 27
27
𝑆27 = (2 × 83 + (27 − 1) × −3)
2
27
= (166 + −78)
2
27
= (88)
2
= 1188

Example V
In an A.P the sum of the first 10 terms is 520 and the 7th terms doubles the 3rd term. Find the first term a
and common difference (d).
Solution
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝑆10 = 520
10
𝑆10 = (2𝑎 + (10 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝑆10 = 5(2𝑎 + 9𝑑)
520 = 5(2𝑎 + 9𝑑)
104 = 2𝑎 + 9𝑑 … … … … . (1)
7th term
un= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
u7 = 𝑎 + 6d
3rd term
u3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑
u7 = 2u3
𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 2(𝑎 + 2𝑑)
𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 2𝑎 + 4𝑑
0 = 𝑎 − 2𝑑
𝑎 = 2𝑑
Substituting eqn (2) in eqn (1)
104 = 2(2𝑑) + 9𝑑
104 = 4𝑑 + 9𝑑
13𝑑 = 104
104
𝑑=
13
𝑑=8
𝑎 = 2𝑑

141
 𝑎 = 16

Example V
The first and last terms of an A.P with 25 terms are 29 and 179 respectively. Find the sum of the series
and it’s common difference
Solution
𝑛 = 25, 𝑎 = 29, nth term
un= 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
179 = 29 + (25 − 1)𝑑
150 = 24𝑑
𝑑 = 6.25
25
𝑆25 = (2 × 29 + (25 − 1) × 6.25)
2
𝑆𝑛 = 12.5(58 + 150)
= 2600

Example VI
The nth term of the series is 10-3n. Find the first three terms of the series and the sum of the first 15
terms.
Solution
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 10 − 3𝑛
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑛 = 1
⇒ 𝑎 = 10 − 3 × 1
=7
𝑛𝑑
2 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑛 = 2
= 10 − 3 × 2
=4
3𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 10 − 3 × 3
=1
7+4+1+⋯
𝑎 = 7, 𝑑 = −3
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
15
𝑆15 = (2 × 7 + (15 − 1) × −3)
2
15
= (14 + −42)
2
= −210

Example VIII
Given that the first and third terms of an A.P are 13 and 25 respectively. Find the 100th term and the sum
of the first 15 terms
Solution
𝑎 = 13
𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 25
13 + 2𝑑 = 25
2𝑑 = 12
𝑑=6

142
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 13 + (𝑛 − 1)6
100𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 13 + (100 − 1) × 6
u100= 13 + 99 × 6
= 607
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
15
𝑆15 = (2 × 13 + (100 − 1) × 6)
2
𝑆𝑛 = 4650

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝑽𝑰𝑰
The second and seventh terms of an A.P are -5 and 10 respectively. Find the fifth term and the least
number of terms that must be taken for their sum to exceed 200
Solution
𝑎 + 𝑑 = −5………………………. (1)
𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 10………………………. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)
5𝑑 = 15
𝑑=3
𝑎 + 𝑑 = −5
a = -5 – d

𝑎 = −5 − 3
𝑎 = −8
un = a + (n – 1)d
u5 = -8 + (5 – 1) × 3
u5 = -8 + 12
u5 = 4

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2 × −8 + (𝑛 − 1)3)
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (−16 + 3𝑛 − 3)
2
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (−19 + 3𝑛)
2
Sn > 200
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 (−19 + 3𝑛)> 200
-19n + 3n2 > 400
3n2 – 19n – 400 > 0
 19 
3  n2  n   400
 3 
19 400
n2  n 
3 3
By completing squares;

143
 19n 361 361 400
n2    
3 36 36 3
2
 19  400 361
n    
 6 3 36
2
 19  5161
n   
 6 36
19 5161
n 
16 36
19 5161
n 
6 36
n  15.1400167
n  16

Example VIII
In an A.P the sum of the first 15 terms is 615 and the 13th term is six times the second term. Find the first
three terms
Solution
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
15
𝑆15 = (2𝑎 + (15 − 1)𝑑) = 615
2
15(a + 7d) = 615
15𝑎 + 105𝑑 = 615
615
𝑎 + 7𝑑 =
15
𝑎 + 7𝑑 = 41
⇒ 𝑎 = 41 − 7𝑑 ………………… (1)
13𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + (13 − 1)𝑑
u13= 𝑎 + 12𝑑
2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝑑
u13 = 6u2
𝑎 + 12𝑑 = 6𝑎 + 6𝑑
0 = 5𝑎 − 6𝑑 ………………… (2)

Substituting Eqn (1) in Eqn (2)

⇒ 0 = 5(41 − 7𝑑) − 6𝑑
0 = 205 − 35𝑑 − 6𝑑
0 = 205 − 41𝑑
𝑑=5
a = 41 – 7d
⇒ 𝑎 = 41 − 35
𝑎=6
The first three terms are: 6, 11, 17 …

Example IX

144
In an A.P the sum of the first 2n terms is equal to the sum of the next n terms. If the first term is 12 and
common difference is 3. Find the non-zero value of n.
Solution
In an A.P the sum of the first 2n terms
2𝑛
𝑆2𝑛 = (2 × 12 + (2𝑛 − 1)3)
2
= 𝑛(24 + 6𝑛 − 3)
= 𝑛(21 + 6𝑛)
= 21𝑛 + 6𝑛2
The total of 2n terms and the next n terms is 3n terms.
3𝑛
𝑆3𝑛 = [(2 × 12 + (3𝑛 − 1)3]
2
3𝑛
𝑆3𝑛 = [24 + 9𝑛 − 3]
2
3𝑛
= (21 + 9𝑛)
2
63𝑛 27𝑛2
= +
2 2
The sum of the next n terms after 2n terms is
63𝑛 27𝑛2
( + ) − (21𝑛 +6𝑛2 )
2 2
63𝑛 + 27𝑛 − 42𝑛 − 12𝑛2
2

2
21𝑛 + 15𝑛2
2
Sum of first 2n terms = sum of the next n terms.
21𝑛 + 15𝑛2
⇒ 21𝑛 + 6𝑛2 =
2
42𝑛 + 12𝑛2 = 21𝑛 + 15𝑛2
0 = 3𝑛2 − 21𝑛
0 = 3𝑛(𝑛 − 7)
𝑛=0 𝑛=7
𝑛≠0 ⇒𝑛=7

Example X
The sum of the first n terms of a certain series is
3𝑛2 + 𝑛. Show that the series is an A.P find the first term and common difference.
Solution
𝑆𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛
𝑆𝑛−1 = 3(𝑛 − 1)2 + 𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑛−1 = 3𝑛2 − 5𝑛 + 2
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1
= (3𝑛2 + 𝑛) − (3𝑛2 − 5𝑛 + 2)
= 6𝑛 − 2
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 1 (1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
𝑎=4

145
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
6 × 2 − 2 = 10
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 = 3 (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
6 × 3 − 2 = 16
𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 4
Common difference=6
4, 10, 16, …
 The series is an A.P

Example XI
The sum to n terms of a particular series is given by
𝑆𝑛 = 17𝑛 − 3𝑛2
(a) Find an expression for the sum of (n-1) terms
(b) Find the expression for the nth term of the series.
Show that the series is arithmetic progression. Find the first term and common difference.
Solution:
𝑆𝑛 = 17𝑛 − 3𝑛2
𝑆(𝑛−1) = 17(𝑛 − 1) − 3(𝑛 − 1)2
= 17𝑛 − 17 − 3(𝑛2 − 2𝑛 + 1)
= 17𝑛 − 17 − 3𝑛2 + 6𝑛 − 3
= 23𝑛 − 3𝑛2 − 20
𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1
= (17𝑛 − 3𝑛2 ) − (23𝑛 − 3𝑛2 − 20)
= −6𝑛 + 20
= 20 − 6𝑛
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1. (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
20 − 6 = 14
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2. (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
20 − 6 × 2 = 8
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3 (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
20 − 6 × 3 = 2
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎 = 14
Common difference
𝑑 = −6

Example XII
The sum of the three terms in A.P is 30 and the sum of their squares is 398. Find the numbers.
Solution
𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 30
3𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 30
𝑎 + 𝑑 = 10 ………………………. (1)
𝑎2 + (𝑎 + 𝑑)2 + (𝑎 + 2𝑑)2 = 398
3𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑑 + 5𝑑2 = 398 ……….. (2)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1)
𝑎 = (10 − 𝑑)
Substituting a = 10 – d in Eqn (2);
⇒ 3(10 − 𝑑)2 + 6𝑑(10 − 𝑑) + 5𝑑2 = 398
3(100 − 20𝑑 + 𝑑2 ) + 60𝑑 − 6𝑑2 + 5𝑑2 = 398

146
300 − 60𝑑 + 3𝑑2 + 60𝑑 − 𝑑2 = 398
2𝑑2 = 98
𝑑2 = 49
𝑑 = ±7
𝐼𝑓 𝑑 = 7
𝑎=3
3, 10, 17 …
𝐼𝑓 𝑑 = −7
𝑎 + 𝑑 = 10
𝑎 − 7 = 10
𝑎 = 17
17, 10, 3
The numbers are 3, 10 and 17.
Example XIII
Show that the sum to 20 terms of the series
log 𝑎 + log 𝑎𝑏 + log 𝑎𝑏 2 + log 𝑎𝑏 3 + ⋯
𝑥 𝑦
can be written in the form log 𝑎 𝑏 and find x and y.
Solution
𝑑 = log 𝑎𝑏 − log 𝑎
= log 𝑏
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)
2
20
𝑆20 = [(2 log 𝑎 + (20 − 1) log 𝑏]
2
= 10[(log 𝑎2 + 19 log 𝑏]
= 10[(log 𝑎2 + log 𝑏19 ]
= 10[log 𝑎2 + log 𝑏19 ]
10  log a 2b19 
log( a 2 b19 )10
= log 𝑎20 𝑏190
= log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦
𝑥 = 20, 𝑦 = 190

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
A geometric progression G.P is a sequence where each new terms after the first is obtained by multiplying
the preceding term by a constant r, called a common ratio. If the first term of the sequence is ‘a’ then the
geometric progression is
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎 = 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚, 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚.
Examples of geometric progression are:
(𝑖) 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯
(𝑖𝑖) 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ 128 + 256
1 1
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)27 − 9 + 3 − 1 + ⋯ −
27 81
From the above examples

147
 2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯
First term (𝑎 = 2)
6 18 54
common ratio = = = =3
2 6 18
For 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ 128 + 256
2 4 8
a = 1, common ratio (r) = 1 = 2 = 4 = 2
1 1
For 27 − 9 + 3 + −1 + ⋯ 27 − 81
First term a = 27
−9 3 −1
common ratio 𝑟 = = =−
27 −9 3

Example I
Which of the following series are geometric progression write down the common ratios of those that are:
(𝑖) 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 …
(𝑖𝑖) − 1 + 2 − 4 + 8…
(iii) 1+1.1+1.21 + 1.331…
(iv) 1+1/4+1/16+1/64+ …
1 1 1 1
(v) + + + …
2 6 12 36
Solution
(i) 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 …
9
𝑟1 = = 3
3
27
𝑟2 = =3
9
81
𝑟3 = =3
27
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟=3
⇒ 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 …is a geometric progression

(𝑖𝑖) − 1 + 2 + −4 + 8
2
𝑟1 = = −2
−1
−4
𝑟2 = = −2
2
8
𝑟3 = = −2
−4
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟3 = 𝑟 = −2
Common ratio
⇒ −1 + 2 + −4 + 8 is a geometric progression with a common ratio 𝑟 = −2

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 1 + 1.1 + 1.21 + 1.331 …

1.1
𝑟1 = = 1.1
1
1.21
𝑟2 = = 1.1
1.1
1.331
𝑟3 = = 1.1
1.21
It is a geometric progression with a common ratio r=1.1

148
 1 1 1
(iv) 1 + + + ….
4 16 64
1
1
𝑟1 = ( 4 ) =
1 4
1
16
1 1 1
𝑟2 = = ×4=
4 16 4
( )
1
64
1 1 1
𝑟3 = = × 16 =
16 64 4
( )
1
It is a geometric progression with a common ratio 𝑟 = 4
1 1 1 1
2
+ 6 + 12 + 36+ …
1 1 1
r1  6
 2 
1
2 6 3
1 6 1
r2  12
 
1
6 12 2
1 12 1
r3  36
 
1
12 36 3
𝑟1 ≠ 𝑟2
1 1 1 1
⇒ 2 + 6 + 12 + 36 … is not a geometric progression because the common ratio is not the same.

Example II
State the common ratio and the next two term of the following geometric progression (G.P)
(𝑖) 1 + −2 + 4 + −8 + ⋯
1 1
(𝑖𝑖) + + 1 + ⋯
4 2
1
(𝑖𝑖𝑖)200 + 50 + 12 + ⋯
2
(𝑖𝑣) 162 + 54 + 18 + ⋯

Solution
Let the next two terms be x and y
1 + −2 + 4 + −8 + 𝑥 + 𝑦 + ⋯
2
𝑟 = − = −2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
1
𝑥
⇒ = −2
−8
𝑥 = 16
𝑦
And 𝑥 = −2
𝑦
= −2
16
𝑦 = −32

149
⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
1 + −2 + 4 + −8 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 32
1 1
(𝑖𝑖) + + 1 + ⋯
4 2
1
2
1 4
𝑟= = × =2
1
4 2 1
Let the next numbers of the sequence be m and n.
1 1
+ +1+𝑚+𝑛+⋯
4 2
𝑚
=2 ⇒ 𝑚=2
1
𝑛
= 2, 𝑛 = 2𝑚
𝑚
n=4
⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
1 1
+ + 1 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4
4 2
1
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 200 + −50 + 12 + ⋯
2
50 1
𝑟=− =−
200 4
Let the next two numbers of the series be m and n
1
⇒ 200 + −50 + 12 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 + ⋯
2
𝑚 1
=−
12.5 4
4𝑚 = −12.5
−25
𝑚 = −3.125, 𝑚 =
8
m  3 81

𝑛 1
=−
𝑚 4
1
n m
4
1  25 
n  
4 8 
⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
1 25 25
200 + −50 + 12 + ⋯ are − and
2 8 32

(iv) 162 + 54 + 18 + ⋯
Let the next terms of the sequence be m and n.
162 + 54 + 18 + m + n + …
m 1

18 3
3m = 18
m=6

150
 n 1

m 3
n 1

6 3
3n = 6
n=2
 The next two terms of the sequence
162 + 54 + 18 + m + n + … are 6 and 2

Example III
Write down the terms indicated in each of the following progression
1
(𝑖) + 1 + 2 + ⋯ 8𝑡ℎ
2
1
(𝑖𝑖) 200 − 50 + 2 + ⋯ 5𝑡ℎ
2
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 162 + 54 + 18 + ⋯ 6𝑡ℎ
4 2
(𝑖𝑣) − − − 1 + ⋯ 7𝑡ℎ
9 3
Solution
The nth of a geometric progression is given by;
𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 + 1 + 2 + ⋯ 8𝑡ℎ
2
1 1
𝑎=2 r =2
1
2
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑛 = (2𝑛−1 )
2
For the 8th term, 𝑛 = 8
1
⇒ 𝑈8 = (27 ) = 64
2

(𝑖𝑖) 200 − 50 + 12.5 + ⋯

The nth term 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
1
𝑎 = 200 𝑟 = −
4
1 𝑛−1
𝑈𝑛 = 200 (− )
4
For the 5th term
1 5−1
𝑈5 = 200 (− )
4
25
𝑈5 =
32
25
⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 5𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠
32
Example IV

162 + 54 + 18 + ⋯ 6𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

151
 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
54 1
𝑟= =
162 3
𝑎 = 162
1 𝑛−1
𝑈𝑛 = 162 ( )
3
𝑡ℎ
1 6−1
6 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 162 ( )
3
2
=
3
2
 The 6th term is
3
4 2
− − − 1 + ⋯ 7𝑡ℎ
9 3
2
3
4 −4
𝑎=− , 𝑟=−
9 9
( )
−2 9 3
𝑟= × =
3 −4 2
𝑛−1
𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟
−4 3 𝑛−1
= ( )
9 2
For the 7th term, n = 7
−4 3 7−1
𝑈7 = ( )
9 2
−4 729 −81
= ( )=
9 64 16
−𝟖𝟏
⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 7𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠
𝟏𝟔

Example VI
How many term are in a geometric progression
2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ + 128
Solution:
The nth term is given by 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
4
𝑎 = 2, 𝑟= =2
2
⇒ 128 = 2 × (2)𝑛−1
128 = 2𝑛
27 = 2𝑛
𝑛=7
Example VII
The first term of a G.P with positive common ratio is 80. If the sum of the first three term is 185, find the
common ratio.
Solution

152
𝑎 = 80 (𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚).
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 185
𝑎(1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 ) = 185
80(1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟 2 ) = 185
185
1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟2 =
80
37
1 + 𝑟 + 𝑟2 =
16
16 + 16𝑟 + 16𝑟 2 = 37
16𝑟 2 + 16𝑟 − 21 = 0
(4𝑟 + 7)(4𝑟 − 3) = 0
3 7
𝑟= , 𝑟=−
4 4

Example VIII
In a G.P the second term exceeds the first by 20 and the fourth exceeds the second by 15. Find the two
possible values of the first term
Solution
2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟
1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎
𝑎 + 20 = 𝑎𝑟
20 = 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎……………………. (1)
4 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟 3
𝑡ℎ

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎𝑟
𝑎𝑟 + 15 = 𝑎𝑟 3
15 = 𝑎𝑟 3 − 𝑎𝑟 ……………………. (2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛 (1) ÷ 𝐸𝑞𝑛(2)
20 𝑎(𝑟 − 1)
=
15 𝑎𝑟(𝑟 2 − 1)
4 𝑟−1
=
3 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 1)
4 𝑟−1
=
3 𝑟3 − 𝑟
4𝑟 3 − 4𝑟 = 3𝑟 − 3
4𝑟 3 − 4𝑟 − 3𝑟 + 3 = 0
4𝑟 3 − 7𝑟 + 3 = 0
3 1
𝑟 = 1, 𝑟=− , 𝑟=
2 2
1
If r = , 20 = ar – a
2
1
⇒ 20 = 𝑎 − 𝑎
2
𝑎
20 = −
2
𝑎 = −40
3
When r = ,
2

153
 3
20 = − 𝑎 − 𝑎
2
5
20 = − 𝑎
2
40
− =𝑎
5
𝑎 = −8
When r = 1, a is not defined.
Example IX
The second and fifth term in a G.P are 405 and -120 respectively. Find the seventh term.
Solution
𝑎𝑟 = 405 ………………………… (1)
𝑎𝑟 4 = −120……………………… (2)
Eqn (2) ÷ Eqn (1)
−120
𝑟3 =
405
−8
𝑟3 =
27
2
𝑟=−
3
2
𝑎 (− ) = 405
3
𝑎 = −607.5
2 6
𝑎𝑟 6 = (−607.5) (− )
3
−160
=
3
Example IX
The second, fourth and eighth terms of an A.P are in geometric progression, the sum of the third and fifth
terms is 20. Find the first four terms of the progression.
Solution
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 𝑑
4𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑
8𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑎 + 7𝑑
(𝑎 + 𝑑), 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 7𝑑
𝑎 + 3𝑑 𝑎 + 7𝑑
=
𝑎+𝑑 𝑎 + 3𝑑
(𝑎 + 3𝑑)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑎 + 7𝑑)
𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑑 + 9𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 7𝑎𝑑 + 𝑎𝑑 + 7𝑑2
2𝑑2 − 2𝑎𝑑 = 0
2𝑑(𝑑 − 𝑎) = 0
𝑑 = 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑 ≠ 0
𝑑 = 𝑎………………………… (1)
𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 20
2𝑎 + 6𝑑=20
𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 10 ………………………… (2)

154
Substitute Eqn (1) in Eqn (2)
𝑎 + 3𝑎 = 10
𝑎 = 2.5
2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 …

Sum of a Geometric Progression

Let the sum of a geometric progression be 𝑆𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 ……… (1)
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)𝑏𝑦 𝑟
𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 …… …(2)
𝐸𝑞𝑛 (1) − 𝐸𝑞𝑛(2)
⇒ 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
𝑛
𝑎(𝑟 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟 > 1
𝑟−1

Example I
Find the sum of six terms of the progression
2 + 6 + 18 + 54 + ⋯
Solution
6
𝑎 = 2, 𝑟= =3
2
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
2(36 − 1)
𝑆6 =
3−1
= 728

Example II
Find the sum of the first 20 terms of a G.P with first term 3 and common ratio 1.5
Solution
𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = 1.5
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
3(1.520 − 1)
𝑆20 =
1.5 − 1
𝑆20 = 19945.54038

Example III
Find the sum of the first six terms of a G.P
100 + 10 + 1 + ⋯
Solution
10 1
𝑎 = 100, 𝑟= =
100 10

155
 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
1 6
100 (1 − (10) )
𝑆6 =
1
1 − 10
𝑆6 = 111.111

Example IV
Find the sum of the following G.P Progression
1 1
a) 4
+ 2 + ⋯ + 64
b) 1000 + 200 + ⋯ + 0.32
1 1
c) − + ⋯ + 64
4 2
d) 2 − 3 + ⋯ + 22 32
25

Solution
1 1
+ + ⋯ + 64
4 2
1
2
1 1 1
𝑎= , 𝑟= = ×4=2
4 4 2
( )
𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑢𝑛
1
⇒ (2)𝑛−1 = 64
4
1
4  (2) n1  64  4
4
2𝑛−1 = 256
2𝑛−1 = 28
𝑛−1=8
𝑛=9
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
1
(29  1)
S9  4
2 1
1
𝑆9 = (511)
4
𝑆9 = 127.75

(ii) 1000 + 200 + ⋯ + 0.32

200
𝑎 = 1000, 𝑟 = = 0.2
1000
𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 𝑢𝑛
1000 (0.2)𝑛−1 = 0.32
(0.2)𝑛−1 = 0.00032

156
 (0.2)𝑛−1 = (0.2)5
𝑛−1=5
𝑛=6
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
1
(1 − 0.26 )
𝑆6 = 4
1 − 0.2
1 0.999936
𝑆6 = ( )
4 0.8
= 0.31248

1 1
(𝑐) − + ⋯ 64
4 2
1
2
1 1
𝑎= 𝑟 = − 1 = − × 4 = −2
4 4 2
𝑎𝑟 (𝑛−1) = 64
1
( 2) n1  64
4
(−2)𝑛−1 = 64 × 4
−2𝑛−1 = 256
(−2)𝑛−1 = (−2)8
𝑛−1 = 8
𝑛=9
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
1
(1 − (−2)9 )
𝑆9 = 4
1 − −2
1 1 − −512
𝑆9 = ( )
4 3
𝑆9 = 42.75
25
(d) 2 + −3 + ⋯ 22 32

−3
𝑎 = 2, 𝑟=
2
25
𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 = 22
32
3 𝑛−1 729
2 (− ) =
2 32

 3 
n1
729
   2
 2  32
−3 𝑛−1 729
( ) =
2 64

157
 3 𝑛−1 3 6
(− ) = (− )
2 2
𝑛−1=6
𝑛=7
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
3 7
2 (1 − (− ) )
2
𝑆7 =
−3
1− 2
𝑆7 = 14.46875
Example V
Find the sum of the first n terms of the G.P
1 1 3
+ + +⋯
12 4 4
how many terms of the series are needed to reach a sum greater than 100
Solution
1 1 3
+ + +⋯
12 4 4
1 1 1
a  , r  4   12
12 1
12 4
𝑟=3
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
1 𝑛
(3 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = 12
3−1
1 3𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑛 = ( )
12 2
3𝑛 − 1
𝑆𝑛 =
24
𝑆𝑛 > 100
3𝑛 − 1
> 100
24
3𝑛 − 1 > 2400
3𝑛 > 2401
log10 3𝑛 > log10 2401
log10 2401
𝑛>
log10 3
𝑛 > 7.08497
𝑛=8

158
Example VI
The sum of the first seven term of a G.P is 7 and the sum of next seven terms is 896. Find the common ratio
of the progression. If the kth term is the first term of a G.P which is greater than 1, find k.
Solution
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 7
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 896
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 14 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 7 + 896
= 903
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟14 − 1)
𝑆14 =
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟14 − 1)
= 903
𝑟−1
14
𝑎(𝑟 − 1) = 903(𝑟 − 1) … … … (1)
𝑆7 = 7
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
=7
𝑟−1
𝑎(𝑟 7 − 1) = 7(𝑟 − 1) … … … … . (2)
Eqn (1) ÷ Eqn (2)
𝑟14 − 1
= 129
𝑟7 − 1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑟 7 = 𝑃
𝑃2 − 1
= 129
𝑃−1
( p  1)( p  1)
 129
p 1
p + 1 = 129
p = 128
But p = r7
𝑟 7 = 128
⇒𝑟=2

Example VII
A G.P has first term 16 and common ratio ¾. If the sum of the first n terms is greater than 60. Find the
least possible values of n.
Solution
3
𝑎 = 16, 𝑟=
4
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
3 𝑛
16 (1 − ( ) )
4
> 60
3
1−4
3 𝑛 15
1−( ) >
4 16

159
 1 3 𝑛
>( )
16 4
1 3 𝑛
log10 ( ) > log10 ( )
16 4
1 3
log10 ( ) > 𝑛 log10
16 4
log10 ( 161 )
n
log10 ( 34 )
9.638 < 𝑛
⟹ 𝑛 = 10

Sum to Infinity of A G.P

Consider the general geometric progression (G.P)
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1
The sum of the n terms is denoted by
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = 1−𝑟
, for |r| < 1
Since n cannot be negative it implies that as n increases 𝑟 𝑛 decreases for |r| < 1
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎 𝑎 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = −
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
But as n tends to a big positive value (n →∞),
𝑎 𝑟𝑛
≈0
1−𝑟
a
 S  (sum to infinity of a G.P)
1 r
We say that the G.P with a common ratio, r and first term (a) converges when −1 < 𝑟 < 1 and the limit
𝑎
of the sum is . There is no limit of a geometric progression whose common ratio lies outside the
1−𝑟
range. |𝑟| ≤ 1
Example I
1
Find the sum to infinity of a G.P with first term 3 and common ratio 2
Solution
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
(1 − 𝑟)
3
𝑆∞ =
1
1−
2
3
𝑆∞ =
1
2
𝑆∞ = 6

Example II
Find the sum to infinity of
1 1 1
1   +…
3 32 33

160
Solution
1
𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 =
3
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
1
𝑆∞ =
1
1−3
1 3
= =
2 2
3
Example III (UNEB Question)
Find how many terms of the series
1 1 1
1+ + 2+ 3+⋯
5 5 5
must be taken so that the sum will differ from the sum to infinity by less than 10−6
Solution
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
1 𝑛
1 (1 − ( ) )
5
𝑆𝑛 =
1
1−
5
1 𝑛
1−( )
𝑆𝑛 = 5
4
5
5 1 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = (1 − ( ) )
4 5
1
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
1 5
𝑆∞ = =
1 4
1−
5
𝑆∞ − 𝑆𝑛 < 10−6
5 5 1 𝑛
− ( (1 − ( ) )) < 10−6
4 4 5
5 1 𝑛
( ) < 10−6
4 5
1 𝑛 10−6 × 4
( ) <
5 5
𝑛
1
( ) < 8 × 10−7
5
(0.2)𝑛 < 8 × 10−7
n(log10 0.2) < log10 8 × 10−7
𝑙𝑜 𝑔10 8 × 10−7
𝑛>
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 0.2

161
(Sign changes because the denominator is negative)
𝑛 > 8.7227
𝑛 > 8.7227
𝑛=9
Example IV
The sum to infinity of a G.P is twice the sum of the first two terms. Find the possible values of the
common ratio.
Solution
a
S 
1 r

𝑆 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟
𝑎
2(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟) =
1−𝑟
1
2(1 + 𝑟) =
1−𝑟
2)
2(1 − 𝑟 = 1
1
1 − 𝑟2 =
2
1
1 − = 𝑟2
2
1
𝑟2 =
2
1
𝑟=±
√2
Example V
The first and fourth terms of a geometric series are 135 and −40 respectively. Find its common ratio and
the sum to infinity.
Solution
𝑎 = 135
𝑎𝑟 3 = −40
135𝑟 3 = −40
40
𝑟3 = −
135
−2
𝑟=
3
a
S 
1 r
135
𝑆∞ =
−2
1− 3
𝑆∞ = 81
Example VI
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric progression is 8 − 23−2𝑛 . Find the first term, its common ratio
and its sum to infinity.
Solution

162
 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
8 − 23−2𝑛 =
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟𝑛 )
23 − 23−2𝑛 =
1−𝑟
3 −2 𝑛
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
2 (1 − (2 ) =
1−𝑟
𝑛
1 𝑎(1 − 𝑟𝑛 )
23 (1 − ( ) ) =
4 1−𝑟
1
4
= 𝑟 𝑏𝑦 Comparison
𝑎
= 23 ,
1−𝑟
The sum to infinity = 8
𝑎
= 23
3⁄
4
3
⟹𝑎 =8×
4
𝑎=6
𝑎
𝑆∞ =
1−𝑟
6
=
1
1−
4
6
= =8
3⁄
4
Example (UNEB Question)
In an arithmetic progression u1 + u2 + u3 + ...., u4 = 15 and u16 = -3. Find the greatest integer N such that
uN ≥ 0. Determine the sum of the first N terms of the progression.
Solution
Let a = 1st term of the A.P. and
d = common difference of the A.P.
The nth term of the A.; un = a + (n − 1)d
=> 4th term, u4 = a + 3d
But u4 = 15
=> a + 3d = 15.............................. (i)
th
The 16 term u16 = a + 15d
But u16 = -3
=> a + 15d = -3............................. (ii)
Eqn (i) − Eqn (ii)
-12d = 18
d = -1.5
From eqn (i)
a + 3(-1.5) = 15
a = 15 + 4.5
a = 19.5
Substituting for a and d in un = a + (n − 1)d

163
=> un = 19.5 + (n − 1) ×-1.5
=19.5 − 1.5(n − 1)
Now for un ≥ 0
=> 19.5 − 1.5(n − 1) ≥ 0
19.5 − 1.5n + 1.5 ≥ 0
21 − 1.5n ≥ 0
21 ≥ 1.5n
14 ≥ n
Hence n ≤ 14
The greatest integer, N is 14
Sum of n terms of the A.P. is given by
n
Sn   2a   n  1 d 
2
14
Sn   2  19.5  14  1  1.5
2
 7 39  13  1.5 
 7  39  19.5
 136.5
Example (UNEB Question)
Show that ln2r, r = 1, 2, 3 is an arithmetic progression.
ii) Find the sum of the first 10 terms of the progression.
iii) Determine the least value of m for which the sum of the first 2m terms exceeds 883.7.
Solution
a) i) For r = 1,
ln21 = ln 2
For r = 2
ln 22  2ln 2
Common difference = 2ln2 – ln2 = ln2
For r=3
ln23 = 3 ln2
Common difference = 3 ln 2 – 2 ln 2 = ln2
Since the difference between any two consecutive terms is the same i.e. ln 2, Therefore the progression is
an arithmetic progression.
n
S n   2a  (n  1)d 
ii) For an A.P., 2
Where n = 10, a = ln2 and d = ln2
10
 S10 
2
 2 ln 2  (10  1) ln 2
 5  2 ln 2  (10  1) ln 2
 55ln 2
= 38.1231 (4 dp)
iii) Give a = ln2
d = ln2
n = 2m

164
 2m
 S2m 
2
 2 ln 2  (2m  1) ln 2
 m  (2  2m  1) ln 2
 m 1  2m  ln 2 

For S2m  883.7 ,

 m(1  2m) ln 2  883.7
883.7
m  2m 2 
ln 2
2m  m  1274.9
2

2m2  m  1274.9  0
1  1  8  1274.9
m
4
1  10200.2
m
4
1  100.996
m
4
m  24.999
Hence the least value of m is 25.

Example (UNEB Question)

The first term of an arithmetic progression (A.P) is 73 and the 9th is 25. Determine
i) The common difference of the A.P.
ii) The number of terms that must be added to give a sum of 96.
b) A geometric progression (G.P.) and an arithmetic progression (A.P) have the same first term. The sums
of their first, second and third terms are 6, 10.5 and 18 respectively. Calculate the sum of their fifth terms.
Solution
Let a = 1st term and
d = common difference of an A.P
Now 1st term = 73 and
The 9th term = 25
But 9th term = a + 8d
=> a + 8d = 25
73 + 8d = 25
8d = 25 − 73
8d = 48
d = -6
Hence the common difference of the A.P is -6
ii) Let n = number of terms required
n
Sn   2a   n  1 d 
2
But Sn = 96
n
  2a   n  1 d   96
2
Substituting for a = 73 and d = -6

165
 n
146   n  1  6   96
2
n
146  6  n  1   96
2
n  73  3(n  1)   96
73n − 3n2 + 3n = 96
3n2 − 76n + 96 = 0
76  762  4  3  96
n
23
76  5776  1152

6
76  68

6
76  68
n
6
 24
Hence the terms that must be added to give a sum of 96 are 24
b) Let a = 1st term of both A.P. and G.P.
d = common difference of A.P. and
r = common difference of a G.P.
Now for an A.P:
1st term = a
2nd tern = a + d
3rd term = a+2d
4th term = a + 3d
5th term = a + 4d
Also for a G.P.:
1st term = a
2nd term = ar
3rd term = ar2
4th term = ar3
5th term = ar4
Sum of their 1st terms = 2a
⟹ 2a = 6
a=3
Sum of their second terms = a + d + ar
⟹ a + d + ar = 10.5
3 + d + 3r = 10.5
d + 3r = 7.5................................ (i)
Sum of their third terms = a + 2d + ar2
⟹ a + 2d + ar2 = 18
3 + 2d + 3r2 = 18
2d + 3r2 = 15
Making d the subject from Eqn (ii)
d = 7.5 − 3r
Substitute for d into Eqn (ii)
2(7.5 − 3r) + 3r2 = 15
15 − 6r + 3r2 = 15

166
3r2 − 6r = 0
r=2
d = 7.5 − 3 × 2 = 1.5
The sum of their 5th terms = a + 4d + ar4
= 3 + 4 × 1.5 + 3 × 24
= 3 + 6 + 48
= 57
Example (UNEB Question)
a) The nth term of a series is Un = a3n + bn + c. given that U1 = 4, U2 = 13 and U3 = 46, find the values of
a, b and c.
Solution
a) Given Un = a3n + bn + c
Substituting for n = 1, 2, 3...
For n = 1
 3a + b + c = 4 ....................................(i)
For n = 2,
 9a + 2b + c = 13 ................................(ii)
For n = 3
 27a + 3b + c = 46..............................(iii)
Eqn (ii) − Eqn (i)
6a + b = 9........................................ (iv)
Eqn (iii) − Eqn (ii)
18a + b = 33..................................... (v)
Eqn (v) − Eqn (iv)
12a = 24
a=2
Substitute for a in Eqn (iv)
12 + b = 9
b = -3
Substituting for b in Eqn (i),
6−3+c=4
c=1
 a = 2, b = -3 and c = 1

Example (UNEB Question)

9.(a) The tenth term of an arithmetic progression (A.P) is 29 and the fifteenth term is 44. Find the value of
the common difference and the first term. Hence find the sum of the first 60 terms.
b) A cable 10 m long is divided into ten pieces whose lengths are in a geometric progression. The length
of the longest piece is 8 times the length of the shortest piece. Calculate to the nearest centimeter the
length of the third piece.
Solution:
(a) The nth term of A.P. is given by
Un = a + (n – 1)d
Given U10 = 29,
⟹ a + 9d = 29 ……………….……………(i)
Given U15 = a + 14d
⟹ a + 14d = 44 ……………………..…...(ii)
Eqn (i) – Eqn (ii);

167
5d = 15
d=3
Substituting for d in Eqn (i)
a + 27 = 29
a=2
The sum of the first n terms of A.P. is given by
S n  2a  (n  1)d 
n
2 .

S 60 
60
2(2)  59(3)
2
 304  177
 5430
b) Given length of cable = 10m
Number of divisions = 10
Here, length of divisions makes a G.P.
By considering the first to be the shortest and the 10th to be the longest,
Let 1st term = a
10th term = ar9
3rd term = ar2
ar9 = 8a
r9 = 8
1 1
r 8 9
2 3

 r n 1
S n  a 
 r 1 
 810 9  1 
10  a 1 
 9 
 8 1 
 210 3  1 
10  a  1 
 2 3 1 
 
 9.0794 
10  a  
 0.2599 
a  0.2863 (4d . p.)
Length of the 3rd piece, U3 = ar2
U3 = 0.2862 × 2⅔
= 0.4544m
~ 45 cm

Application of Geometric Progression

UNEB Question
A credit society gives out a compound interest of 4.5% per annum. Mugagga deposited 300,000 at the
beginning of each year. How much money will he have at the end of the 4th year in no withdrawal is made
between this period.
Solution
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + ⋯ 𝐴𝑛

168
 4.5
𝐴1 = 300,000 (1 + )
100
4.5 2
𝐴2 = 300,000 (1 + )
100
4.5 3
𝐴3 = 300,000 (1 + )
100
4.5 4
𝐴3 = 300,000 (1 + )
100
𝐴 = 300,000(1 + 0.045) + 300,000 (1 + 0.045)2 + ⋯ 300,000 (1 + 0.045)4
𝐴 = 300,000(1.045 + 1.045)2 + ⋯ 1.0454 )
(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝐴 = 300,000𝑎
𝑟−1
𝑎 = 1.045
(1.045)2
𝑟= = 1.045
1.045
300,000 × 1.045(1.0454 − 1)
𝐴=
1.045 − 1
𝐴 = 1341212.918
Example II (UNEB Question)
A Finance society gives out a compound interest of 8% per annum. Moses deposited £100 into a saving
account at the beginning of each year. How much will his saving be worth after ten years?
Solution:
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ 𝐴10
8 8 2 8 10
𝐴 = 100 (1 + ) + 100 (1 + ) + ⋯ 100 (1 + )
100 100 100
𝐴 = 100(1.08 + 1.082 + ⋯ 1.0810 )
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝐴 = 100
𝑟−1
100 × 1.08(1.0810 − 1)
𝐴=
1.08 − 1
𝐴 = 1564.55
€1564.5548746
Example III
5 millions are invested each year at a rate of 15% interest. In how many years will it accumulate to more
than 50 millions.
𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ 𝐴𝑛
𝐴 = 5(1.15 + 1.152 + ⋯ 1.15𝑛 )
𝑎 = 1.15
1.152
𝑟= = 1.15
1.15
5𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝐴=
𝑟−1

169
 5 × 1.15(1.15𝑛 − 1)
𝐴=
1.15 − 1
5 × 1.15(1.15𝑛 − 1)
⟹ > 50.
1.15 − 1
53
1.15𝑛 >
23
53
log10 1.15𝑛 > log10 ( ) .
23
53
𝑛 log10 1.15 > (log10 ).
23
53
𝑛 log10 1.15 > (log10 )
23
53
log10 23
𝑛>
log10 1.15
𝑛 > 5.97
𝑛 = 6.
Example IV
A man pays a premium of £100 at the beginning of every year to insurance company on understanding that
at the end of fifteen years he can receive back the premiums which he has paid with 5% compound interest.
What should he receive? Give your answer correct to three significant figure.
Solution

5 1 5 2 5 15
𝐴 = 100 (1 + ) + 100 (1 + ) + ⋯ 100 (1 + )
100 100 100
𝐴 = 100[(1.05 + 1.052 + ⋯ 1.0515 )]
100 𝑎 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝐴=
𝑟−1
100 × 1.05(1.0515 − 1)
𝐴=
1.05 − 1
𝐴 = 2265.74917.
𝐴 = £2270 (𝑡𝑜 3 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒)

Proof by induction of summation of other series

Mathematical induction is a method of proof in which a statement is proved for one step in a process and
it’s shown that if the statement holds for that step, it holds for the next. Proof by induction is not a direct
proof because the method doesn’t produce the expression it’s self but it can only be used to prove that a
given expression is a required sum.
Mathematic proof by induction involves 3 steps

170
Step 1: (initial step) is to prove the given statement for all natural numbers.
Step 2: (induction step) prove the given statement for any natural number implies the given statement for
the next natural numbers.
Step 3: (conclusion step).
If you have just covered induction with your teacher and you are feeling uneasy about the whole thing. If
you are anything like me, you are having the same thought that I had. Can’t you prove anything is true. If
you assume it to be true in the first place, what is left is to prove.
If you have already proved isn’t that cheating any how
Well………
First step don’t get mad at your teacher.
Induction makes a perfect sense to him and he honestly thinks he has explained it clearly. When I was still
at school like you I had a good math teacher so I had good lessons of induction from my teacher.
But still I didn’t trust induction so I tried to pick up where my teacher had left me and fill in some gaps.
Before the lesson ended. I asked my teacher, ‘excuse me teacher’
Excuse me teacher, ‘excuse me teacher, excuse me teacher. Mathematical proof by induction is confusing
me because I cannot seem to reason with myself as to how to go about getting to the solution and also asked
why is it called mathematical proof by induction not substitution induction’.
Example 1
Prove by induction that
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ 𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2
Solution
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ 𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
1
1 = (1)(2)
2
1 = 1.
It is true for n = 1
Assume the result holds for some general value of n say n = k.
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ 𝐾 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
2
It must also be true for the next value of n i.e
𝑛=𝑘+1
Adding the next term, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1
⇒ 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 𝑘 + 1
2
= (k + 1)[ 12 k + 1]
1
= (𝑘 + 1)[𝑘 + 2]
2
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2

171
 1
 1 + 2 + 3 + …+k+k + 1 = (k + 1)(k + 2)
2
For the next integer
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2.
𝑘 + 1 = 2.
𝑘 = 1.
1
⟹ 1 + 2 = (1 + 1)(1 + 2)
2
1
3 = (2)(3)
2
3 = 3.
Since it’s true for n = 1, n = 2 and so on hence it’s true for all positive integral values of n.
Example II
Prove by induction that
1
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ 𝑛2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1).
6
Solution
1
12+22 + 32 + ⋯ 𝑛2 = 6 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
1
1 = (1)(2)(3).
6
1=1
It’s true for n = 1.
Assume the result holds for the general value of n say n=k, it must be true for the next value of n i.e
𝑛 =𝑘+1
1
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ 𝑘 2 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1)
6
Adding the next term 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = (𝑘)(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 6(𝑘 + 1)]
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6]
6
1
= (𝑘 + 1)[(𝑘 + 2)(2𝑘 + 3)]
6
1
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = (𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)
2 2 2
6
For the next integer
𝑛=𝑘+1=2
𝑘 = 1.
1
12 + 22 = (2)(3)(5)
6
5=5
Since it is true for n = 1 and n = 2 and so on, and so on hence it’s true for all positive integral values of n.

Example III
Prove by induction that

172
 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 )
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 =
1−𝑟
Solution
For 𝑛 = 1.
(1 − 𝑟)
𝑎=𝑎
1−𝑟
𝑎=𝑎
It’s true for 𝑛 = 1
Assume the result holds for the general value of n say 𝑛 = 𝑘
(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 )
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 = 𝑎
1−𝑟
It must be true for the next integer
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.
Adding the next term
𝑛 =𝑘+1
(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 )
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘 ) + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 (1 − 𝑟)
=
1−𝑟
a  ar k  ar k  ar k 1

1 r
𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑘+1
=
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘+1 )
=
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑘+1 )
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑟 𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑘 =
1−𝑟
For the next integer
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2.
𝑘 = 1.
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 2 )
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 =
1−𝑟
𝑎(1 + 𝑟)(1 − 𝑟)
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 =
1−𝑟
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑟)
𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟
Since it’s true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛 = 𝑘 so on hence it’s true.

Example IV
1 𝑛
Prove by induction that ∑𝑛𝑟=1 𝑟(𝑟+1) = 𝑛+1 .
Solution
1 1 1 1 1
∑𝑛𝑟=1 = 2 + 6 + 12 + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑟(𝑟+1)
1 1 1 1 𝑛
⟹ + + +⋯ =
2 6 12 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1
For 𝑛 = 1

173
 1 1
=
2 2.
It’s true for 𝑛 = 1.
Assume the result holds for general value of n, say 𝑛 = 𝑘.
1 1 1 1 𝑘
+ + +⋯ =
2 6 12 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘 + 1
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
adding the next term 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1 1 1 1 1 𝑘 1
+ + +⋯ + = +
2 6 12 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) 𝑘 + 1 (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘(𝑘 + 2) + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
(𝑘 + 1)2
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑘+1
=
(𝑘 + 2)
1 1 1 1 1 𝑘+1
⟹ + + +⋯ + =
2 6 12 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) 𝑘 + 2
For the next integer, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2, 𝑘 = 1.
1 1 2
+ = .
2 6 3
3+1 2
= .
6 3
4 2
= .
6 3
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2 and so on hence it’s true for all positive integral value of n.

Example V
1
Prove by induction that ∑𝑛𝑚=1 𝑚3 = 4 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
Solution
𝑛
∑ 𝑚 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ 𝑛 3
𝑚=1
1
⟹ 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ 𝑛3 = 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
4
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
1
13 = (12 )(2)2
4
1 = 1.
It’s true for 𝑛 = 1.
Assume the result holds for the general value of
𝑛=𝑘

174
 1
13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ 𝑘 3 = 𝑘 2 (𝑘 + 1)2
4
It must be true for next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Adding the next term 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1
13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ 𝑘 3 + (𝑘 + 1)3 = 𝑘 2 (𝑘 + 1)2 + (𝑘 + 1)3
4
1
= (𝑘 + 1)2 [𝑘 2 + 4(𝑘 + 1)]
4
1
= (𝑘 + 1)2 (𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 4)
4
1
 ( k  1) 2 ( k  2) 2
4
1
13 + 23 + 33 + … k3 + (k + 1)3 =  ( k  1) 2 ( k  2 2
4
1
13 + 23 = (2)2 (32 )
4
9=9
Since it true for n = 1, n = 2 and so on, it is true for all positive integral value of n.
Example VI
Prove by induction that
1
1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
3
Solution
1
(1 × 2) + (2 × 3) + ⋯ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
3
For 𝑛 = 1
1
1 × 2 = (1)(2)(3)
3
2 = 2.
Its true result holds for general value of n say
𝑛 = 𝑘.
1
(1 × 2) + (2 × 3) + ⋯ 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
3
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
(1 × 2) + (2 × 3) + ⋯ 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1
 k ( k  1)(k  2)  ( k  1)( k  2)
3
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)[𝑘 + 3].
3
1
= (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
3
1
1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + ⋯ 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)(𝑘 + 3)
3
For the next integer, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2, 𝑘 = 1
1
1 × 2 + 2 × 3 = (2)(3)(4).
3
8=8

175
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2 and so on hence it’s true for all positive integral values of n.

Example VII
Prove by induction that
𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑑 𝑛
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥
For 𝑛 = 1.
𝑑
(𝑥) = 1.
𝑑𝑥
Assume the result holds for the general value of n say
n = k.
𝑑 𝑘
(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥 𝑘−1
𝑑𝑥
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
𝑑 𝑘+1
(𝑥 ) = (𝑘 + 1)𝑥 𝑘 .
𝑑𝑥
For the next integer, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2, 𝑘 = 1
𝑑 2
(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2, and so on, it is true for positive integral values of n.
Example VIII
Prove by induction.
1
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
3
Solution
1
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑛(4𝑛2 − 1)
3
For 𝑛 = 1
1
12 = (1)(3)
3
1=1
It is true for n = 1.
Assume the results holds for the general value of 𝑛 = 𝑘.
1
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ … . (2𝑘 − 1)2 = 𝑘(4𝑘 2 − 1)
3
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
Adding the next term 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
1
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 𝑘(4𝑘 2 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1)2
3
1
= 𝑘(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 − 1) + (2𝑘 + 1)2
3
1
= (2𝑘 + 1)[2𝑘 2 − 𝑘 + 3(2𝑘 + 1)]
3
1
= (2𝑘 + 1)[(2𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 3)]
3

176
 1
= (2𝑘 + 3)(2𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1)
3
12 + 22 + ⋯ (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2
1
 ( k  1)(2k  1)(2k  3)
3
For the next integer
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2.
𝑘=1
1
12 + 32 = (2)(3)(5)
3
10 = 10
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2 and so on hence it is true for all positive integral values of n.

Example IX
Prove by induction that 6𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 5 for all positive integral value of n
Solution
6𝑛 − 1
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛 =
5
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
6−1
𝑎1 = = 1.
5
It’s true for n = 1
Assume it holds for the general value of n say 𝑛 = 𝑘.
6𝑘 − 1
𝑎𝑘 =
5
5𝑎𝑘 = 6𝑘 − 1 ………………… (i)
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
6𝑘+1 − 1
𝑎𝑘+1 =
5
5𝑎𝑘+1 = 6𝑘+1 − 1 ……………..…. (ii)
𝑒𝑞𝑛(𝑖𝑖) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛(𝑖)
5𝑎𝑘+1 − 5𝑎𝑘 = (6𝑘+1 − 1) − (6𝑘 − 1)
= 6𝑘+1 − 6𝑘
= 6𝑘 (61 − 1)
= 5(6k )
For the next integer
𝑛=𝑘+1=2
𝑘 = 1.
5𝑎2 − 5𝑎1 = 5 × 6
5𝑎2 − 5 × 1 = 30.
5𝑎2 = 35.
𝑎2 = 7
Since it is true for n = 1, n = 2 and so on, it is true for all the positive integral values of n.

Example X
Prove by induction that 4𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 3 for all positive integral value of n.
Solution

177
 4𝑛 − 1
𝑎𝑛 =
3
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
41 − 1
𝑎1 = =1
3
It is true for n = 1
Assume the result holds for general value of n say n= k
4𝑘 − 1
𝑎𝑘 =
3
3𝑎𝑘 = 4𝑘 − 1 …………………… (i)
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
4𝑘+1 − 1
𝑎𝑘+1 =
3
3𝑎𝑘+1 = 4𝑘+1 − 1 …………….….. (ii)
𝑒𝑞𝑛 (𝑖𝑖) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛(𝑖)
3𝑎𝑘+1 − 3𝑎𝑘 = (4𝑘+1 − 1) − (4𝑘 − 1)
𝑘+1 𝑘
=4 −4
𝑘 (4
=4 − 1)
𝑘
= 3(4 ).
For the next integer, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2, 𝑘 = 1.

3𝑎2 − 3𝑎1 = 3(41 ).

3𝑎2 − 3 = 12
3𝑎2 = 15
𝑎2 = 5.
Since it’s true for 𝑛 = 1 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛 = 𝑘 and so on it’s true for all positive integral values of n.
Example
Prove by induction that 8n – 7n + 6 is divisible by 7 for all positive values of n.
Solution
8𝑛 − 7𝑛 + 6
𝑎𝑛 =
7
For 𝑛 = 1
8−7+6
𝑎1 = =1
7
It’s true for 𝑛 = 1 for the general value of n say
𝑛 = 𝑘.
8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6
𝑎𝑘 =
7
7𝑎𝑘 = 8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6 ………………….. (1)
It must be true for the next integer
𝑛 =𝑘+1
8𝑘+1 − 7(𝑘 + 1) + 6
𝑎𝑘+1 =
7
7𝑎𝑘+1 = 8𝑘+1 − 7𝑘 − 7 + 6.
7𝑎𝑘+1 = 8𝑘+1 − 7𝑘 − 1………………….. (2)
𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2) − 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (1).

178
7𝑎𝑘+1− 7𝑎𝑘 = (8𝑘+1 − 7𝑘 − 1) − (8𝑘 − 7𝑘 + 6)
= 8𝑘+1 − 8𝑘 − 7
= 8𝑘 . 8 − 8𝑘 − 7.
= 8𝑘 (8 − 1) − 7
= 7 8𝑘 − 7
= 7(8𝑘 − 1)
7(𝑎𝑘+1 − 𝑎𝑘 ) = 7(8𝑘 − 1)
For the next integer
𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2, 𝑘 = 1
7(𝑎2 − 𝑎1 ) = 7(81 − 1).
𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 7
𝑎2 = 7 + 𝑎1
𝑎2 = 7 + 1
𝑎2 = 8
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 1, 𝑛 = 2 and so on it’s true for all positive integral values of n.
Example (UNEB Question)
Prove by induction that 2𝑛 + 32𝑛−3 is always divisible by 7 for 𝑛 ≥ 2
Solution
2𝑛 + 32𝑛−3
𝑎𝑛 =
7
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
22 + 3
𝑎2 = =1
7
′
𝑖𝑡 𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1.
Assume the result holds for the general value of n say 𝑛 = 𝑘
2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3
𝑎𝑘 =
7
7𝑎𝑘 = 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 … ………………….. (1)

For the next integer, 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

2𝑘+1 + 32𝑘−1
𝑎𝑘+1 = .
7
7𝑎𝑘+1 = 2𝑘+1 + 32𝑘−1 … ………………. (2)
Eqn (2) – Eqn (1)
7𝑎𝑘+1 − 7𝑎𝑘 = (2𝑘+1 + 32𝑘−1 ) − (2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 )
= 2𝑘 . 2 + 32𝑘−3 . 32 − 2𝑘 − 32𝑘−3
= 2(2𝑘 ) − 2𝑘 + 32 (32𝑘−3 ) − 32𝑘−3
= 2𝑘 (2 − 1) + 32𝑘−3 (9 − 1)
= 2𝑘 + 8(32𝑘−3 )
= 2𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 + 7 32𝑘−3
= 7ak  7 32k 3
= 7(𝑎𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 )
7(𝑎𝑘+1 − 𝑎𝑘 ) = 7(𝑎𝑘 + 32𝑘−3 )

For the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 3, 𝑘 = 2

7(𝑎3 − 𝑎2 ) = 7(𝑎2 + 3)

179
 𝑎3 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 + 3
𝑎3 = 2𝑎2 + 3
𝑎3 = 2 + 3
𝑎3 = 5
Since it is true for 𝑛 = 2, 𝑛 = 3 𝑛 = 𝑘 and so on it’s true for all positive of n.
Example XI
Prove by induction that 8n – 6n is always divisible by 7 for all even integers of n.
Solution
8n  6n
an 
7
82  62 64  36
For n = 2, a2   4
7 7
Assume the result holds for the general even integer n = k
8k  6 k
ak 
7
7ak = 8k – 6k. ……………… (1)
8k  2  6 k  2
For the next even integer, ak  2 
7
7ak + 1 = 8 k+1
–6 k+1
………... (2)

Eqn (2) – Eqn (1)

7(ak + 2 – ak) = 8k + 2 – 6k + 2 – 8k + 6k
7(ak + 2 – ak) = 8(82 – 1) – 6k(62 – 1)
= 8k(63) – 35(6k)
ak + 2 – ak = 9(8k) –5(6k)
ak + 2 = ak + 9(8k) – 5(6k)
For the next integer n = k + 2 = 4, k = 2
a4 = a2 + 9(82) – 5(62)
a4 = 4 + 396
a4 = 400
8n  6 n 84  64
From an = , a4  = 400
7 7
Since it is true for n = 2, n = 4, and so on, hence it is true for all positive even integers.

Revision Exercise
1. Which of the following series are arithmetical progressions? Write down the common difference of
those that are.
(i) 7 + 8 12 + 10 + 11 12 + …
(ii) -2 – 5 – 8 – 11 + …
(iii) 1 + 1.1 + 1.2 + 1.3 + …
(iv) 1 + 1.1 + 1.1 + 1.11 + …
1 5 7 3
(v) , + + + + …
2 6 6 2
(vi) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + …
(vii) n + 2n + 3n + 4n + …
1 1 1
(viii) 1+ + + +…
2 3 4

180
2. Write down the first term and common difference of each of the following arithmetic progressions.
(a) 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + …
(b) 23 + 25 + 27 + 291 + …
(c) 19 + 16 + 13 + 10 + …
(d) 13 12 + 15 + 16 12 + 18 + …
3. Find the sums of the following arithmetic progressions
(a) 4 + 11 + … to 16th term
(b) 3 + 8 12 + … to 20th term
(c) 19 + 13 + … to 10th term.
(d) -9 – 1 + … to 8th term.
4. Write down the terms indicated in each of the following Arithmetic progressions.
(a) 3 + 11 + …, 10th and 19th
(b) 8 + 5 + …, 15th, 31st term.
1 7
(c)   ... 12th, nth
4 8
(d) 50 + 48 + … , 100th, nth
5. Find the 18th term of a series that has an nth term given by (2 + 3n)
6. Find the sum of the arithmetic progression -7 – 3 + 1 + … from the 7th to the 13th term inclusive.
7. Find the number of terms in the following arithmetic progressions:
(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 46
(b) 50 + 47 + 44 + … + 14
(c) 2 + 4 + … + 4n
(d) a + (a + d) + … + l
1
8. Find the 31st term of a series that has an nth term given by (10  2n)
3
9. Find the sum of all odd numbers between 0 and 500 which are divisible by 7.
10. The 2nd term of an arithmetic progression is 15 and the 15th is 21. Find the common difference, the first
term and the sum of the first 10 terms.
11. Find the 5th and 7th terms of a series that has an nth term given by (-1)n(2n + 1)
12. Show that the sum 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n – 1) is always a perfect square.
13. The 4th term of an arithmetic progression is 18, and the common difference is -5. Find the 1st term and
the sum of the 1st 16 terms.
14. Find an expression for the nth term of each of the following arithmetic progression and use your answer
to write down the 100th term of each series.
(a) 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + …
(b) 5 + 2 + -1 – 4 + …
(c) 12½ + 16 + 19½ + 23 + …
15. A piece of string of length 5m is cut into n pieces in such way that the lengths of the piece are in an
arithmetic progression. If the lengths of the longest and shortest pieces are 1m and 25 cm respectively,
calculate n.
16. Find the difference between the sums of the first 10 terms of the A.P whose first terms are 12 and 8
and whose common differences are respectively 2 and 3.
17. Find the sum of each of the following arithmetic progressions:
(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + … 146
(b) 100 + 95 + 90 + 85 + 80 + … + 20
(c) 4 + 10 + 16 + 22 + 28 + … +334
(d) 5¼ + 4½ + 3¾ + … + -3
18. The 10th term of an arithmetic progression is 10 and the sum of the first 10 terms is -35. Find the first
term and the common difference of the progression.
19. The first term of an arithmetic progression is -12, and the last term is 40. If the sum is 196, find the
number of terms and the common difference.

181
20. In an arithmetic progression, u5 = -0.5 and S7 = 21. Find a, d, and u6.
21. The sum of the first four terms of an arithmetic progression is twice the 5th term. Show that the common
difference is equal to the first term.
22. Find the sum of the even number divisible by 3 lying between 400 and 500.
23. The sum of the first ten terms of an arithmetic progression is 120 and the sum of the first 20 terms is
840. Find the sum of the first 30 terms.
24. Find the arithmetic mean of:
(a) 3 and 27
(b) 3 and -27
1 1
(c) and
3 27
(d) log 3 and log 27
1
25. Show that the sum of the integers from 1 to n is n( n  1) .
2
26. An arithmetic progression has a common difference, d. If the sum to 20 terms is 25 times the first term,
find in terms of d, the sum to 30 terms.
27. Three numbers in an arithmetic progression have sum 33 and product 1232. Find the numbers.
28. Show that the sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic progression with first term a and common
1
difference d is n(2a  ( n  1) d ) .
2
29. In an arithmetic progression, a = -61 and d = 4. Find the least value of n such that Sn > 0.
30. An arithmetic progression has first term -5 and common difference 1.5. Find the greatest number of
terms the arithmetic progression can have given that the sum of the terms does not exceed 450.

Answers
1
1. (a) 1½ (b) -3 (c) 0.1 (d) (g) n
3
2. (a) 8.3 (b) 23, 2 (c) 19, -3 (d) 13½, 1½
3. (a) 904 (b) 1188 (c) 88 (d) 193½
1
4. (a) 75, 147 (b) -34, -82 (c) 7 18 , (5n  3)
8
(d) -148, (52 – 2n)
5. 56 6. 1512
(l  a )
7. (a) 23 (b) 13 (c) 2n (d)
(d  1)
8. 24 9. 9072 10. 2, 13, 220
11. 13, -15 13. 33, -72
14. (a) 2 + 3n, 302
(b) 8 – 3n, -292
(c) ½(18 + 7n), 359
15. 8 16. 5
17. (a) 5402 (b) 1000
(c) 9464 (d) 13½
18. -17, 3 19. 14, 4
20. 13½, -3½, -14½
22. 7650 23. 2160
5
24. (a) 15 (b) -15 (c) (d) log 9
27
26. 1575d 27. 8, 11, 14
29. 32 30. 28.

182
 Revision Exercise two
1. For each of the following G.Ps, state the common ratio and the next two terms.
(a) 4 + 20 + 100 + 500 + …
(b) 24 + 12 + 6 + …
(c) 45 + 15 + 5 + …
2. Write down the terms indicated in each of the following G.Ps. Do not simplify your answer.
(a) 5 + 10 + …, 11th, 20th
(b) 10 + 25 + …, 7th, 19th
2 3
(c)   ... , 12th, nth
3 4
(d) 3 – 2 + …, 8th, nth
3. Find the sum of the following G.Ps
(a) 100 + 10 + … to 7 terms
1
(b) 1 – + … to 6 terms
3
(c) 3 – 6 + … to n terms
(d) ap + ap+3 + ap+6 + … to k terms
Using the formula Sn  a(r  1) , find S5 and S6 for the G.P 18, -9, 4½, … and hence deduce the value
n
4.
( r  1)
of U6.
5. Find the number of terms in the following geometric progressions:
(a) 81 + 27 + 9 + … + 1/27
(b) 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.12 + … 11611

(c) 8  4  2  ...  1 1611

81 27 9
(d) 5 + 10 + 20 + … + 5 × 2n
(e) a + ar + ar2 + … + arn – 1
6. Find the distinct numbers p and q such that p, q, 10 are in arithmetic progression and p, q, 10 are in
geometric progression.
7. Find the value of the common ratio of the G.P that has a third term equal to 6and 8 th term equal to
1458.
8. The third term of a geometric progression is 10 and the 6th term is 80. Find the common ratio, the first
term and the sum of the first six terms.
9. Find the geometric mean of:
(a) 3 and 27
1 1
(b) and
3 27
(c) 103 and 1027
10. In a geometric progression, the 7th term equals 8 and the 9th term equals 18. Find the possible values
of the common ratio.
11. The third term of a G.P is 2 and the fifth is 18. Find two possible values of the common ratio and the
second term in each case.
12. Given that the geometric mean of the numbers 4x – 3 and 9x + 4 is 6x – 1, find the value of x.
32 21
13. Find the sum of the first ten terms of a G.P that has a sixth term and a seventh term of 1 33 .
33
14. The three numbers n – 1, n, n + 3 are consecutive terms of a geometric progression. Find n and the
term after n + 3.
15. If the sum of the first two terms of a G.P is 162 and the sum of its first four terms is 180, find the sum
of the first 6 terms, Find also the possible values of the sixth term..

183
16. The geometric mean of two numbers a and b (b > a) is equal to four fifth of the arithmetic mean of the
two numbers. If a = 6, find the value of b.
17. A man starts saving on 1st April. He saves 1p the first day, 2p the second, 4p the third and so on. If he
managed to keep on saving under this system until the end of the month (30 days), how much would
he have saved?
18. The sum of the first six terms of a G.P is nine times the sum of the first 3 terms. Find the common
ratio.
19. Prove that the arithmetic mean of two different numbers exceeds the geometric mean of the same two
numbers.
20. Show that the sum of the series 4 + 12 + 36 + 108 + … to 20 terms is greater than 3 × 109.
21. The sum of (n + 12) terms of the G.P 2 + 4 + 8 + … is twice the sum of n terms of the G.P 2 + 12 + 48
+ …. Calculate the value of n.
22. A geometric series has first term 5 and common ratio 3. Find the least number of terms the series can
have if its series exceeds 2000.
23. Find the ratio of the sum of the first 10 terms of the series log x + log x2 + log x4 + log x8 + … to the
first term.
24. A geometric series has first term 35 and common ratio 2x. State the set of values of x for which the
series is convergent. Find the value of x for which the sum to infinity of the series is 40.
25. The sum of the first two terms of a G.P is 9 and the sum to infinity of the G.P is 25. If the G.P has a
positive common ratio r, find r and the first term.
26. The 2nd, 4th, 8th terms of an A.P are in geometric progression and the sum of the third and fifth terms
is 20. Find the first four terms of the progression.
27. For each of the following geometric series, find the range of values of x for which the sum to infinity
of the series exists.
(a) x + x2 + x3 + x4 + …
x x 2 x3
(b) 1    +…
3 9 27
1 1 1
(c) 1   2  3 + …
x x x
2 3

(d)  x     x     x    …
1 1 1
 2  2  2
28. S is the sum of n terms of a geometric progression, P is the product of the n terms and R is the sum of
n
the reciprocals of the terms. Prove that    P 2 .
S
R  
1 1 1
29. Three unequal numbers a, b, c are such that , , are in arithmetical progression. Prove that b, a, c
a b c
are in arithmetical progression.
2
30. Prove that the G.P 1 
2x  2 x  + … is convergent for all values of x and find the limit of its
 
3  x2  3  x2 
sum.

31. Prove by induction that:

(i) 33𝑛+2 + 5𝑛+1 is divisible by 3
(ii) 𝑛3 + 2𝑛 is divisible by 3.
(iii) 4𝑛+1 + 52𝑛−1 is a multiple of 21.
(iv) 11𝑛+2 + 122𝑛+1 is divisible by 133.

Answers
1. (a) 5, 2500, 12500

184
 1
(b) , 3, 1 12
2
1 2 5
(c) ,1 ,
3 3 9
2. (a) 5 × 210, 5 × 219
(b) 10( 52 )6 , 10( 52 )18
(c) 23 ( 89 )11 , 32 ( 89 )n1
3. (a) 111.1111
182
(b)
243
(c) 1 – (-2)n
a p (a 3k  1)
(d)
a3  1
9
4. 12 83 , 11 16
13
,
16
5. (a) 8 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) n + 1 (e) n
6. -5, 2½
7. 3 8. 2, 2½, 167½
1
9. (a) 9 (b) (c) 105
9
2
10. ±1½ 11. ±3, ±
3
12. 13 13. 31
14. 6, 13½ 15. 182, ½, -1
16. 24 17. £1,070,000
18. 2 21. 12
22. 7 23. 1023
4
24. x < 0 25. , 5
5
26. 2½, 5, 7½, 10
27. (a) |x| < 1 (b) |x| < 3
3 1
(c) |x| > 1 (d) x
2 2

COMPLEX NUMBERS

185
A complex number is represented by an expression of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝒊 where a and b are real numbers
and i is a symbol with a property 𝒊𝟐 = −1.

𝒊 = √−1 was introduced by a Swiss mathematician Euler. Traditionally the letters Z and W are used to
stand for complex numbers.
Given a complex numbers 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝒊.
The real part of a complex number z is 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 𝑎 and the imaginary part of z is 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 𝑏.
Both 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) real numbers.
Thus the real part of Z = 4 − 3𝒊 is 𝑅𝑒(𝑤) = 4 and imaginary part of Z is Im(𝑍) = −3
By identifying the real number a with a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑜𝑖 we consider ℝ (real numbers) to be
subset of ℂ (complex numbers).

Consider the equation 𝑥 2 + 9 = 0, this can be written as 𝑥 2 = −9 and we can see that the equation has no
real roots since we cannot find the real root of a negative number, But with 𝒊2 = −1 (Euler) we are able
to find the square root of complex numbers.
𝑥 2 = −9
𝑥 2 = 9𝒊𝟐
√𝑥 𝟐 = √9 𝒊2
𝑥 = ±3𝒊
𝑥 = 3𝒊 𝒙 = −3𝒊

Example
Solve the following equations
(a) 4𝑥 2 + 49 = 0
(b) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6 = 0
Solution
4𝑥 2 + 49 = 0
4𝑥 2 = −49
49
𝑥2 = −
4
49 2
𝑥2 = 𝒊
4

49
𝑥 = √ 𝒊2
4
7
𝑥=± 𝒊
2
(b) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 6 = 0
b  b 2  4ac
From, x 
2a
(−2 ± √(2)2 − 4(1)(6))
𝑥=
2×1

213
 −2 ± √−20
𝑥=
2
−2 ± √4𝒊2 × 5
𝑥=
2
−2 ± 2𝒊√5
𝑥=
2
𝑥 = −1 + 𝒊√5
𝑥 = −1 − 𝒊√𝟓
With this new concept we are in position to find the roots of any quadratic equation.
When the imaginary part of a complex number is zero, the complex number becomes a real number.
Thus, all real numbers are complex numbers.
Definition
Given a complex number 𝒛 = 𝑥 + 𝒊𝑦, the complex conjugate of Z denoted by ̅𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ∗ is a complex
number given by ̅𝑧 = x – iy. Therefore if 𝑧 = 4 + 3𝒊, 𝑤 = −2 + 4𝒊
Then ̅𝑧 = 4 – 3i, 𝑤
̅ -2 – 4i

Algebra of complex numbers

1. Addition
Given that two complex numbers
𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝒊𝑦1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝒊𝑦2 . Then
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝒊𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝒊𝑦2
= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝒊(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
Therefore if 𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝒊 and 𝑧2 = 2 − 7𝒊
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 3 + 5𝒊 + 2 − 7𝒊
= (3 + 2) + 5𝒊 − 7𝒊
= 5 − 2𝒊
Example
1. Subtraction:
z1  x1  iy1
z2  x2  iy2
z1  z2  ( x1  iy1 )  ( x2  iy2 )
 x1  x2  iy1  iy2
 ( x1  x2 )  i ( y1  y2 )
𝑧1 = 4 − 3𝒊
𝑧2 = 6 − 14𝒊
Find (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = (4 − 3𝒊) − (6 − 14𝒊)
= 4 − 6 − 3𝒊 + 14𝒊
= −2 + 11𝒊
2. Multiplication
𝑧1 = 𝑥𝟏 + 𝒊𝑦𝟏, 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝒊𝑦2

214
 𝑧1 𝑧2 = (𝑥1 + 𝒊𝑦1 )(𝑥2 + 𝒊𝑦2 )
= 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 𝒊 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 𝒊 + 𝑖 𝟐 𝑦1 𝑦2
= 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + (𝑦1 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 𝑦2 )𝒊
Example
𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝒊, 𝑧2 = 2 − 7𝒊
Find 𝑧1 𝑧2
Solution
Find 𝑧1 𝑧2 = (3 + 5𝑖)(2 − 7𝑖)
= 3(2 − 7𝑖) + 5𝑖(2 − 7𝑖)
= 6 − 21𝑖 + 10𝑖 − 35𝑖 2
= 6 + 35 + (10 − 21)𝑖
= 41 − 11𝑖
3. Division
𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝒊𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1
=
𝑧2 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2
𝑧1 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 (𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 )
=
𝑧2 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 (𝑥2 − 𝑖𝑦2 )
𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 𝑖 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 𝑖 − 𝒊2 𝑦1 𝑦2
=
𝑧2 (𝑥2 )𝟐 − 𝒊𝟐 𝑦2 𝟐
𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 + (𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )𝑖
=
𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2
𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 𝑦2 (𝑥2 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 )𝑖
= +
𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2

Example I
2+6𝑖
Simplify 𝑧 = 3−𝑖
2 + 6𝑖 2 + 6𝑖(3 + 𝑖)
𝑧= =
3−𝑖 (3 − 𝑖)(3 + 𝑖)
2(3 + 𝑖) + 6𝑖(3 + 𝑖)
=
32 − 𝑖 2
6 + 2𝑖 + 18𝑖 + 6𝑖 2
=
10
6 + 20𝑖 − 6
=
10
0 + 20𝑖
=
10
= 2𝑖
Example II
−1+2𝑖
Express 1+3𝑖
in the form a + bi
Solution
−1 + 2𝑖 −1 + 2𝑖(1 − 3𝑖)
=
1 + 3𝑖 1 + 3𝑖(1 − 3𝑖)

215
 −1 + 3𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 6𝑖 2
=
(1)2 − (3𝑖)2
5𝑖 + 5
=
10
5 + 5𝑖
=
10
1 1
= + 𝑖
2 2

The Argand Diagram

Complex numbers can be represented graphically on a graph of Real (Re) and Imaginary (Im) axes called
a complex plane. The complex plane is similar to the Cartesian plane where the imaginary axis corresponds
to the y-axis and the real axis corresponds to the x-axis. The diagram representing the complex number in
complex plane is called an argand diagram named after JR argand 1806.
On the argand diagram a complex number is represented by a line with an arrow on the head to show
direction
If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 we can represent z on argand diagram as shown below.
Im Axis
y (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑥 𝑅𝑒 (𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)

If 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 then

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )

Im
axis

y2

𝑃1 | ← 𝑥2 → |
𝑦1
𝑧1
𝑂 𝑥1 Real axis

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 is represented by vectors 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑄 respectively. The diagram shows that 𝑃 1𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
is equal 𝑂𝑃2 in magnitude and direction
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + 𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑄 = 𝑂𝑃1 + 𝑂𝑃2

Thus the sum of two complex numbers 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 is represented in the argand diagram by the sum of the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
corresponding vectors 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃2

216
Representing 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐 on the argand diagram.

(z1 – z2) = OP1 – OP2

= 𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1 𝑃2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Since 𝑂𝑃1 − 𝑂𝑃2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 can be represented by 𝑃1 𝑃2

Example
Represent the following complex numbers on the argand diagram.
𝑧1 = 3 + 4𝑖, 𝑧2 = −2 + 𝑖, 𝑧3 = −5 − 4𝑖,
𝑧4 = 2 − 3𝑖, 𝑧5 = −4 − 2𝑖,
Solution
Im
axis
4

3
z1
2

z2 1

−5 −4 −3 −2 0 1 2 3 4
Real axis
1 5 5
z5 −1
z4
z3 −2

−3

−4

Modulus of a complex number

Given a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, the magnitude or length of z is denoted be |𝑧| is defined by
|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Example I
Given 𝑧 = 1 + √3𝑖 find |𝑧|
Solution
𝑧 = 1 + (√3)𝑖
2
|𝑧| = √(1)2 + (√3)
= √4
=2

217
Example II
1 √3
Find |𝑧| 𝑖𝑓 𝑧 = − 2 − 2
𝑖
Solution
1 √3
𝑧=− − 𝑖
2 2
z  ( 12 ) 2  (  2 3 ) 2

1 3
=√ +
4 4
= √1
=1
⟹ |𝑧| = 1

Example III
𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑖 find |𝑧|
Solution
𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑖
|𝑧| = √(−3)2 + (4)2
= √9 + 16
= √25
=5

Properties of modulus
If 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 are complex numbers then
(𝑖) |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |
𝑧 |z |
(𝑖𝑖) | 1 |  1
𝑧1 | z2 |
Example I
𝑧1 = 5 − 12𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 3 − 4𝑖
𝑧
Find |𝑧1 𝑧2 | 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝑧1 |
2
Solution
𝑧1 = 5 − 12𝑖 , 𝑧2 = 3 − 4𝑖
|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |
 |(5 – 12i)(3 – 4i)|
= |5 – 12i||3 – 4i|
= √(5)2 + (−12)2 √(3)2 + (−4)2
= √169 × √25
= 13 × 5
= 65

Alternatively
𝑧1 𝑧2 = (5 − 12𝑖)(3 − 4𝑖)

218
 = 15 − 20𝑖 − 36𝑖 + 48𝑖 2
= 15 − 48 − 56𝑖
= −33 − 56𝑖
|𝑧1 𝑧2 | = √(−33)2 + (−56)2
= 65 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑧1 = 5 − 12𝑖, 𝑧2 = 3 − 4𝑖
𝑧1 |𝑧1 | √(5)2 + (−12)2
| |= =
𝑧2 |𝑧2 | √(3)2 + (−4)2
13
=
5
z1 5  12i
Alternatively, 
z2 3  4i
(5 − 12𝑖)(3 + 4𝑖)
(3 − 4𝑖)(3 + 4𝑖)
𝑧1 15 + 20𝑖 − 36𝑖 − 48𝑖 2
=
𝑧2 (3)2 − (4𝑖)2
63 − 16i
=
9 + 16
63 16
= − 𝑖
25 25

𝑧1 63 2 16 2
| | = √( ) + (− )
𝑧2 25 25

𝑧1 (63)2 + (16)2
| |=√
𝑧2 252
65 13
= =
25 5

Argument of a complex number Z (arg Z)

The argument of a complex number z is defined to be the angle (θ) which the complex number z makes
with the positive x-axis.

𝜃
𝑥
x

From the diagram above,

219
 𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ⟹ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥 𝑥
Note: For a given complex number, there will be infinitely many possible values of the argument, any two
of which will differ by a whole multiple of 360°.
To avoid confusion we usually work with the value of 𝜃 for which −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 𝜋 or −180 < 𝜃 < 180.
This is called the principle argument of z denoted by arg z.
𝑦
In practice the formula tan 𝜃 =
𝑥
𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
Which is often used to find the principal argument of a complex number z, despite the fact that it tends to
two possible values for 𝜃 in the permitted range. The formula is necessary but not sufficient to help us
obtain the arg z. The correct value of arg z is chosen with the aid of a sketch.
Example
Find the principal argument of the following complex number
(𝑎) 1 + 𝑖 (𝑏) − 1 − 𝑖√3 (𝑐) − 5
(𝑑) − √3 + 𝑖 (𝑒)√3 − 𝑖

Solution
Consider z1 = 1 + i
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝜃
1 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 45°
1
Since 180° = 𝜋 radians
45𝜋 𝜋
𝜃= =
180 4
⟹ arg 𝑧1 = 45°
45 𝜋
arg z1  =
180 4

(𝑏) Let 𝑧2 = −1 − 𝑖√3

220
 𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝜃2

-1 𝜃 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝜃1
z2
−√3

√3
tan 𝜃 =
1
√3
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
1
𝜃 = 60°
arg 𝑧2 = 𝜃1
⟹ arg 𝑧2 = −120°
2
OR arg 𝑧2 = − 𝜋
3
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−5 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑧3 = −5 + 0𝑖
arg 𝑧3 = 180° or arg 𝑧3 = 𝜋
(d) Let 𝑧4 = −√3 + 𝑖

𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

150°
𝜃
−√3 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 30°
√3
𝑧4 = −√3 + 𝑖
arg 𝑧4 = 150°, from the sketch above
(e) √3 − 𝑖

221
 𝑧5 = √3 − 𝑖
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝜃 √3 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−1
1
tan 𝜃 =
√3
1
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 30°
√3
arg 𝑧5 = −30° from the above diagram

Properties of Arguments
Given the two complex numbers 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 then
𝐚𝐫𝐠( 𝒛𝟏 𝒛𝟏 ) = 𝐚𝐫𝐠 𝒛𝟏 + 𝐚𝐫𝐠 𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟏
𝐚𝐫𝐠 ( ) = 𝐚𝐫𝐠 𝒛𝟏 − 𝐚𝐫𝐠 𝒛𝟐
𝒛𝟐

Example I
𝑧
Given that 𝑧1 = −1 − 𝑖√3 and 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖. Find the arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 arg (𝑧1 )
2
Solution
𝑧1 = −1 − 𝑖√3
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−1 𝜃 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝜃1

−√3

 3
  tan 1   = 60°
 1 
arg 𝑧1 = 𝜃1 = −120°

Z2 = 1 + i

𝜃
1

222
 1
arg 𝑧2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 45°
1
arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2
= −120 + 45°
= −75°
𝑧1
arg ( ) = arg 𝑧1 − arg 𝑧2
𝑧2
= −120 − 45
= −165

Modulus–argument form of a complex number

(Polar form of a complex number)
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑦 (x, 𝑦)

𝜃
𝑥 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

Consider a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 making an angle 𝜃 with the positive 𝑥 − axis

arg 𝑧 = 𝜃
𝑥 𝑦
From the diagram above cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑧 = 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
(modulus argument form a complex number)
Where 𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Example
Express the following complex numbers in modulus –argument
a) 5 + 5𝑖√3
b) √2 + 𝑖
√3 1
c) − + 𝑖
2 2
d) −3√2 + 3√2𝑖
e) −5𝑖
f) −5 − 12𝑖

Solutions
𝑧1 = 5 + 5𝑖√3
2
𝑟 = √(5)2 + (5√3)

223
 = √25 + 75
= 10
5√3
arg 𝑧1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 60°
5
𝑧1 = 5 + 5𝑖√3 = 10(cos 60 + 𝑖 sin 60)

(b) 𝑧2 = √2 + 𝑖
2
|𝑧2 | = 𝑟 = √(√2) + (1)2
= √3
1
arg 𝑧2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 35.3°
√2
𝑧2 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
√3[cos 35.3 + 𝑖 sin 35.3]

√3 1
(c) − − 𝑖
2 2

√3 1
𝑧3 = − − 𝑖
2 2
2
√3 1 2
|𝑧3 | = √((− ) + (− ) )
2 2

3 1
= √4 + 4 = 1
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

√3 𝜃 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
− 𝜃1
2

-0.5
1⁄
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( 2 ) = 30°
√3⁄
2
 3 1
z3   
2 2
arg 𝑧3 = −150°
𝑧3 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
𝑧3 = 1(cos −150 + 𝑖 sin −150)

(d) 𝑧4 = −3√2 + (3√2)i

2 2
|𝑧4 | = √(−3√2) + (3√2)
= √36
=6

224
 𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
3√2

𝜃
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

3√2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
3√2
𝜃 = 45°
arg(𝑧4 ) = +135°

𝑧4 = 6(cos 135 + 𝑖 sin 135)

(e) 𝑧5 = −5𝑖 = 0 + −5𝑖
|𝑧5 | = √02 + (−5)2
|𝑧5 | = 5

𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝜃
−5

arg 𝑧5 = −90
𝑧5 = 5(cos −90 + 𝑖 sin −90)
𝑧6 = 3 + 4𝑖
𝑟 = |𝑧6 | = √(3)2 + (4)2
= √25
=5
4
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 53.1
5
z6 = 5(cos 53.1° + i sin 53.1°)

(g) 𝑧6 = −5 − 12𝑖
|𝑧6 | = √(−5)2 + (−12)2
= √169
= 13
12
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
5
𝜃 = 67.4
z7 = -5 – 12i

225
 𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−5 𝜃 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝜃1

−12

arg 𝑧7 = −112.6°
|𝑧7 | = √(−5)2 + (−12)2
= √25 + 144
= √169
= 13
13(cos −112 . 6 + 𝑖 sin −122.6)
Example II
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )
𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )
Show that
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ))
𝑧 𝑟
And 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ))
2 2

Solution
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [(cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 (𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 2 sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )]
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [(cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 + 𝑖(sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )]
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 [(cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ))]
z1 r1 (cos 1  i cos 1 )

z2 r2 (cos  2  i sin  2 )
r1 (cos 1  i sin 1 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )

r1 (cos  2  i sin  2 )(cos  2  i sin  2 )
r1  cos1 cos 2  i cos1 sin  2  i sin 1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2 
  
r2  cos 2  2  sin 2  2 
r1  cos1 cos 2  sin 1 sin  2  i  sin 1 cos 2  cos1 sin  2  
  
r2  cos 2 2  sin2 2 
z1 r1 (cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )

z2 r2 1
(as required)
z1 r1
 cos(1   2 )  i sin(1   2 )
z2 r2

Example III
Given that 𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖
𝑧2 = √3 − 𝑖

226
 𝑧
Find in polar form 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧1
2
Solution
𝑧1 = 1 + 𝑖
|𝑧1 | = √12 + 12 = √2
1 𝜋
arg 𝑧1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) =
1 4
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 )
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 = √2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
𝑧2 = √3 − 𝑖
2
|𝑧1 | = 𝑟2 = √(√3) + (−1)2
= √4
=2
arg 𝑧2 = −30°
𝜋
= − 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
6
𝜋
arg 𝑧2 = −
6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧2 = 2 (cos − + 𝑖 sin − )
6 6
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 (cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
= 2√2(cos ( + − ) + 𝑖 sin ( + )
4 6 4 6

𝜋 𝜋
= 2√2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
12 12
𝑧1 𝑟1
= (cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ))
𝑧2 𝑟2

√2 𝜋 −𝜋 𝜋 −𝜋
= [cos ( − ) + 𝑖 sin ( − )]
2 4 6 4 6
√2 5𝜋 5𝜋
[cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
2 12 12

Demoivre’s Theorem
Demoivres theorem states that for real values of n
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
Proving Demoivre’s theorem by mathematical induction
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
For n =1, (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)1 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
It’s true for n =1
Assume the results holds for the general value of n=k
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑘 = (cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃)

227
It must be true for the next integer 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

 cos  i sin     cos  i sin    cos  i sin  

k 1 k

= (cos 𝑘𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃)(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

= cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 cos 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 2 sin 𝜃 sin 𝑘𝜃
= [(cos 𝑘𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝑘𝜃 sin 𝜃) +
i  sin k cos  cos k sin  ]

= cos(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(𝑘𝜃 + 𝜃)
= cos(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃
⟹ (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑘+1 = cos(𝑘 + 1)𝜃 + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 + 1)𝜃
For the next integer , 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 = 2
⟹𝑘=1
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 = (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
Since it’s true for n=1, n = 2 and so on it’s true for all positive integral values of n.

Example I
1 1 12
Find the value of (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
4 4
Solution
(cos  i sin  )n  cos n  i sin n
1 1 12
(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋) =
4 4
1 1
(cos 𝜋 × 12 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋 × 12)
4 4
= cos 3𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜋
= −1

Example II
4
Express (1 − 𝑖√3) in the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
Solution
4
(1 − 𝑖√3)
Let 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖√3
2
|𝑧| = √(1)2 + (−√3) = 2

arg 𝑧 = −60
𝜋
=−
3
𝜋
arg 𝑧 = −
3
z = r(cos θ + isinθ)
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2 (cos − + 𝑖 sin − ) )
3 3

228
 𝜋 𝜋 4
𝑧 4 = 24 (cos − + 𝑖 sin − )
3 3
 16  cos 43  i sin 43 
1 √3
= 16 (− + 𝑖)
2 2
= −8 + 8√3𝑖

Example III
1
Evaluate 3
(1−𝑖√3)
Solution:
1 −3
= (1 − 𝑖√3)
1 − 𝑖√3
Let 𝑧 = (1 − 𝑖√3)
2
|𝑧| = √12 + (−√3)
=2
𝜋
arg 𝑧 = −
3
𝜋 𝜋
(1 − 𝑖√3) = 2 (cos − + 𝑖 sin − )
3 3
−3
−3
𝜋 𝜋 −3
(1 − 𝑖√3) = 2 (cos − + 𝑖 sin − )
3 3
1 𝜋 𝜋
= (cos − × −3 + 𝑖 sin − × −3)
8 3 3
1
= (cos +𝜋 + 𝑖 sin +𝜋)
8
1
=−
8

Example IV
Express √3 + 𝑖 in modulus –argument form. Hence find
1
(√3 + 𝑖)10 and 7 in the form of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
(√3 + 𝑖)
Solution
Let 𝑧 = √3 + 𝑖
2
|𝑧| = √(√3) + 1 = 2
𝜋
arg 𝑧 =
6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
6 6
10 10𝜋 10𝜋
(√3 + 𝑖) = 210 (cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( ))
6 6
1 √3
= 210 ( − 𝑖)
2 2

229
 1024 𝑖(1024)√3
= −
2 2
= 512 − 512√3𝑖
1 −7
7 = (√3 + 𝑖)
(√3 + 𝑖)
−7
𝜋 𝜋
= (2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ))
6 6
𝜋 𝜋
= 2−7 (cos −7 × + 𝑖 sin −7 × )
6 6

1
128

cos 76  i sin 76 
1 √3 1
= (− + 𝑖)
128 2 2
√3 1
=− + 𝑖
256 256
√3 1
=− + 𝑖
256 256

Example V
Express (-1+i) in modulus – argument form. Hence show that (−1 + 𝑖)16 is real and that
1
is pure imaginary.
(−1 + 𝑖)6
Solution
𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖
|𝑧| = √(−1)2 + 12
= √2
arg 𝑧 = 135°
𝑧 = √2(cos 135 + 𝑖 sin 135)
16
𝑧16 = (√2) (cos 135 × 16 + 𝑖 sin 135 × 16)

= 256(cos 2160 + 𝑖 sin 2160)

= 256(1)
= 256
⟹ (−1 + 𝑖)16 = 256 So it is purely real
As required
1
 (1  i)6
(1  i)6
−6
𝑧 −6 = (√2) (cos 135 × −6 + 𝑖 sin 135 × −6)
1 1
= (0 + 𝑖) = 𝑖
8 8
⟹ 𝑧 −6 is purely imaginary.

230
Example VI
a) (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
1
b) (cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃)2
cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃
c) (cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
𝜋 𝜋 8
(cos +𝑖 sin )
17 17
d) 𝜋 𝜋 9
(cos −𝑖 sin )
17 17
(cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃)(cos 2𝜃+𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
e) 𝜃 𝜃
(cos +𝑖 sin )
2 2
2𝜋 2𝜋 8
(cos +𝑖 sin )
5 5
f) 3𝜋 3𝜋 3
(cos −𝑖 sin )
5 5

Solutions
(a) (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
= (cos  i sin  )23
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)5
= (cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃)

1
(b) (cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃)2
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−2
= cos −2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin −2𝜃
= cos 2𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 2𝜃

cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃

(c) (cos 𝜃+𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)1 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−4
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)1+−4
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−3
= cos −3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin −3𝜃
= (cos 3𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)

(cos 17  i sin 17 )8

(d)
(cos 17  i sin 17 )9
(cos   i sin  ) 17
8

(cos   i sin  ) 17
9

9
 17
(cos   i sin  ) 17
8

(cos   i sin  )1

(cos  i sin  )(cos 2  i sin 2 )

(e)
(cos 2  i sin 2 )
(cos   i sin  )(cos   i sin  ) 2
(cos   i sin  ) 2
1

231
 (cos  i sin  )3
(cos  i sin  ) 2
1

(cos   i sin  )
5
2

cos 52   i sin 52 
2𝜋 2𝜋 8
(cos +𝑖 sin )
5 5
(f) 3𝜋 3𝜋 3
(cos −𝑖 sin )
5 5
8
𝜋 𝜋 2
((cos + 𝑖 sin ) )
5 5
3
𝜋 𝜋 −3
((cos + 𝑖 sin ) )
5 5
𝜋 𝜋 16
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
5 5
𝜋 𝜋 −9
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
5 5
𝜋 𝜋 16−−9
(cos + 𝑖 sin )
5 5
𝜋 𝜋
cos (25 × ) + 𝑖 sin (25 × )
5 5
= (cos 5𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜋)

Example VII
Use De-moivre’s theorem to show that
3 tan θ − 3tan3 θ
tan 3 𝜃 =
1 − 3 tan2 θ
Solution
(cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃) = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
𝑏𝑢𝑡 (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 =
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 + 3(𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 3(𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 cos 𝜃 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)3
3 2
= (cos 𝜃 − 3 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃) +
𝑖(3 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 − sin3 𝜃)
= cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃
Equating real to real and imaginary to imaginary;
⇒ sin 3𝜃 = 3 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 … . . (1)
cos 3𝜃 = cos3 𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 … … … … . . … (2)

Eqn (1) ÷ Eqn (2)

3 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
⇒ tan 3𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃 − 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
3 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
−
tan 3𝜃 = cos3 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝜃
3 2
cos 𝜃 3 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
−
cos3 𝜃 cos3 𝜃
3 tan 𝜃 − tan2 𝜃
tan 3𝜃 =
1 − 3 tan2 𝜃

232
Example VIII
Use Demovre’s theorem to show that
4 tan 𝜃 − 4 tan3 𝜃
tan 4𝜃 =
1 − 6 tan2 𝜃 + tan4 𝜃
Solution
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)4 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)4
= cos4 𝜃 + 4 cos 3 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃) + 6 cos 2 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)2 + 4 cos 𝜃 (𝑖 sin 𝜃)3 + (𝑖 sin 𝜃)4

= cos4 𝜃 + (4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃)𝑖 − 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − (4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃) 𝑖 + sin4 𝜃

= (cos 4 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃)

Equating real to real and imaginary to imaginary

cos 4𝜃 = cos 4 𝜃 − 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃 … . (𝑖)

sin 4𝜃 = 4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃 … . . … (𝑖𝑖)

Eqn (ii) ÷ Eqn (i)

4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃

tan 4𝜃 =
cos4 𝜃 − 6 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + sin4 𝜃
4 cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 4 cos 𝜃 sin3 𝜃
−
tan 4𝜃 = cos 4 𝜃 cos 4 𝜃
cos4 𝜃 6𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 sin4 𝜃
− +
cos4 𝜃 cos4 𝜃 cos4 𝜃
4 tan 𝜃 − 4 tan3 𝜃
tan 4𝜃 =
1 − 6𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + tan4 𝜃
Example IX
Show that
1
𝑧𝑛 + = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧𝑛
1
𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑧
1
Hence show that cos 4   (cos 4  4cos 2  3)
8
Solution
𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛
𝑛

= (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

𝑧 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)−𝑛
−𝑛

= cos −𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin −𝑛𝜃

= cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
1
𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃 + cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑧
= 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
1
𝑧𝑛 − 𝑛
𝑧

233
 = (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃) − (cos 𝑛𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
= 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
1
from 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑛 = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧
1
𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑧
1
𝑧 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑧
1
𝑧 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧
1
𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑧
1 4
(𝑧 + ) = (2 cos 𝜃)4
𝑧
But ( z  1z )
4

1 1 2 1 3 1 4
𝑧 4 + 4𝑧 3 ( ) + 6𝑧 2 ( ) + 4𝑧 ( ) + ( )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
4
1 1 1
(𝑧 4 + 4 ) + 4 (𝑧 2 + 2 ) + 6 = (𝑧 + )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
2 cos 4 𝜃 + 4(2 cos 2𝜃) + 6 = (2cos𝜃)4
16cos4θ = 2cos4θ + 4(2cos2θ) + 6
1
cos4 𝜃 = (2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6)
16
1
cos 4 𝜃 = (cos 4𝜃 + 4 cos 2𝜃 + 3)
8

Example XI
Given that 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 show that
1
𝑧𝑛 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
𝑧𝑛
Hence or otherwise show that
1
sin5 𝜃 = (sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)
16
Solution
1
𝑧𝑛 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧𝑛
1
𝑧 − = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧
1 5
(𝑧 − ) = (2𝑖 sin 𝜃)5
𝑧
1 5
(𝑧 − ) = 𝑖 5 (32) sin5 𝜃
𝑧
1 5
(𝑧 − ) = (32𝑖 × 𝑖 4 sin5 𝜃)
𝑧
1 5
(𝑧 − ) = 32𝑖 sin5 𝜃
𝑧

234
 1 5 1 1 2
but (z − ) = 𝑧 5 + 5𝑧 4 (− ) + 10𝑧 3 (− )
z 𝑧 𝑧
3 4 5
1 1 1
+10𝑧 2 (− ) + 5𝑧 (− ) + (− )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
5
1 3
1 1
= 𝑧 − 5 − 5 (𝑧 − 3 ) + 10 (𝑧 − )
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
1
zn   2i sin n
zn
1
z 5  5  2i sin 5
z
1
z   2i sin 
z
1 5
(𝑧 − ) = (2𝑖sin𝜃)5
𝑧
2𝑖 sin 5𝜃 − 5(2𝑖 sin 3𝜃) + 10(2𝑖 sin 𝜃) = 32𝑖 sin5 𝜃
1
sin5 𝜃 = (2 sin 5𝜃 − 10 sin 3𝜃 + 20 sin 𝜃)
32
1
sin5 𝜃 = (sin 5𝜃 − 5 sin 3𝜃 + 10 sin 𝜃)
16

Example XII
1
Prove that cos 6 𝜃 + sin6 𝜃 = 8 (3 cos 4𝜃 + 5)
Solution
1
𝑧𝑛 + = 2 cos 𝑛𝜃
𝑧𝑛
1
𝑧 + = 2 cos 𝜃
𝑧
1 6
(𝑧 + ) = (2 cos 𝜃)6
𝑧
1 6
(𝑧 + ) = 64 cos6 𝜃
𝑧
1 6 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
But (𝑧 + 𝑧) = 𝑧 6 + 6𝑧 5 (𝑧 ) + 15𝑧 4 (𝑧) + 20𝑧 3 (𝑧) + 15𝑧 2 (𝑧) + 6𝑧 (𝑧) + (𝑧)
1 6 15
= (𝑧 6 + 6 ) + (6𝑧 4 + 4 ) + (15𝑧 2 + 2 ) + 20
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= 2 cos 6𝜃 + 6(2 cos 4𝜃) + 15(2 cos 2𝜃) + 20
6
⇒ 64 cos 𝜃 = 2 cos 6𝜃 + 12 cos 4 𝜃 + 30 cos 2𝜃 + 20
64 cos6 𝜃 = 2 cos 6𝜃 + 12 cos 4𝜃 + 30 cos 2𝜃 + 20 … … … … … … … … … . (1)
1
(𝑧 − ) = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑧
1 6
(𝑧 − ) = 64𝑖 6 sin6 𝜃
𝑧
1 6
(𝑧 − ) = −64 sin6 𝜃
𝑧
But

235
 1 6 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6
(𝑧 − 𝑧) = 𝑧 6 + 6𝑧 5 (− 𝑧) + 15𝑧 4 (− 𝑧) + 20𝑧 3 (− 𝑧) + 15𝑧 2 (− 𝑧) + 6𝑧 (− 𝑧) + (− 𝑧)

1 1 1
= (𝑧 6 + 6
) − 6 (𝑧 4 + 4 ) + 15 (𝑧 2 + 2 ) − 20
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
= 2 cos 6𝜃 − 6(2 cos 4𝜃) + 15(2 cos 2𝜃) − 20

⇒ 2 cos 6𝜃 − 12 cos 4𝜃 + 30 cos 2𝜃 − 20 = −64 sin6 𝜃

−64 sin6 𝜃 = 2 cos 6𝜃 − 12 cos 4𝜃 + 30 cos 2𝜃 − 20 … … … … … … … … … . (2)

Eqn (2) – Eqn (1)
⇒ 64 cos6 𝜃 − −64 sin6 𝜃 = 24 cos 4𝜃 + 40
8
cos 6 𝜃 + sin6 𝜃 = (3 cos 4𝜃 + 5)
64
1
cos6 𝜃 + sin6 𝜃 = (3 cos 4𝜃 + 5)
8

Solving Complex Equations

Given that x and y are real numbers. Find the values of x and y which satisfy the equation.
2𝑦 + 4𝑖 𝑦
− =0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖
Solution
2𝑦 + 4𝑖 𝑦
− =0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖
2𝑦 + 4𝑖 𝑦
=
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 − 𝑖
2𝑦+4𝑖 𝑦 xi
= ×
2𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑖 x  i
2𝑦 + 4𝑖 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖𝑦
= 2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 +1
2𝑦 4𝑖 𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑖
+ = 2 + 2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 + 1
Equating real to real and imaginary to imaginary
2𝑦 𝑥𝑦
⇒ = 2 … … … … … … (1)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 + 1
4 𝑦
= 2 … … … … … … . . (2)
2𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑥 + 1
From equation (1)
2𝑦(𝑥 2 + 1) = 𝑥𝑦(2𝑥 + 𝑦)
2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2
2𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 2 = 0
𝑦(2 − 𝑥𝑦) = 0
𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑦 = 2
4 y
From Eqn (2),  2
2x  y x  1
4x2 + 4 = 2xy + y2

236
 For y = 0, 4x2 + 4 = 0
x2 + 1 = 0
x2 = -1
x2 = i 2
x = ±i
2
For xy = 2, y 
x
4
 4x2  4  4 
x2
4
4 x2  0
x2
Let x2 = m
4
4m  0
m
4m2 – 4 = 0
m2 – 1 = 0
(m + 1)(m – 1) = 0
m = 1, m = -1
When m = 1, x2 = 1  x = ±1
When m = -1, x2 = i2  x = ±i
xy = 2
If x = 1, y = 2
If x = -1, y = -2
If x = i, y = -2i
If x = -i , y = 2i

Example II
Find the values of x and y in
𝑥 𝑦 6 + 2𝑖
− =
2 + 3𝑖 3 − 2𝑖 1 + 8𝑖
Solution
𝑥 𝑦 6 + 2𝑖
− =
2 + 3𝑖 3 − 2𝑖 1 + 8𝑖
𝑥(2 − 3𝑖) 𝑦(3 + 2𝑖) (6 + 2𝑖)(1 − 8𝑖)
− =
2 + 3𝑖(2 − 3𝑖) (3 − 2𝑖)(3 + 2𝑖) (1 + 8𝑖)(1 − 8𝑖)
(2𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑖) (3𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑖) (6 − 48𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 16)
− =
13 13 65
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 22 46
− 𝑖= − 𝑖
13 13 65 65
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 22
⇒ =
13 65
5(2𝑥 − 3𝑦) = 22
10𝑥 − 15𝑦 = 22 … … … … … … … … … … (1)
3𝑥+2𝑦 46
Similarly, 13
= 65
5(3𝑥 + 2𝑦) = 46
15𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 46 … … … … … … … … … . . (2)

237
Solving eqn (1) and eqn (2) simultaneously
⟹ 𝑥 = 2.8 𝑦 = 0.4
Example III
𝑥 𝑦
Find the values of x and y if 1+𝑖 + 2−𝑖 = 2 + 4𝑖
Solution
𝑥 𝑦
+ = 2 + 4𝑖
1+𝑖 2−𝑖
𝑥(1 − 𝑖) 𝑦(2 + 𝑖)
+ = 2 + 4𝑖
(1 + 𝑖)(1 − 𝑖) (2 − 𝑖)(2 + 𝑖)
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖 2𝑦 + 𝑦𝑖
+ = 2 + 4𝑖
2 5
5(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖) + 2(2𝑦 + 𝑦𝑖) = 2 + 4𝑖
5𝑥 − 5𝑥𝑖 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑦𝑖 = 20 + 40𝑖
Equating real to real and imaginary to imaginary;
5𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 20 …………… (1)
2𝑦 − 5𝑥 = 40 …………… (2)
Solving Eqn (1) and Eqn (2) simultaneously;
𝑦 = 10
𝑥 = −4
Example IV
Find the values of x and y. given that
𝑥𝑖 3𝑥 + 4𝑖
=
1 + 𝑖𝑦 𝑥 + 3𝑦
Solution
𝑥𝑖(1 − 𝑖𝑦) (3𝑥 + 4𝑖)
=
(1 + 𝑖𝑦)(1 − 𝑖𝑦) 𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝑥𝑖 + 𝑥𝑦 3𝑥 + 4𝑖
=
1 + 𝑦2 𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝑥𝑦 𝑥𝑖 3𝑥 4𝑖
2
+ 2
= +
1+𝑦 1+𝑦 𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝑥𝑦 3𝑥
⇒ = … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
1 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 3𝑦
𝑥 4
2
= … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
1+𝑦 𝑥 + 3𝑦
From equation (1)
𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 = 3𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑦 2
⇒ 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 3𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 0
𝑥(𝑥𝑦 − 3) = 0
𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝑦 = 3
From eqn (2)
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 = 4 + 4𝑦 2 ………(3)

When x = 0, 0 = 4 + 4𝑦 2
−1 = 𝑦 2

238
 𝑦 = ±𝑖
When xy = 3
3
𝑦=
𝑥
3
Substituting y = and xy = 3 in Eqn (3);
x
2
3
x  3(3)  4  4  
2

x
36
x2  9  4  2
x
36
𝑥2 + 9 = 4 +
𝑥2
36
𝑥2 − +5=0
𝑥2
2
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑃
36
𝑃− +5=0
𝑃
2
𝑃 − 36 + 5𝑃 = 0
𝑃2 + 5𝑃 − 36 = 0
(𝑃 + 9)(𝑃 − 4) = 0
(𝑥 2 + 9)(𝑥 2 − 4) = 0
2
𝑥 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2
𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = −2
3
When 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦=2
3
When 𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = −2
𝑥2 + 9 = 0
𝑥 2 = −9
𝑥 = ±3𝑖
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 3𝑖
3 1
𝑦= =
3𝑖 𝑖
𝑦 = −𝑖
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −3𝑖
𝑦 = +𝑖
Example V
𝑃 𝑞 𝜋
If z is a complex number such that 𝑧 = 2−𝑖 + 1+3𝑖. Where p and q are real. If |z| = 7, arg P = 2 . Find the
value of p and q.
Solution
𝑃 𝑞
𝑧=+
2 − 𝑖 1 + 3𝑖
P(2 + i) 𝑞(1 − 3i)
z= +
(2 − i)(2 + i) (1 + 3i)(1 − 3i)
2p + Pi q − 3qi
z= +
5 10

239
 2(2 p  pi )  q  3qi
z
10
4 p  2 pi  q  3qi
z
10
4 p  q  (2 p  3q)i
z
10
2𝑃 − 3𝑞
10
4𝑃 + 𝑞 𝜋
arg 𝑧 = tan−1 =
10 2
( )
2𝑝 − 3𝑞 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )=
4𝑃 + 𝑞 2
2p − 3q
=∞
4P + q
4P + q = 0
q = −4P
|z| = 7
2 2
√(4P+q) + (2𝑃−3𝑞) = 7 …………… (1)
10 10
Substituting q = -4p in Eqn (1)
2
 14 p 
02    7
 10 
14𝑝
=7
10
𝑝=5
q = −4 × 5
𝑞 = −20
Example VI
Given that (1 + 5i)p – 2q = 3 + 7i, find 𝑝 and 𝑞
(a) When p and q are real
(b) When p and q are conjugate complex numbers
Solution
(a) (1 + 5𝑖)𝑃 − 2𝑞 = 3 + 7𝑖
𝑃 + 5𝑃𝑖 − 2𝑞 = 3 + 7𝑖
𝑃 − 2𝑞 + 5𝑃𝑖 = 3 + 7𝑖
𝑃 − 2𝑞 = 3 ……………………. (1)
5P = 7 ………………………… (2)
From Eqn (2),
7
P=5
7
 − 2𝑞 = 3
5
7
− 3 = 2𝑞
5

240
 8
− = 2𝑞
5
8
− =𝑞
10
4
𝑞=−
5
7 4
⇒𝑝= , 𝑞=−
5 5
(b) Let 𝑝 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑞 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
(1 + 5𝑖)(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − 2(𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦) = 3 + 7𝑖
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 5𝑥𝑖 − 5𝑦 − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑖 = 3 + 7𝑖
(𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 2𝑥) + (𝑦 + 5𝑥 + 2𝑦)𝑖 = 3 + 7𝑖
(−𝑥 − 5𝑦) + (3𝑦 + 5𝑥)𝑖 = 3 + 7𝑖
−𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 3
𝑥 = −3 − 5𝑦 ........................ (1)
3𝑦 + 5𝑥 = 7 .......................... (2)
Substituting Eqn (1) in Eqn (2)
3𝑦 + 5(−3 − 5𝑦) = 7
3y − 15 − 25y = 7
−22y = 22
𝑦 = −1
𝑥 = −3 − 5(−1)
𝑥 = −3 + 5
𝑥=2
𝑝 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑝=2−𝑖
𝑞 =2+𝑖

Square root of Complex Numbers

Example I
Find the square root of 35 − 12𝑖
Solution
Let √35 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
2
(√35 − 12𝑖) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2
35 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖 + 𝑖 2 𝑦 2
35 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 35
2𝑥𝑦 = −12
𝑥𝑦 = −6
6
𝑦=−
𝑥
2
36
𝑥 − 2 = 35
𝑥
𝑥 4 − 36 = 35𝑥 2

241
 𝑥 4 − 35𝑥 2 − 36 = 0
Let 𝑥 2 = 𝑚
m2 − 35𝑚 − 36 = 0
(𝑚 − 36)(𝑚 + 1) = 0
(𝑥 2 − 36)(𝑥 2 + 1) = 0

But 𝑥 is real
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 36 = 0
𝑥 = ±6
6
When 𝑥 = 6 𝑦 = −6
𝑦 = −1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −6, 𝑦=1
⇒ √35 − 12i = 6 − i
or √35 − 12𝑖 = −6 + 𝑖

Example VIII
Find the square root of 5 − 12𝑖
solution
Let √5 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
5 − 12𝑖 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2
5 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 2
5 − 12𝑖 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖
Equating real to real and imaginary to imaginary;
⇒ 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 5 …………………….(1)
2𝑥𝑦 = −12
𝑥𝑦 = −6
6
𝑦 = − 𝑥 …………………….(2)
Substituting Eqn (2) in Eqn (1)
36
𝑥2 − =5
𝑥2
(𝑥 2 )2 − 36 = 5𝑥 2
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚 = 𝑥 2
𝑚2 − 36 = 5𝑚
𝑚2 − 5𝑚 − 36 = 0
(𝑚 − 9)(𝑚 + 4) = 0
(𝑥 2 − 9)(𝑥 2 + 4) = 0
𝑥2 = 9
𝑥 = ±3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = −2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −3, 𝑦=2
√5 − 12𝑖 = 3 − 2𝑖
𝑜𝑟 √5 − 12𝑖 = 3 + 2𝑖

Example IX
Find the roots of 𝑧 2 − (1 − 𝑖)𝑧 + 7𝑖 − 4 = 0

242
Solution
b  b2  4ac
z
2a
(1 − 𝑖) ± √(1 − 𝑖)2 − 4(1)(7𝑖 − 4)
𝑧=
2×1
1 − 𝑖 ± √1 − 2𝑖 − 1 − 28𝑖 + 16
𝑧=
2
1  i  16  30i
2
But 16  30i  a  bi
16 – 30i = a2 + 2abi – b2
a2 – b2 = 16
2ab = -30
ab = -15
15
a
b
2
 15 
   b  16
2

b
225
 b 2  16
b2
Let m = b2
225
 m  16
m
m2 + 16m – 225 = 0
m = 9, m = -25
b2 = 9
b = ±3
ab = -15
a=5
When b = -3, a = 5
When b = 3, a = -5
a + bi = 5 – 3i, -5 + 3i
16  30i  (5  3i)
1 − 𝑖 ± (5 − 3𝑖)
𝑧=
2
𝑧 = 3 − 2𝑖
𝑧 = −2 + 𝑖
Example X
Show that 1 + 2𝑖 is a root of the equation
2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 15 = 0
Solution
𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖
2
𝑧 = (1 + 2𝑖)2
= 1 + 4𝑖 + 4𝑖 2

243
 = −3 + 4𝑖
3 2
𝑧 = 𝑧 × 𝑧 = (1 + 2𝑖)(−3 + 4𝑖)
= −3 + 4𝑖 − 6𝑖 − 8
= −11 − 2𝑖
2z3 – z2 + 4z + 15
 2(−11 − 2𝑖) − (−3 + 4𝑖) + (4(1 + 2𝑖) + 15
= −22 − 4𝑖 + 3 − 4𝑖 + 4 + 8𝑖 + 15
= −22 + 22 − 8𝑖 + 8𝑖
= 0 + 0𝑖
=0
⇒ 1 + 2𝑖 is a root of the equation.
Since 𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖 is a root of the equation
2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 15 = 0
The complex conjugate 𝑧̅ = 1 − 2i must also be a root of the above equation
⇒ 1 − 2𝑖 = 𝑧 is also a root of the equation
2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 15 = 0
2𝑧 3 − 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 15 = 0
𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖
𝑧 = 1 − 2𝑖
Sum of roots = 1 + 2𝑖 + 1 − 2𝑖
=2
(1) 2 (2𝑖) 2
Product of roots = −
=1+4
=5
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓
𝑧2 − ( ) 𝑧 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0
𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 5 = 0
 𝑧 − 2𝑧 + 5 is a factor of 2𝑧 − 𝑧 + 4𝑧 + 15
2 3 2

2𝑧 + 3
𝑧 − 2𝑧 + 5 2𝑧 − 𝑧 2 + 4𝑧 + 15
2 3

2𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 10𝑧
3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 15
3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 15
0
(2𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 15) = 0
3
𝑧=− 𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 1 − 2𝑖
2

Example XI
Given that 2 + 3𝑖 is a root of the equation
𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 + 21𝑧 − 26 = 0. Find the other roots
Solution
𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 is a root ⇒ 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖 is also a root of the equation 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 + 21𝑧 − 26 = 0
Sum of roots = 2 + 3𝑖 + 2 − 3𝑖
=4
Product of roots = (2 + 3i)(2 – 3i)

244
 = 22 − (3𝑖)2
=4+9
= 13
⇒ 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13 is a factor of
𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 + 21𝑧 − 26 = 0
𝑧−2
𝑧 − 4𝑧 + 13 𝑧 − 6𝑧 2 + 21𝑧 − 26
2 3

𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 13𝑧
−2𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 − 26
−2𝑧 2 + 8𝑧 − 26
0

⇒ (𝑧 − 2)(𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 13) = 0
⇒ 𝑧 = 2, 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 2 − 3𝑖 are roots of equation of 𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 + 21𝑧 − 26 = 0
Example XII
Show that 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation
𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10 = 0. Hence find other roots
Solution
𝑧 =1+𝑖
z2 = 1 + 2i + i2
𝑧 2 = 1 + 2𝑖 − 1
𝑧 2 = 2𝑖
𝑧3 = 𝑧2. 𝑧
= 2𝑖(1 + 𝑖)
= 2𝑖 − 2
𝑧 4 = (𝑧 2 )2 = (2𝑖)2 = 4𝑖 2
= −4
⇒ 𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10
= (−4) + 3(2𝑖) − 6(1 + 𝑖) + 10
= −4 + 6𝑖 − 6 − 6𝑖 + 10
= −10 + 10 + 6𝑖 − 6𝑖
= 0 + 0𝑖
=0
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 is a root of the equation
⇒ 1 − 𝑖 is also a root of the equation
Sum of the roots= 1 + 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑖
=2
Product of roots = (1)2 − 𝑖 2 = 2
𝑧 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑧 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 is a factor of 𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10

245
 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10
𝑧 4 − 2𝑧 3 + 2𝑧 2
2𝑧 3 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 +10
2𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 4𝑧
5𝑧 2 − 10𝑧 + 10
5𝑧 2 − 10𝑧 + 10
0
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2)(𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5) = 0
⇒ 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 5 = 0
z2 – 2z + 2 = 0
2  (2) 2  4 1 5
For z2 + 2z + 5 = 0, z 
4 1
−2 ± √16𝑖 2
𝑧=
2
−1 ± 4𝑖
𝑧=
2
𝑧 = −1 + 2𝑖
𝑧 = −1 − 2𝑖
 -1 + 2i, -1 – 2i, 1 + i, 1 − 𝑖 are roots of the equation 𝑧 4 + 3𝑧 2 − 6𝑧 + 10 = 0

Example XIII
Show that 1 − 𝑖 is a root of the equation
4𝑧 4 − 8𝑧 3 + 9𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0. Find the other roots.
Solution
𝑧 =1−𝑖
𝑧 2 = (1 − 𝑖)2
= 1 − 2𝑖 + 𝑖 2
= −2𝑖
𝑧3 = 𝑧2. 𝑧
= −2𝑖(1 − 𝑖)
= −2𝑖 + 2𝑖 2
= −2 − 2𝑖
𝑧 4 = (𝑧 2 )2 = (−2𝑖)2
= −4
4𝑧 4 − 8𝑧 3 + 9𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 =
4(−4) − 8(−2 − 2𝑖) + 9(−2𝑖) − 2(1 − 𝑖) + 2
= −16 + 16 + 16𝑖 − 18𝑖 − 2 + 2𝑖 + 2
= 0 + 0𝑖 = 0
Since 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 is a of the equation and it implies that 1 + i is also a root.
Sum of roots= 1 − 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖
=2
Product of the roots = (1 + i)(1 – i)
12 − 𝑖 2 = 2
⇒ 𝑧 2 − (2𝑧) + 2 = 0

246
⇒ 𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 is a factor of
𝑧 4 − 8𝑧 3 + 9𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 = 0.
4𝑧 2 + 1
𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2 4𝑧 4 − 8𝑧 3 + 9𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 2
4𝑧 4 − 8𝑧 3 + 8𝑧 2
z2 – 2z + 2
z2 – 2z + 2
(𝑧 2 − 2𝑧 + 1)(4𝑧 2 + 1) = 0
1
4𝑧 2 = −1 𝑧2 = −
4
2
1 2 1
⇒𝑧 = 𝑖 , 2=± 𝑖
4 2
Example XIV
Given that z = 2 – i is a root of the equation
𝑧 3 − 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 𝑘 = 0, k is real. Find other roots.
Solution
𝑧 =2−𝑖
𝑧 2 = (2 − 𝑖)2
= 4 − 4𝑖 + 𝑖 2
= 3 − 4𝑖
𝑧 3 = (2 − 𝑖)(3 − 4𝑖)
= 6 − 8𝑖 − 3𝑖 + 4𝑖 2
= 2 − 11𝑖
⇒ (2 − 11𝑖) − 3(3 − 4𝑖) + 2 − 𝑖 + 𝑘 = 0
2 − 11𝑖 − 9 + 12𝑖 + 2 − 𝑖 + 𝑘 = 0
−11𝑖 + 11𝑖 + 4 − 9 + 𝑘 = 0
0−5+𝑘 =0
𝑘=5
⇒ 𝑧 3 − 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5 = 0
𝑧 =2−𝑖
𝑧 =2+𝑖
𝑧 =2−𝑖
𝑧 =2+𝑖
Sum of roots = 4
Product of roots = 5
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0 is a factor of
𝑧 3 − 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5 = 0

𝑧+1
𝑧 − 4𝑧 + 5 𝑧 − 3𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 5
2 3

𝑧 3 − 4𝑧 2 + 5𝑧
𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5

(𝑧 + 1)(𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 5) = 0
(𝑧 + 1) = 0 𝑧 = −1

247
⇒ 𝑧 = −1, 𝑧 = 2 + 𝑖, 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖 are roots of the equation z3 – 3z2 + z + k = 0 where k = 5

Example XIV
Solve for 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 in the simultaneous equations below
𝑧1 + (1 − 𝑖)𝑧2 = 0
3𝑧2 − 3𝑧1 = 2 − 5𝑖
Solution
𝑧1 + (1 − 𝑖)𝑧2 = 0 … … … … … … … … (1)
3𝑧2 − 3𝑧1 = 2 − 5𝑖 … … … … … … … … … . (2)
From eqn (1)
𝑧1 = −(1 − 𝑖)𝑧2
𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑛 (2)
3𝑧2 − 3[(−1(1 − 𝑖)𝑧2 )] = 2 − 5𝑖
3𝑧2 + 3(1 − 𝑖)𝑧2 = 2 − 5𝑖
3𝑧2 − 3𝑖𝑧2 + 3𝑧2 = 2 − 5𝑖
6𝑧2 − 3𝑖𝑧2 = 2 − 5𝑖
𝑧2 (6 − 3𝑖) = 2 − 5𝑖
2 − 5𝑖
𝑧2 =
6 − 3𝑖
(2 − 5𝑖)(6 + 3𝑖)
𝑧2 =
(6 − 3𝑖)(6 + 3𝑖)
12 + 6𝑖 − 30𝑖 + 15
𝑧2 =
36 + 9
27 − 24𝑖
𝑧2 =
45
9 − 8𝑖
𝑧2 =
15
9 8𝑖
𝑧2 = −
15 15
𝑧1 = −(1 − 𝑖)𝑧2
9 − 8𝑖
𝑧1 = − ((1 − 𝑖) ( ))
15
9 − 8𝑖 − 9𝑖 − 8
𝑧1 = −( )
15
1 − 17𝑖
𝑧1 = −( )
15
−1 + 17𝑖
𝑧1 =
15
1 17𝑖
𝑧1 =− +
15 15
Example XV
Solve the equation z 3 – 1
Solution

248
 𝑧 3 − 1 = (𝑧)3 − (1)3
= (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1)
3 3 2 2
Since 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 )
𝑧 3 − 1 = (𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 2 + 𝑧 + 1) = 0
𝑧=1
2
𝑧 +𝑧+1=0
(−1) ± √(1)2 − 4(1)(1)
𝑧=
2×1
−1 ± √3𝑖 2
𝑧=
2
1 (√3)𝑖
𝑧=− +
2 2
1 √3
𝑧=− − 𝑖
2 2
1 √3𝑖 1 √3𝑖
𝑧 = 1, 𝑧 = − + , 𝑧=− −
2 2 2 2
Alternatively we can use Demovre’s theorem
𝑧3 − 1 = 0
𝑧3 = 1
3
𝑧 = 1 + 0𝑖
1
𝑧 = (1 + 0𝑖)3
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = 1 + 0𝑖
|𝑃| = √1 = 1
0
arg 𝑃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 0
1
𝑃 = 𝑟[cos(0) + 𝑖 sin(0)]
𝑃 = 1(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0)
zP
1
3

1
𝑧 = 13 (cos(0 + 360𝑛) + 𝑖 sin(0 + 360𝑛))
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2 …
(Depending on the number of roots you want)
1 1
For n = 0, 𝑧 = 13 (cos(0 + 360) + 𝑖 sin(0 + 360))3
1
𝑧 = 13 (cos 120 + 𝑖 sin 120)
1 √3
𝑧 = 1 (− + 𝑖)
2 2
1 √3𝑖
𝑧=− +
2 2
1 1
For n = 1, z  13 [cos(0  360 1)  i sin(0  360  1)]3
𝑧 = 1(cos 120 + 𝑖 sin 120)
1 √3
𝑧=− + 𝑖
2 2

249
 1 1
For n = 2, z  13 [cos(0  360  2)  i sin(0  360  2)]3
𝑧 = 1(cos 240 + 𝑖 sin 240)
1 √3
𝑧=− − 𝑖
2 2
1 √3 1 √3
⇒ 𝑧 = 1, 𝑧=− + 𝑖, 𝑧=− − 𝑖
2 2 2 2

Example XVI
Solve: 𝑧 3 + 27 = 0
Solution
𝑧 3 + 33 = (𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 9)
From 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
3 3 2

⇒ 𝑧 3 + 33 = (𝑧 + 3)(𝑧 2 + 3𝑧 + 9)
𝑧 = −3
2
𝑧 + 3𝑧 + 9 = 0
−3 ± √32 − 4(1)(9)
𝑧=
2
−3 ± √27𝑖 2
𝑧=
2
3 3√3𝑖
𝑧 = −3, 𝑧=− +
2 2
3 3 3
z=  i
2 2
Alternatively, we can use Demovre’s theorem
𝑧 3 + 27 = 0
𝑧 3 = −27
1
𝑧 = (−27 + 0𝑖)3
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = −27 + 0𝑖
|𝑃| = √(−27)2 + 𝑜𝑖)
= 27
arg 𝑃 = 180
𝑃 = 27(cos 180 + 𝑖 sin 180)
1 1 1
𝑧 = 𝑃3 = 273 (cos 180 + 𝑖 sin 180)3
1 1
𝑧 = 273 (cos(180 + 360𝑛) + 𝑖 sin(180 + 360𝑛))3
1 1
When n = 0, 𝑧 = 273 [(cos 180 + 𝑖 sin 180)]3
𝑧 = 3(cos 60 + 𝑖 sin 60)
1 𝑖√3
= 3( + )
2 2
3 3√3
= + 𝑖
2 2
1 1
For n = 1, 𝑧 = 273 [(cos(180 + 360 × 1) + 𝑖 sin(180 + 360 × 1)])3
𝑧 = 3(cos 180 + 𝑖 sin 180)

250
 z = -3
1 1
For n = 2, 𝑧 = 27 [(cos(180 + 360 × 2) + 𝑖 sin(180 + 360 × 2)])3
3

𝑧 = 3(cos 300 + 𝑖 sin 300)

3 3√3
= + − 𝑖
2 2
3 3
= − √3𝑖
2 2
3 3√3 3 3√3
𝑧 = −3, 𝑧 = 2 + 2 𝑖 and 𝑧 = 2 − 2 𝑖

Example XVII
Solve the equation
𝑧4 + 1 = 0
𝑧 4 = −1 + 0𝑖
1
𝑧 4 = (−1 + 0𝑖)4
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = −1 + 0𝑖
|𝑃| = 1
arg 𝑃 = 180
𝑃 = 1(cos 180 + 𝑖 sin 180)
1 1 1
𝑧 = 𝑃4 = 14 [(cos(180 + 360𝑛) + 𝑖 sin(180 + 360𝑛))]4
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0, 𝑧 = 14 (cos 45 + 𝑖 sin 45)
√2 √2
𝑧= + 𝑖
2 2
For n = 1
1 1
𝑧 = 14 (cos 540 + 𝑖 sin 540)4
𝑧 = 1(cos 135 + 𝑖 sin 135)
−√2 𝑖√2
𝑧= +
2 2
1 1
For n = 2, 𝑧 = 14 (cos 900 + 𝑖 sin 900)4
𝑧 = 1(cos 225 + 𝑖 sin 225)
−√2 √2
𝑧= + 𝑖
2 2
For n = 3
1 1
𝑧 = 14 (cos 1260 + 𝑖 sin 1260)4
𝑧 = 1(cos 315 + 𝑖 sin 315)
√2 √2
𝑧=( − 𝑖)
2 2
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑧 4 + 1 = 0
√2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2 √2
𝑧= 2
+ 2
𝑖, 2 − 2
𝑖, − 2
+ 2
𝑖, − 2
− 2 𝑖

Example XVIII
Find the fourth roots of -16
Solution

251
z  (16) 4  (16  0i)
1 1
4

Let 𝑃 = −16 + 0𝑖
1 1
𝑧 = 𝑃4 = (−16 + 01)4
|𝑃| = 16
arg 𝑃 = 180
1 1 1
𝑧 = 𝑃 4 = 164 [(cos(180 + 360𝑛) + 𝑖 sin(180 + 360𝑛))]4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝑧 = 2(cos 45 + 𝑖 sin 45)
𝑧 = √2 + √2𝑖
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
𝑧 = 2(cos 540 + 𝑖 sin 540)
𝑧 = 2(cos 135 + 𝑖 sin 135)
= −√2 + 𝑖√2
For n = 2, 𝑧 = 2(cos 225 + 𝑖 sin 225)
= −√2 − 𝑖√2
For n = 3, 𝑧 = 2(cos 315 + 𝑖 sin 315)
𝑧 = √2 − √2𝑖
1
⇒ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑧 = (−16 + 0𝑖)4
𝑧 = √2 − (√2)𝑖, −√2 + (√2)𝑖
√2 + (√2)𝑖, − √2 − (√2)𝑖

Example XIX
Find the cube roots of 27i
1
𝑧 = (0 + 27𝑖)3
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑃 = 0 + 27𝑖
|𝑃| = √02 + 272
= 27
27
arg = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 90
0
𝑃 = 27(cos 90 + 𝑖 sin 90)
1 1
𝑧 = 273 (cos 90 + 𝑖 sin 90)3
1 1
𝑧 = 273 (cos(90 + 360𝑛) + 𝑖 sin(90 + 360𝑛))3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝑧 = 3(cos 30 + 𝑖 sin 30)
3√3 3
𝑧= 2
+ 2i
𝑛=1
𝑧 = 3(cos 150 + 𝑖 sin 150)
√3 1
= 3 (− + 𝑖)
2 2
3√3 3𝑖
=− +
2 2

252
 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
𝑧 = 3(cos 270 + 𝑖 sin 270)
= −3𝑖

Loci in the complex plane

What is a locus
A locus is a path possible position of a variable point, that obeys a given condition. It can be given as
Cartesian equation or it can be described in words.
Example I
The complex number z is represented by the point P on the Argand diagram.
Given that |𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 2| find in the simplest form the Cartesian equation of the locus
Solution
|𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖| = |𝑧 − 2|
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1 − 𝑖| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2|
|𝑥 − 1 + (𝑦 − 1)𝑖| = |𝑥 − 2 + 𝑖𝑦|
√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = √(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2
−2𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2 = −4𝑥 + 4
2𝑥 − 2 = 2𝑦
𝑦 =𝑥−1
The locus is a straight line with a positive gradient 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1) which can be represented on the complex
plane.
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

1 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

−1

Example II
Given that |𝑧 − 2| = 2|𝑧 + 𝑖|. Show that the locus of P is a circle.
Solution
|𝑧 − 2| = 2|𝑧 + 𝑖|
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2| = 2|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑖|

253
 |(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑖𝑦| = 2|𝑥 + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖|

√(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2√𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 1)2

(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 )

𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 + 4

0 = 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 + 8𝑦
4 8𝑦
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥 + =0
3 3
This is sufficient to justify that locus is a circle.
4 8𝑦
Comparing 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + = 0 With
3 3
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
4
2𝑔 =
3
2
𝑔=
3
8y
2 fy 
3
4
f 
3
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒(−𝑔, −𝑓)
2 4
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (− , − )
3 3
𝑟 = √𝑔 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
2

4 16
𝑟=√ + −0
9 9

20
𝑟=√
9
2
𝑟 = √5
3
𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

2 4
(− , − )
3 3

254
Example III
Show the region represented by |𝑧 − 2 + 𝑖| < 1
Solution
Let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 2 + 𝑖|
|𝑥 − 2 + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖| < 1

√(𝑥 − 2) + (y + 1)2 < 1

(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 < 1

It’s a circle with centre (2, -1) and radius less than 1.
It can be illustrated on the argand diagram

𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

(2, −1)

In order to represent (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 1)2 < 1 on the diagram, we can either take a point inside the circle
or outside the circle as our test point.
Taking (2,-1) as the test point.
⇒ (2 − 2)2 + (−1 + 1)2 < 1
0+0 < 1
0<1
(2, −1)(the point inside the circle satisfies our locus). It implies that (2,-1) lies in the wanted region.
Therefore, we shade the region outside the circle.
Example IV
Given that
𝑧−1
||=2
𝑧+1
find the Cartesian equation of the locus of z and represent the locus by the sketch on the argand diagram.
Shade the region for which the inequalities.
𝑧−1
| |>2
𝑧+1

255
Solution
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1
| |=2
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 1
(𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦)
| |=2
(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑖𝑦

|𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑦|
=2
|(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑖𝑦|
|(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑖𝑦| = 2|(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑖𝑦|

√(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2√(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2

(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 = 4((𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 )

𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 )

3𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 + 3 = 0
10
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
3
The locus is a circle comparing
10
𝑥𝟐 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0 with
3
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
10 5
2𝑔 = , 𝑔 = , 2𝑓 = 0 and 𝑓 = 0
3 3
Center ( 35 , 0)
𝑟 = √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
25 4
𝑟 = √ +0−1 =
9 3
𝑧−1
For |𝑧+1| > 2
10
⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥+1>0
3

𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

5
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(− , 0)
3

256
Example V
Shade the region represented by |𝑧 − 1 − 𝑖| < 3
Solution
Note: Shade the region represented by |z – 1 – i| < 3. Implies that we shade the wanted region.
Let 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 1 − 𝑖| < 3
|𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖(𝑦 − 1)| < 3
√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 < 3
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 < 9
It is a circle with centre (1, 1) and radius less than 9
𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

(1,1)
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

Taking (1, 1) as our test point

(1 − 1)2 + (1 − 1)2
(0 + 0) < 9
⇒The region inside the circle is the wanted region.

Example VI
Show that when
𝑧+𝑖
Re ( ) = 0,
(𝑧 + 2)
1 1
the point P(x, y) lies on a circle with centre −1, − ) and radius √5
2 2
Solution
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 𝑖
Re ( )=0
𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 + 2
𝑥 + (𝑦 + 1)𝑖
𝑅𝑒 ( )=0
𝑥 + 2 + 𝑖𝑦
 ( x  ( y  1)i )  x  2  iy  
Re   =0
 (( x  2)  iy )( x  2  iy ) 
𝑥(𝑥 + 2) − 𝑥𝑦𝑖 + (𝑦 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)𝑖 + 𝑦(𝑦 + 1)
𝑅𝑒 ( )
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2
 x 2  2 x  y 2  y  [( y  1)( x  2)  xy ]i 
Re  
 ( x  2)2  y 2 
 x 2  2 x  y 2  y [( y  1)( x  2)  xy ]i 
Re   0
 ( x  2)  y ( x  2)2  y 2
2 2


257
 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑦
⇒ =0
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0
Comparing with
x2 + y2 + 2x + y = 0 with
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑔 = 2, g = 1
2fy = y
1
𝑓=
2
1
𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 (−1, − )
2
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = √𝑔 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
2

1
= √1 + − 0
4
√5
=
2
1
= √5
2
Example VII
𝑧+𝑖
Given that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 . where x and y are real. Show that Im(𝑧+2) = 0
is equation of a straight line
Solution
𝑥+𝑖𝑦+𝑖
Im(𝑥+𝑖𝑦+2) = 0
 ( x   y  1 i)  x  2   iy 
Im   =0
 ( x  2  iy)  x  2  iy  
𝑥(𝑥 + 2) − 𝑥𝑦𝑖 + (𝑦 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)𝑖 + 𝑦(𝑦 + 1)
𝐼𝑚 ( )=0
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2
−𝑥𝑦 + (𝑦 + 1)(𝑥 + 2)
⇒ =0
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2
−𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2
=0
(𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2
2𝑦 + 𝑥 + 2 = 0
𝑥
𝑦 =− +1
2
Which is a straight line with a negative gradient.
Loci in and diagram for arguments of complex numbers
If arg(𝑧 − 𝐴) = 𝛼 is the equation of half line with end point A inclined at an angle 𝛼 to the real axis

258
 𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

𝛼
A
0 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

Example I
Sketch the loci defined by the equation
1
arg(𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖) = 𝜋
4
Solution
𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖 = 𝑧 − (1 + 2𝑖)
Thus if A is a point representing 1 + 2𝑖
arg(𝑧 − (1 + 2𝑖))is the angle AP makes with the positive real axis. Hence the equation
1 1
arg(𝑧 − 1 − 2𝑖) = 𝜋 represents the half line with end point (1, 2) inclined at angle 𝜋 to the real axis.
4 4

𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

1
𝜋
4
(1, 2)
0 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

Example II
Sketch the locus of the equation.
2
arg(𝑧 + 2) = − 𝜋
3
Solution
2𝜋
arg(𝑧 + 2) = −
3
𝑧 + 2 = (𝑧 − −2)
2
Thus A is a point (-2, 0). Arg(z-2) is the angle AP makes with the real axis. Hence arg(𝑧 − −2) = − 3 𝜋
2
represents a half line with end point (-2, 0) inclined at angle 3 𝜋 measured clockwise from the positive
axis.

259
 𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

𝐴
(−2,0) 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

2
𝜋
3
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

Example III
Show by shading the region represented by
1
𝜋 ≤ arg(𝑧 − 2) ≤ 𝜋
3
Solution
1
The equations arg(𝑧 − 2) = 3 𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 arg(𝑧 − 2) = 𝜋 represent half lines with end point (2, 0). Hence the
1
inequality 𝜋 ≤ arg(𝑧 − 2) ≤ 𝜋
3
Represent the two lines and region between them

𝑃
𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

1
𝜋
3
𝐴 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

Example IV
Sketch the separate argand diagram the loci defined by
1
(𝑖) arg(𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖) = − 𝜋
6
1
(𝑖𝑖) arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = 𝜋
2
Solution
1
(arg(𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖) = − 𝜋
6
1
𝑧 − (−1 + 3𝑖) = − 𝜋
6
Thus A is a point (-1, 3)
1
Arg(z – (-1 + 3i) is the angle AP makes with the real axis Hence arg(𝑧 + 1 − 3𝑖) = − 6 𝜋
1
is equation of the half line with end point (-1, 3) inclined at an angle of 6 𝜋 measured clockwise from the
real axis

260
 P
𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

1
𝜋
6
A(-1, 3)

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

1
(𝑖𝑖) arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = 𝜋
2
1
arg(𝑧 − (−2 − 𝑖)) = 𝜋
2
Thus, point A is (−2, −1).
1
arg(z − (-2 – i)) is the angle AP makes with the real axis and arg(𝑧 + 2 + 𝑖) = 2 𝜋 is the equation of the
1
line through A inclined at and angle of 2 𝜋 to the real axis

𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝜋
2
(−2, − 1)

𝒛−𝒂
Sketching of loci involving 𝒂𝒓𝒈 (𝒛−𝒃) = 𝜸

𝑧−𝑎
Equation involving arg (𝑧−𝑏 )are more difficult to interprete. If arg(𝑧 − 𝑎) = 𝛼 ,
𝑧−𝑎
arg(𝑧 − 𝑏) = 𝛽, arg ( ) = 𝛾,
𝑧−𝑏
arg(𝑧 − 𝑎) − arg(𝑧 − 𝑏) = 𝛾
𝛼 − 𝛽 = 𝛾. 𝛾 = (𝛼 − 𝛽) ± 2𝜋 if necessary
Thus 𝛾 is the angle which the vector AP makes with the vector BP.
If the turn from BP to AP is anti-clockwise the 𝛼 is negative
𝑧−𝑎
for arg ( )>0
𝑧−𝑏

261
 𝑦 𝑃
𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔
𝛾

𝑧−𝑎
𝛽
𝐵
𝛼
𝐴

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑥

𝑧−𝑎
arg ( )<0
𝑧−𝑏
𝑦 𝐴
𝑰𝒎 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝛼

𝛾 𝑃

𝛽
𝐵

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝑥

𝑧−3 1
For instance, if arg (𝑧−1) = 4 𝜋, then the locus of P is a circular arc with end point A(3, 0) and (1, 0) such
1
that ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 4 𝜋
𝑧+2 1
Similarly if arg ( 𝑧−𝑖 ) = 3 𝜋 then the locus of P is a circular arc with end points A (-2, 0) and B(0, +1) such
1
that ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 𝜋 since both cases the given arguments are positive, the arcs must be drawn so that the turn
3
from BP to AP is anti-clockwise.
𝑧+2 1
arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧−𝑖 3

262
 Im axis

B(0, 1)

A(-2, 0)
Real axis

Example II
Sketch on different argand diagram the loci defined by the equations.
𝑧−1 1
(𝑎) arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧+1 3
𝑧−3 1
(𝑏) arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧 − 2𝑖 4
𝑧 1
(𝑐) arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖 2
Solution
𝑧−1 1
arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧+1 3
The locus of P is a circular arc with end point A(1, 0) and B(-1, 0) such that
1
∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 3 𝜋

Im axis
P(x, y)

B(-1, 0) A(3, 0) Real axis

𝑧−3 1
(𝑏) arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧 − 2𝑖 4
1
The locus of P is a circular arc with end points (3, 0) (0, 2) such that ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = 𝜋
4

263
 Im axis
P
A(0, 2)

B(3, 0) Real axis

𝑧 1
(𝑐) arg ( )= 𝜋
𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖 2
𝑧 1
arg( = 𝜋
𝑧 − (4 − 2𝑖) 2
𝑧
arg ( ) is a circle with end points
𝑧 − 4 + 2𝑖
1
𝐴(0, 0) and B(4, −2) such that ∠APB = 𝜋
2

Im axis

A(0, 0) Real axis

B(4, -2)
P
Example
𝑧 𝜋
Find the locus of arg (𝑧−6) = 2
Solution
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧
arg ( ) = arg 𝑧 − arg(𝑧 − 6)
𝑧−6
𝜋
⇒ arg(𝑧) − arg(𝑧 − 6) =
2
𝜋
arg(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) − arg(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 − 6) =
2

tan 1 ( xy )  tan 1 ( x y 6 ) 
2
𝑦
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥

264
 𝑦
tan 𝐴 =
𝑥
−1
𝑦
𝐵 = tan ( )
𝑥−6
𝑦
tan 𝐵 =
𝑥−6
𝜋
(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
2
𝜋
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) = tan ( )
2
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
=∞
1 + tan 𝐴 + tan 𝐵
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥−𝑥−6 = ∞
𝑦2
1+
𝑥(𝑥 − 6)
𝑦(𝑥 − 6) − 𝑥𝑦
𝑥(𝑥 − 6)
=∞
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 𝑦 2
𝑥(𝑥 − 6)
𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦
=∞
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 = 0 which is a circle.

Revision Exercise 1
2
1. Prove that if |Z| = r, then ZZ* = r .
1
2. Express 3 + i in modulus-argument form. Hence find ( 3  i )10 and in the form a + ib.
( 3  i)7
1
3. Express -1 + i in modulus-argument form. Hence show that (-1 + i)16 is real and that is purely
(1  i)6
imaginary, giving the value of each.
4. Simplify the following expression:
(cos 27  i sin 27 )3
(b) (cos 5  i sin 5 )3
2 2 8
(a)
(cos 7  i sin 7 )
2 2 4
(cos 35  i sin 35 )
5. Find the expressions for cos 3θ in terms of cos θ,
sin 3θ in terms of sin θ and tan 3θ in terms of tan θ.
6. Express sin 5θ and cos 5θ/cos θ in terms of sin θ.
5 tan   10 tan 3   tan 5 
7. Prove that tan 5  . By considering the equation tan 5θ = 0, show that
1  10 tan 2   5 tan 4 
tan2(π/5) = 5 – 2 5
8. Find expressions for cos 6θ/sinθ in terms of cos θ and for tan 6θ in terms of tan θ.
9. Express in terms of cosines of multiples of θ:
(a) cos5θ (b) cos7θ (c) cos4θ
10. Express in terms of sines of multiples of θ:
(a) sin3θ (b) sin7θ (c) cos4θsin3θ
11. Prove that cos6θ + sin6θ = 18 (3cos4θ + 5)

265
 
 2

 sin  d𝜃  cos  sin  d

4 4 2
12. Evaluate (a) (b)
0 0
13. (a) Express the following complex numbers in a form having a real denominator.
1 1
,
3  2i (1  i) 2
(b) Find the modulus and principal arguments of each of the complex numbers Z = 1 + 2i and W = 2 –
I, and represent Z and W clearly by points A and B in an Argand diagram. Find also the sum and
product of Z and W and mark the corresponding points C and D in your diagram.
14. If the complex number x + iy is denoted by Z, then the complex conjugate number x – iy is denoted by
Z*,
(a) Express |Z*| and (Z*) in terms of |Z| and arg(Z).
(b) If a, b, and c are real numbers, prove that if
aZ2 + bZ + c = 0, then then a(Z*)2 + b(Z*) + c = 0
*

(c) If p and q are complex numbers and q ≠ 0, prove   

p p*
 
q q *
15. Find the values of a and b such that (a + ib) = i. Hence or otherwise solve the equation z2 + 2z + 1 – i
2

= 0, giving your answer in the form p + iq, where p and q are real numbers.
1
16. If Z  (1  i) , write down the modulus and argument for each of the numbers Z, Z2, Z3, Z4. Hence or
2
otherwise, show in the Argand diagram, the points representing the number 1 + Z + Z2 + Z3 + Z4.
17. If Z = 3 – 4i, find
(i) Z* (ii) ZZ* (iii) (ZZ)*
18. Simplify each of the following:
(a) (3 + 4i) + (2 + 3i) (b) (2 – 4i) – 3(5 – 3i)
(b) (2i)2 (c) i4
19. Simplify each of the following:
(a) (2 + i)(3 – i) (b) (5 – 2i)(6 + i)
(c) (4 – 3i)(1 – i) (d) (3 + i)(2 – 5i)
20. Express each of the following in the form a + ib
(a) 20 (b) 4
3i 1 i
2i 1
(c) (d)
1 i 1  2i
21. Solve the following equations:
(a) x2 + 25 = 0
(b) 2x2 + 32 = 0
(c) 4x2 + 9 = 0
(d) x2 + 2x + 5 = 0
22. If 3 – 2i and 1 + i are two of the roots of the equation ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + c = 0, find the values of a,
b, c, d and e.
23. Find the square roots of the following complex numbers:
(a) 5 + 2i
(b) 15 + 8i
(c) 7 – 24i
24. Find the quadratic equations have the roots:
(a) 3i, -3i (b) 1 + 2i, 1 – 2i
(c) 2 + i, 2 – i (d) 2 + 3i, 2 – 3i
25. Find real and imaginary parts of the complex Z when:

266
 Z
(i) = 1 + 2i
Z 1
Z i Z i
(ii) 
Z 1 Z  3
26. Find the modulus and principal argument of the following complex numbers
(a) 3i (b) 15 (c) -3i (d) -1
27. Find the modulus and principle argument of:
1 i 1  7i
(a) (b)
1 i 4  3i
1 i (3  i) 2
(c) (d)
2i 1 i
28. If Z1 and Z2 are complex numbers, solve the simultaneous equations
4Z1 + 3Z2 = 23
Z1 + iZ2 = 6
giving your answer in the form x + iy
29. Given that 2 + i is a root of the equation
Z3 – 11Z + 20 = 0. Find the remaining roots.
30. Show that 1 + i is a root of the equation x4 + 3x2 – 6x + 10 = 0. Hence write down the quadratic factor
of x4 + 3x2 – 6x + 10 and find all the roots of the equation.
Z
31. The complex number satisfies the equation  2  i . Find the real and imaginary parts of Z and
Z 2
the modulus and argument of Z.
Z
32. If Z1 = 4  cos 1324  i sin 1324  and Z2= 2  cos 524  i sin 524  , find 1 and Z1Z2 in the form a + ib.
Z2
33. If Z1= 2cos 23 + i sin 23 and Z2 = 6  cos 34  i sin 34  , find:

(ii) arg 
Z1 Z1  Z2
(i)  (iii) Z
Z2  2
Z 1

Z 
(iv) arg  2 
 Z1 
34. One root of the equation Z2 + aZ+b=0 where a and b are real constants, is 2+3i. Find the values of a
and b.
35. If Z1 and Z2 are two complex numbers such that |Z1 – Z2| = Z1 + Z2|, show that the difference of their
 3
arguments is or
2 2
(2  i) 2 (3i  1)
36. (a) Find the modulus and argument of
i3
1  7i 17  7i
(b) If Z1  and Z 2  . Find the moduli of Z1, Z2, Z1 + Z2 and Z1Z2.
1 i 2  2i
37. Use Demoivre’s theorem to show that:
(cos3  i sin 3 )5 (cos   i sin  )3
 cos13  i sin13
(cos5  i sin 5 )7 (cos 2  i sin 2 )5
38. Use Demoivre’s theorem to show that:
cos 4θ = cos4θ – 6cos2θ sin2θ + sin4θ
sin4θ = 4cos3θ sinθ – 4cos θ sin3θ
39. Show that  1  sin   i sin    cos n( 2   )  i sin n( 2   )
n

 1  sin   i sin  

267
40. Use Demoivre’s theorem to find the value of -3  1
-3  1
1
41. Find the two square roots of I and the four values of (-16) 4 .
42. Find the three roots of the equation (1 – Z)3 = Z3
43. If W is a complex cube root of unity, show that
(1 + W – W2)3 – (1 – W + W2)3 = 0
44. Use Demoivre’s theorem to find the four fourth roots of 8(-1 + i 3 ) in the form a + ib, giving a and b
correct to 2 decimal places.
45. Use Demoivre’s theorem to show that
cos5x
= 1 – 12sin2x + 16sin4x
cos x
Z  6i
46. Prove that if is real, the locus of the point representing the complex number Z in the Argand
Z 8
diagram is a straight line.
Z  2i
47. Prove that if is purely imaginary, the locus of the point representing Z in the Argand diagram
2Z  1
is a circle and find its radius.
Z i
48. If Z is a complex number and Z  1 = 2, find the equation of the curve in the Argand diagram on which
the point representing it lie.
49. The complex numbers Z – 2 and Z – 2i have arguments which are
(i) equal and
1
(ii) differ by  and each argument lies between –π and π. In each case, find the locus of the point
2
which represents Z in the Argand diagram and illustrate by a sketch.
50. Show by shading on an Argand diagram the region in which both |Z – 3 – i| ≥ |Z – 3 – 5i|

Answers
1.
1 3 1 3
2. (a) 1, (b) -i (c)  i (d)   i
2 2 2 2
3 1
3. 2  cos 6  i sin 6  ; 512 – 512 3 i ,  i
256 256
4. 2  cos 34  i sin 34  ; 256 – 18 i
5. (a) 1, (b) -1
3 tan   tan 3 
6. 4cos3θ – 3cos θ – 4sin3θ,
1  3 tan 3 
7. 16sin5θ – 20sin3θ + 5sin θ, 1 – 12sin2θ + 16sin4θ
8. .
6 tan   20 tan 3   6 tan 5 
9. 32cos6θ – 48cos4θ + 18cos2θ – 1, 32cos5θ – 32cos3θ + 6cos =
1  15 tan 2   15 tan 4 
10. (a) 1
16
(cos5  5cos3  10cos ),
(b) 1
64
(cos7  7cos5  21cos3  35cos )
(c) 1
16
(2cos  cos3  cos5 )
11. (a) 1
4
(3sin   sin 3 ), 1
64
(35sin   21sin 3  7sin   sin 7 ),
(c) 1
64
(3sin   sin 3  sin 5  sin 7 )

268
 3
12. (a) , (b) 32
8

3  2i 1
13. (a) , i (b) 5 , 63.4°, 5 , -26.6°, 3 + i,
13 2
4 + 3i.
1 1 1 1
15. a  ,b  or a  ,b 
2 2 2 2
Z  1  1
2 i or Z  1  1
i
2 2
2

2 1 2 1
16. , 45°; , 90°; , 135°; 4
, 180°
2 2 4
17. (i) 3 + 4i (ii) 25 (iii) -7 + 24i
18. (a) 5 + 7i (b) -13 + 5i (c) -4 (d) 1
19 (a) 7 + i (b) 32 – 7i (c) 1 – 7i (d) 11 – 13i
20. (a) 6 – 2i (b) 2 – 2i (c) -1 + i (d) 15  52 i
21 (a) x ± 5i (b) x = ±4i (c) ± 32 i (d) x = -1 ± 2i
22. a = 1, b = -8, c = 27, d = -38, e = 26
23. (a) ±(3 + 2i) (b) ±(4 + i) (c) ±(4 – 3i)
24. (a) x2 + 9 = 0 (b) x2 – 2x + 5 = 0
(c) x2 – 4x + 5 = 0 (d) x2 – 4x + 13 = 0
25 (i) -1, ½ (ii) 15 , 52
26. (a) 3, π/2 (b) 15, 0 (c) 3, -π/2 (d) 1, π
27. (a) 1, -π/2 (b) 2, 34 , (c) 10 5
, 1.25
28. 2 + 3i 19. 2 – i, -4
31. (i) Re(Z) = -3, Im(Z) = -1 (ii) 10 , -2.82 rads
32. 1  3i ; 4 2  4 2 i
33. (i) 1/3 (ii) 127 (iii) 3 (iv) 712
34. -4, 13
36. (a) 5, 0.6435 rad (b) 5, 6.5, 2.061, 32.5
 (1  i )
41. ,  2i 2
2
42. 12 , 12 (1  i 3) . 44. (1.73  i),  (1  1.73i)
1
47. centre ¼ + i, radius 4
7
2
48.  x    y 2 
5 16
 3 9
49. (i) x + y = 2 (ii) (x – 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 2

Exercise 2
Show on the Argand diagram the region represented by the following:
1. arg z = 14 π,
2. arg(z – i) = 1
3
π
3. arg(z + 1 – 3i) = 16 π
4. arg(z – 3 + 2i) = π

269
5. arg(z + 2 + i) = 1
2
π
6. arg(z – 1 – i) =  14 π
7. |z + 1| = |z – 3|,
8. |z| = |z – 6i|
z i
9. =1
z 1
z 1 1
10. (a) arg    3
 1
z
z 3  1
11. (a) arg  (b)    1
z
  4  2
 z  2i   z  4  2i 
In questions 12 to 24 find the Cartesian equation of the locus of the point P representing the complex
number z. Sketch the locus of P each case.
12. 2|z + 1| = |z – 2|
13. |z + 4i| = 3|z – 4|
z
14. =5
z4
z i
15. =1
z  5  2i
z
16. =5
z6
z 1
17. 2
z 1 i 3
18. z – 5 = λi(z + 5), where λ is a real parameter
z  2i
19. = λi, where λ is a real number.
z2
20. z = 3i + λ(2 + 5i), where λ is a real parameter.
21. Im(z2) = 2
22. Re (z2) = 1
Re  z   = 0
1
23.
 z

Im  z   = 0
9
24.
 z

In questions 27 to 34 shade in separate Argand diagrams the regions represented by:

25. |z – i | ≤ 3
26. |z – 4 + 3i| < 4
27. 0 ≤ arg z ≤ 13 
28. 1
4 π < arg z < 3
4 π
29.  16   arg( z  1)  16 
30.  12   arg( z  i)  23 
31. |z| > |z + 2|
32. |z + i| ≤ |z – 3i|
33. Represent each of the following loci in an Argand diagram.
(a) arg(z – 1) = arg(z + 1)
(b) arg z = arg(z – 1 I i)

270
 (c) arg(z – 2) = π + arg z
(d) arg(z – 1) = π + arg(z – i)
34. Find the least value of |z + 4| for which
(a) Re(z) = 5 (b) Im(z) = 3
(c) |z| = 1 (d) arg z = 14 π
35. Given that the complex number z varies such that |z – 7| = 3, find the greatest and least values of |z –
i|.
36. Given that the complex number w and z vary subject to the conditions |z – 12| = 7 and |z – i| = 4, find
the greatest and least values of |w – z|.
37. In an Argand diagram, the point P represents the complex number z, where z = x + iy. Given that
z + 2 = λi(z + 8), where λ is a real parameter, find the Cartesian equation of the locus of P as λ varies.
If also z = μ(4 + 3i), where λ is real, prove that there is only one possible position for P.
38. (i) Represent on the same Argand diagram the loci given by the equations |z – 3| = 3 and |z| = |z – 2|. Obtain
the complex numbers corresponding to the point of intersection of these loci. (ii) Find a complex number z
whose argument is π/4 and which satisfies the equation |z + 2 + i| = |z – 4 + i|.

Answers
12. x2 + y2 + 4x = 0, 13. x2 + y2 – 9x – 9x – y + 16
15. 5x + 3y = 14. 16. 2x2 + 2y2 + 25x + 75 = 0
17. 5x2 + 5y2 – 26x + 8y + 1 = 0.
18. x2 + y2 = 25, excluding (-5, 0)
19. x2 + y2 – 2x + 2y = 0, excluding (2, 0).
20. 5x – 2y + 6 = 0 21. xy = 1. 22. x2 – y2 = 1
23. x(x2 + y2 – 1) = 0, excluding (0, 0)
24. y(x2 + y2 – 9) = 0, excluding (0, 0).
34. (a) 9, (b) 3, (c) 3, (d) 4.
35. 5 2  3 , 5 2  3 . 38. 24, 2.
37. x2 + y2 + 10x + 16 = 0
38.(i) 1  i 5 (ii) 1 + i.

Revision Exercise 3
Show on the Argand diagram the region represented by the following:
z 1 1
1.    3
 z 1
z  2  3i
2. =1
z 2i
11  2i
3. Express the complex number z1  in the form x + iy where x and y are real. Given that z2 = 2 –
3  4i
5i, find the distance between the points in the Argand diagram which represent z1 and z2. Determine
the real numbers α and β such that αz1 + βz2 = -4 + i.
4. (i) Find two complex numbers z satisfying the equation z2 = -8 – 6i.
(ii) Solve the equation z2 – (3 – i)z + 4 = 0 and represent the solutions on an Argand diagram by vectors
OA and OB , where O is the origin. Show that triangle OAB is right-angled.
5. If z and w are complex numbers, show that:
| z  w |2  | z  w |2  2{| z |2  | w |2}
Interpret your results geometrically.

271
6. A regular octagon is inscribed in the circle |z| = 1 in the complex plane and one of its vertices represents
1
the number (1  i) . Find the numbers represented by the other vertices.
2
z1
7. (i) Two complex numbers z1 and z2 each have arguments between 0 and π. If z1z2 = i – 3 and =
z2
2i, find the values of z1 and z2 giving the modulus and argument of each.
(ii) Obtain in the form a + ib the solutions of the equation z2 – 2z + 5 = 0, and represent the solutions
on an Argand diagram by the points A and B.
The equation z2 – 2pz + q = 0 is such that p and q are real, and its solutions in the Argand diagram
are represented by the points C and D. Find in the simplest form the algebraic relation satisfied by
p and q in each of the following cases:
(a) p2 < q, p ≠ 1 and A, B, C, D are the vertices of a triangle;
(b) p2 > q and CAD  12 
8. (a) If –π < arg z1 + arg z2 ≤ π, show that arg(z1z2) = arg z1 + arg z2. The complex numbers a  4 3  2i
and b  3  7i are represented in the Argand diagram by points A and B respectively. O is the origin.
Show that triangle OAB is equilateral and find the complex number c which the point C represents
where OABC is a rhombus. Calculate |c| and arg c.
p q
(b) z is a complex number such that z   where p and q are real. If arg z = π/2 and |z| = 7
2  q 1  3i
find the values of p and q.
9. .
10. (a) Show that (1 + 3i)3 = -(26 + 18i).
(b) Find the three roots z1, z2, z3 of the equation z3 =-1
(c) Find in the form a + ib, the three roots z'1, z'2, z'3 of the equation z3 = 26 + 18i.
(d) Indicate in the same Argand diagram the points represented by zr and z'r for r = 1, 2, 3, and prove
that the roots of the equations may be paired so that |z1 – z2| = z2 – z'2 = |z3 – z'3 | = 3.
11. Write down or obtain the non-real cube roots of unity, w1 and w2, in the form a + ib, where a and b
are real. A regular hexagon is drawn in an Argand diagram such that two adjacent vertices represent
w1 and w2, respectively and centre of the circumscribing circle of the hexagon is the point (1, 0).
Determine in the form a + ib, the complex numbers represented by the other four vertices of the
hexagon and find the product of these four complex numbers.
12. A complex number w is such that w3 = 1 and w ≠ 1. Show that:
(i) w2 + w + 1 = 0
(ii) (x + a + b)(x + wa + w2b)(x + w2a + wb)
is real for real x, a and b, and simplify this product. Hence or otherwise find the three roots of the
equation x3 – 6x + 6 = 0, giving your answers in terms of w and cube roots of integers.
13. (i) Find, without the use of tables, the two square roots of 5 – 12i in the form x + iy, where x and y are
real.
(ii) Represent on an Argand diagram the loci |z – 2| = 2 and |z – 4| = 7. Calculate the complex numbers
corresponding to the points of intersection of these loci.
14. (i) Given that (1 + 5i)p – 2q = 7i, find p and q when (a) p and q are real (b) p and q are conjugate
complex numbers.
(ii) Shade on the Argand diagram the region for which 3π/4 < arg z < π and 0 < |z| < 1. Choose a point
in the region and label it A. If A represents the complex number z, label clearly the points B, C, D
and E which represent –z, iz, z + 1 and z2 respectively.
15. (i) Show that z = 1 + i is a root of the equation z4 + 3z2 – 6z + 10 = 0. Find the other roots of the
equation.

272
 (ii) Sketch the curve in the Argand diagram defined by |z – 1| = 1, Im z ≥ 0. Find the value of z at the
point P in which this curve is cut by the line |z - 1| = |z – 2|. Find also the value of arg z and arg(z –
2) at P.
16. (i) If z = 1 + i 3 , find |z| and |z5|, and also the values of arg z and arg(z5) lying between –π and π.
Show that Re(z5) = 16 and find the value of Im(z5).
(ii) Draw the line |z| = |z – 4| and the half line arg(z – i) = π/4 in the Argand diagram. Hence find the
complex number that satisfies both equations.
(cos 9  i cos 9 )4
17. (i) Without using tables, simplify .
(cos 9  i sin 9 )5
7  4i
(ii) Express z1 = in the form p + qi, where p and q are real. Sketch in an Argand diagram the
3  2i
locus of the points representing complex numbers z such that |z – z1| = 5 . Find the greatest value
of z subject to this condition.
18. (i) Given that z = 1 – i, find the values of r(>0) and θ, -π < θ < π, such that z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). Hence
or otherwise find 1/z and z6, expressing your answers in the form p + iq, where q, r ϵ ℝ.
(ii) Sketch on an Argand diagram the set of points corresponding to the set A, where A = {z:z ϵ ℂ, arg (z
– i) = π/4}. Show that the set of points corresponding to the set B, where B = {z:z ϵ ℂ, |z + 7i| = 2|z
– 1|}, forms a circle in the Argand diagram. If the centre of this circle represents the numbers z1,
show that z1 ϵ A.
19. Use De Moivre’s theorem to show that
cos 7θ = 64cos7θ – 112cos5θ + 56cos3θ – 7cosθ
20. (i) If (1 + 3i)z1 = 5(1 + i), express z1 and z12 in the form x + iy, where x and y are real. Sketch in an
Argand diagram the circle |z – z1| = |z1| giving the coordinates of its centre.
(ii) If z = cos θ + i sinθ, show that:
1 1
z  2i sin  zn   2i sin n
z zn
Hence or otherwise, show that
16sin5θ = sin 5θ – 5sin 3θ + 10sin θ
21. .
22. (i) Given that x and y are real, find the values of x and y which make satisfy the equation
2 y  4i y
 0
2x  y x  i
 zi 
(ii) Given that z = x + iy, where x and y are real, (a) Show that Im    0 , the point (x, y) lies on a
 z2
 z i 
straight line (b) Show that, when Re    0 , the point (x, y) lies on a circle with centre (-1, -½)
 z2
1
and radius 2
5
1  2i
23. (i) Find |z| and arg z for which the complex numbers z given by (a) 12 – 5i, (b) , giving the
2i
argument in degrees (to the nearest degree) such that -180° < arg z ≤ 180°.
(ii) By expressing 3 − i in modulus-argument form, or otherwise, find the least positive integer n
such that ( 3 − i)n is real and positive.
(iii) The point P in the Argand diagram lies outside or on the circle of radius 4 with centre at (-1, -1).
Write down in modulus form the condition satisfied by the complex number z represented by point
P.
24. Sketch the circle C with Cartesian equation x2 + (y – 1)2 = 1. The point P representing the non-zero complex
number z lies on C. Express |z| in terms of 𝜃, the argument of z. Given that z' = 1/z, find the modulus and

273
 argument of z' in terms of 𝜃. Show that, whatever the position of P on the circle C, the point P' representing
z' lies on a certain line, the equation of which is to be determined.
25. (a) The sum of the infinite series 1 + z + z2 + z3 + … for values of z such that |z| < 1 is 1/(1 – z). By
substituting z = ½(cos θ + isin θ) in this result and using De Moivre’s theorem, or otherwise, prove
1 1 1 2sin 
that sin   2 sin 2  n sin n  ... 
2 2 2 5  4 cos 

Answers
3. 1 + 2i; 5 2 ; -2, -1
4. (i) ±(1 – 3i), (ii) 2 – 2i, 1 + i
5. sum of squares of a parallelogram = sum of squares of sides TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of a
triangle. It comes from two Greek words – trigonom (triangle) and metron (measure).
There is an enormous number of the uses of trigonometry and trigonometric functions. For instance, the
technique of triangulation is used in astronomy to measure the distance between land marks. Although it
was first applied in spheres, it had a greater application to planes. Surveyors have used trigonometry for
many centuries.
Within mathematics, it is used in calculus (perhaps its greatest application), linear algebra, and statistics.
Trigonometric tables were created over 2000 years ago for computation in astronomy.
A student is expected to be familiar with the definitions of trigonometric ratios for acute angles.
If one angle is 90° and one of the other angles is known, the third can be determined because the three
angles of any triangle add up to 180°. The two acute angles therefore add up to 90° (complimentary angles).
Once the angles are known, the ratios of the sides are determined regardless of the overall size of the
triangle. If the length of one side is known, the other two are determined. These ratios are given by the
following trigonometric functions of known angle, A; where a, b, and c refer to the lengths of the sides
accompanying the figure.

B
Opposite

c
Hypotenuse a

A Adjacent
A
b C
Sine function (sin)
This is the ratio of the opposite side of the triangle to its hypotenuse.
opposite a
sin A  
hypotenuse c
Cosine function (cos)
This is the ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse

274
 adjacent b
cos A  
hypotenuse c
Tangent function (tan)
This is the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent side.
a a c
tan A   
b c b
a b
   
c c
sin A

cos A
sin A
tan A 
cos A
The hypotenuse is the side opposite to the 90° angle. It is the longest side of a triangle and one of the
sides adjacent to A.
The term perpendicular and base are sometimes used for opposite and adjacent sides respectively.
Many people find it easy to remember what sides of the right angle are equal to sine, cosine, or tangent by
memorising the mnemonic SOH-CAH-TOA.
The reciprocals of the functions are named cosecant (cosec), secant (sec) and cotangent (cot)
1 Hypotenuse c
cosec A   
sin A Opposite a
1 Hypotenuse c
sec A   
cos A Adjacent b
1 Adjacent cos A b
cot A    
tan Opposite sin A a

Consider the following triangle ABC

C

r
y

𝜃
A x B
y x y
sin   , cos   ; and tan  
r r r
y = r sin θ; x = r cos θ

Applying the Pythagoras’ theorem to triangle ABC;

 (rcos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2 = r2

r2cos2 θ + r2sin2 θ = r2
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

275
 cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 …………………………. (i)
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

Dividing equation (i) by cos2θ

cos 2  sin 2  1
 
cos 
2
cos 
2
cos 2 
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ …………………………….. (ii)
1 + tan2θ = sec2θ

Dividing Eqn (i) by sin2θ

cos 2  sin 2  1
 
sin 2  sin 2  sin 2 
cot2θ + 1 = cosec2θ
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ ……………..…………….. (iii)
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ

Trigonometric Ratios for general angle

2nd quadrant A(x, y)

1st quadrant
r y

𝜃
O x

4th quadrant
3rd quadrant

Angles measured from the x-axis in the anti-clockwise sense are termed as positive angles while those
measured in the clockwise sense are negative angles.

When A is in the 1st quadrant, x and y are positive. When A is in the 2nd quadrant, x is negative and y is
positive. When A is in the third quadrant, x and y are all negative. When A is in the 4th quadrant, x is
positive and y is negative. r is taken to be positive for all positions of the line OA.

The trigonometrical ratios for angles xOA of any magnitude are defined precisely in the same way as for
acute angles.
y x y
Thus sin 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 = and tan 𝜃 =
r r x
The appropriate signs are attached to x and y according to the position of point A. hence for angles in
which OA lies in the 1st quadrant; since x and y and r are positive, the sine, cosine, and tangent will all be
positive.

276
For angles in which OA lies in the 2nd quadrant, since y and r are positive and x negative, the sine is
positive. Cosine and tangent are negative.
For angles in which OA is in the 3rd quadrant, sine and cosine are both negative but tangent is positive. In
the 4th quadrant, sine and tangent are negative while cosine is positive. This is illustrated below.

ALL
SINE (+ve)
(+ve)

TANGENT COSINE
(+ve) (+ve)

Trigonometric ratios of 30°, 45°, and 60°

Consider the equilateral triangle ABC of side x

30°30°

x
x

60° 60°
A N B
x

Considering triangle CAN:

C
30°
x

A 60° N

Applying the Pythagoras’ theorem:

 2x 
2
 (CN )2 = x2
x2
 (CN ) 2 = x2
4
x2
(CN ) 2 = x2 –
4
2
2 3x
CN =
4

277
 3x
CN 
2
Using SOH-CAH-TOA
Opposite
sin  
Hypotenuse
CN
sin  
AC
3
x
sin 60  2
x
3

2
x/2 1
sin 30  
x 2
Adjacent
cos 
Hypotenuse
x 3
3
sin 60  2

x 2
3
x 3
cos30  2 
x 2
x 3
tan 60  x
2
 3
2
x
tan 30  2
x 3
2

1
tan 30 
3

Consider a right isosceles triangle with two sides of lengths x units.

A
45°

B 45° C
x
Applying the Pythagoras’ theorem on ABC:
x2 + x2 = AC2
2x2 = AC2
AC = x 2

Applying SOH-CAH-TOA

278
 Opposite
sin  
Hypotenuse
x
sin 45 
AC
x 1
sin 45  
x 2 2
Adjacent
cos  
Hypotenuse
x 1
sin 45  
x 2 2
Opposite
tan  
Adjacent
x
sin 45   1
x
Example I
Write down the values of the following, leaving surds in your answers (the calculator should not be
used).
(a) cos 780°
(b) sin 780°
(c) tan 780°
(d) sin 540°
(e) cos 540°
(f) cos 210°
(g) sin 150°
(h) sin(-270°)
(i) sin 225°
(j) sin 405°
(k) tan(-60°)

Solution
(a) cos 780.

60°

cos 780° = cos 60°

1

2
sin 780° = sin 60°
3
=
2

279
 tan 780° = tan 60° = 3

sin 540°

sin 540° = sin 180° = 0°

cos 540° = cos 180° = 0°

cos 210°

30°

 3
cos 210° = -cos 30° =
2

sin 150°
150°

30°

1
sin 150 = +sin 30 =
2
sin -270°

90°

270°

sin -270 = +sin 90° = 1

sin 225°

280
 45°

1
sin 225° = -sin 45° =
2

sin 405°

45°

1
sin 405° = sin 45° =
2

Trigonometric Curves
For any angle θ, a single value of sin 𝜃 or cos 𝜃 can be found. The same applies to tan 𝜃 unless when 𝜃 = ±90°
and ±270° for which the values of tan 𝜃 are not defined. Thus sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 are functions which are defined
for all negative values of 𝜃.

Tan θ is a function which is defined for all positive and negative values of θ except ±90° and
±270°.
To draw the graphs of sinθ, cosθ and tanθ, we construct a table of values, giving ordered pairs of
these functions and hence plot the graph.
Example
y = sinθ
θ -270 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540
y =sinθ 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0

y = cosθ
θ -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450
y = cos θ 1 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0

281
 y
y = cosθ

-180 -90 0 90 270 450 𝜃

y = tanθ
θ -270 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360 450
y =tanθ ∞ 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 0 ∞ 0 ∞

y= tanθ

-270 -180 -90 90 180 270 𝜃

From the graph of sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃, the maximum values of cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 are 1 and 1 respectively.
The minimum value of cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 are -1 and -1 respectively.
The graphs for sin𝜃 and cos𝜃 repeat themselves at regular intervals of 360° while that of tan𝜃
repeat itself at regular interval of 180°. These intervals are called periods. These trigonometric
functions are examples of periodic functions.

Trigonometric Equations
Trigonometric equations differ from algebraic equations in that they often have unlimited
number of solutions.

Example I
Solve the following equations for 0≤ θ ≤ 360°
1
(a) sin  
2
(b) sec  2
(c) tan   3
1
(d) sin 2  
2

282
Solutions
1
sin  
2
1
The acute angle whose sine is is 30°. But sinθ is negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
2
(a)

30° 30°

1
 For sin θ =
2
θ = 210°
θ = 330°

(b) sec θ = 2
1
2
cos 
1 1
  cos   cos  
2 2
1
The acute angle whose cosine is is 60° but cos θ° is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
2

60°
30° 60°

1
For cos   , θ = 60°, 300°
2

(c) tan   3
The acute angle whose tangent is 3 is 60° but tanθ is negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.

60°
60°

 For tan    3 , θ = 120°, 300°

283
 1
(d) sin2θ =
2
1
sin   
2
1 1
 sin   and sin𝜃
2 2
1
The acute angle whose sine is is 45° but sin𝜃 is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
2
135°

45° 45°

1
 For sin   , θ = 45, 135
2

1
For sin  
2

45° 45°

1
For sin θ =
2
θ° = 225°, 315°
1
For sin2θ = , θ = 45, 135°, 225°, 315°
2

Example II
Solve the following equations for -180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
(a) Sin(2θ + 30) = 0.8
(b) tan2 θ + tan θ = 0
(c) sin2θ + sin θ = 0
(d) 2sin2θ – sinθ – 1 = 0

Solution
(a) sin(2θ + 30°) = 0.8
2θ + 30° = sin−1(0.8)
2θ + 30° = 53.1°, 126.9°
 2θ = 23.1, 96.9
θ = 11.55, 48.45
For sin(2θ + 30°) = 0.8, θ = 11.55, 48.45.

284
(b) tan2θ + tan θ = 0
tan θ(tan θ + 1) = 0
tan θ = 0 OR tan θ = -1
For tan θ = 0,
θ = tan−10
θ = 0, -180, 180
For tan θ = -1, the acute angle whose tangent is 1 is 45°. But tan θ is negative in the 2nd and 4th
quadrants.

135°

45°

For tan θ = -1, θ = 135°, -45°

 tan2θ + tanθ = 0
θ = -180°, -45°, 0, 135°, 180°

(c) sin2 θ + sin θ = 0

sin θ(sin θ +1) = 0
sin θ = 0, sin θ = -1
For sin θ = 0°, θ = 0, 180°, -180°
For sin θ = -1,
The acute angle whose sine is 1 is 90°. Sine is negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
For sin θ = -1, θ = -90
For sin2 θ + sin θ = 0°, θ = -180°, -90°, 0°, 180°

(d) 2sin2 θ - sin θ – 1 = 0

1  ( 1) 2  4(2)( 1)
sin  
2 2
1 3
sin  
4
1
 sinθ = 1, sinθ =
2
For sinθ = 1,
θ = sin−1(1)
θ = 90°
1
For sinθ = ,
2
θ = -30°, -150°
 θ = -30°, -150°, 90°

Example III
Solve the following equations from 0° to 360° inclusive.
3
(a) cos 3θ =
2

285
 1
(b) tan(3θ – 45°) =
2
(c) sec2θ = 3
(d) 4cos2θ = 1
1
(e) tan2θ =
3
(f) sin22θ = 1

Solutions
3
(a) cos 3θ =
2
 3
3θ = cos 1 
 2 
 
3θ = 30°, 330°, 390°, 690°, 750°, 1050°
 θ = 10°, 110°, 130°, 230°, 250°, 350°
1
(b) tan(3θ – 45°) =
2
1
3θ – 45 = tan 1  
2
3θ – 45 = 26.6, 206.6, 386.6, 566.6, 746.6, 926.6
 θ = 23.9°, 83.9°, 143.9°, 203.9°, 263.9°, 323.9°

(c) sec 2θ = 3
1
3
cos 2
1
 cos 2
3
2  cos 1 ( 13 )
2θ = 70.5°, 289.5°, 430.5°, 649.5°
θ = 35.25°, 144.75°, 215.25°, 324.75°

1
(d) tan2θ =
3
1
tan θ = 
3
1 1
tan θ = or tan θ = 
3 3
1
For tan θ = , θ = 30°, 210°
3
1
For tan θ  , θ = 150°, 330°
3
1
 When tan2θ = , θ = 30°, 150°, 210°, 230°
3

286
(e) sin22θ = 1
sin2θ = ±1
For sin2 θ = 1,
2θ = 90°, 450°  θ = 45°, 225°
sin 2θ = -1,
2θ = 270, 630  θ = 135°, 315°
 When sin22θ = 1,
θ = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°

Example IV
Solve the following equations for values of θ from -180° to 180°
(f) tan θ = cot θ + 3
(g) sec θ = 2cos θ
(h) 5sin θ +6cosec θ = 17
(i) 3cos θ +2sec θ +7 = 0

Solution
(a) tan θ = 4cot θ + 3
4
tan θ = +3
tan 
tan2θ = 4 + 3tan θ.
tan2θ – 3tan θ – 4 = 0
3  (3) 2  4(1)(4)
tan  
2(1)
35
tan  
2
tan θ = 4, tan θ = -1

When tan θ = 4,
θ = tan-1(4)
θ = 76°, -104° (for -180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°)
When tan θ = -1,
θ = tan-1(-1) = -45°, 135° (for -180° ≤ θ ≤ 180°)
 For tan θ = 4cot θ + 3°,
θ = -104°, -145°, 76°, 135°

(b) secθ = 2cosθ

1
 2 cos 
cos 
1 = 2cos2θ
1
cos2θ =
2
1
cos θ = 
2
1
For cosθ = , θ = 45°, -45°.
2

287
 1
For cosθ = , θ = 135°, -135°
2
∴ For sec θ = 2cos θ, θ = -135°, -45°, 45°, 135°.

(c) 5sin θ + 6cosec θ = 17

Solution
5sinθ + 6cosecθ = 17
6
5sin    17
sin 
5sin2θ + 6 = 17sinθ
5sin2θ − 17sinθ + 6
17  (17) 2  4(5)  6
sin  
25
17  289  120
sin  
10
17  13
sin  
10
sinθ = 3
sinθ = 0.4
θ = sin-1(0.4)   = 23.6, 156.4
θ = sin-1(3)   has no value since sinθ is maximum when it is 1

(d) 3cos θ +2sec θ +7 = 0

2
3cos θ + +7=0
cos 
3cos2 θ + 2 + 7cos θ = 0
3cos2 θ + 7cos θ + 2 = 0
7  (7) 2  4  3  2
cos 
23
7  5
cos  
6
1
cosθ =
3
cosθ = -2
For cosθ = -2, θ has no values because the minimum of cosθ is -1
1
For cos θ =
3
θ = 109.5°, -109.5°.

Example IV
Solve the following equations from 0° to 360°
(a) 3 − cosθ = 2sin2θ
(b) cos2θ + sinθ + 1 = 0
(c) sec2θ = 3tanθ − 1
(d) cosec2θ = 3 + cot θ
(e) 3tan2θ + 5 = 7sec θ

288
Solutions
(a) 3 − cosθ = 2sin2θ
3 – 3cos θ = 2(1 – cos2θ)
3 – 3cos θ = 2 – 2cos2θ
2cos2θ – 3cosθ + 1 = 0
3  (3) 2  4  2  1
cos 
2 2
3 98
cos  
4
1
cos θ = 1, OR cos θ =
2
For cos θ = 1,
θ = cos-1(1)
θ = 0°, 360°
1
For cos θ = ,
2
θ = cos-1(1/2)
θ = 60°, 300°
 For 3 – 3cosθ = 2sin2θ, θ = 0°, 60°, 300°, 360°

(b) cos2θ + sinθ + 1 = 0

1 – sin2θ + sin θ + 1 = 0
sin2θ - sin θ – 2 = 0
1  (1) 2  4  1  2
sin θ =
2
1 3
sin  
2
sin θ = 2 OR sin θ = -1

For sin θ = 2, the value of θ is not defined because sin θ is maximum at 1

For sin θ= -1, θ = 270°

(c) sec2θ = 3tan θ – 1

sec2θ = 1 + tan2θ
 1 + tan2θ = 3tan θ – 1
tan2θ − 3tan θ + 2 = 0
3  (3) 2  4  1  2
tan  
2 1
3 1
tan  
2
tanθ = 2 OR tan θ = 1
For tan θ = 2,
θ = tan-1(2) = 63.4°, 243.4°
For tan θ = 1,
θ = tan-1(1) = 45°, 225°
∴ For sec θ = 3tanθ – 1, θ = 45°, 63.4°, 243.4°, 225°.
2

289
(d) cosec2θ = 3 + cotθ
But cosec2θ = 1 + cot2θ
 1 + cot2θ = 3 + cot θ
cot2θ – cotθ – 2 = 0
1  (1) 2  4  1  (2)
cot  
2 1
1 3
cot  
2
cotθ = 2 OR cotθ = -1
1
 tan   OR tan  = -1
2
1 1
For tanθ = , θ = tan-1( )
2 2
θ = 26.6°, 206.6°
For tanθ = -1, θ = 135°, 315°

 For cosec2θ = 3 + cotθ,

θ = 26.6°, 135°, 206.6°, 315°

(e) 3tan2θ + 5 = 7secθ

3(sec2θ – 1) + 5 = 7secθ
3sec2θ – 3 + 5 = 7secθ
3sec2θ – 7secθ + 2 = 0
7  (7) 2  4  3  2
sec 
3 2
75
sec 
6
1
secθ = 2 OR secθ =
3
 cosθ = 1 OR cosθ = 3
2
For cosθ = 1, θ = 60°, 300°
2
For cosθ = 3, θ is not defined because cosθ is maximum at 1.

(f) 2cot2θ + 8 = 7cosecθ

1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
cot2θ = cosec2θ – 1
2(cosec2θ – 1) + 8 = 7cosecθ
2cosec2θ – 2 + 8 = 7cosecθ
2cosec2θ – 7cosecθ + 6 = 0
7  (2) 2  4  2  2
cosecθ =
2 2
75
cosecθ =
4
cosecθ = 3, OR cosecθ = 1
2

290
 1
 sinθ = , OR sinθ = 2
3
1
For sinθ = , θ = 19.5, 160.5
3
For sinθ = 2, θ = sin-1(2)
The values of θ are not defined.

Example I (UNEB Questions)

Find all the values of θ, 00 ≤ θ ≤ 3600, which satisfy the equation
sin2 θ – sin 2θ – 3 cos2 θ = 0.
Solution
a) sin2 θ − 2 sin θ cos θ − 3cos2 θ = 0
Dividing through by cos2 θ,
tan2 θ − 2tan θ − 3 = 0
tan2 θ − 3tan θ + tan θ − 3 = 0
tan θ (tan θ − 3) + 1(tan θ − 3) = 0
(tan θ − 3)(tan θ + 1) = 0
Either tanθ − 3 = 0
tan θ = 3
θ = tan-1(3)
θ = 71.60, 251.60
Or tanθ + 1 = 0
tanθ = -1
θ = tan-1(-1)
θ = 1350, 3150

Example II (UNEB Question)

Solve cos θ + sin 2θ = 0 for 00 ≤ θ ≤ 3600.
cos θ + sin 2θ = 0
cos θ + 2sin θ cos θ = 0
cos θ (1 + 2sin θ) = 0
Either cos θ = 0
θ = cos-1(0)
θ = 900, 2700
Or 1 + 2 sin θ = 0
2sin θ = -1
1
sin θ = 
2
1
θ = sin-1(  )
2
θ = 2100, 3300
For 00 ≤ θ ≤ 3600, θ = 900, 2100, 2700, 3300

Example III (UNEB Question)

291
Solve cot2𝜃 = 5(cosec 𝜃 + 1) for 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°
Solution
(a) cot2 θ = 5(cosec θ + 1)
But cot2θ = cosec2θ – 1
cosec2 θ − 1 = 5(cosec θ + 1)
cosec2 θ − 1 = 5 cosec θ + 5
cosec2 θ − 5 cosec θ − 6 = 0
cosec2 θ − 6 cosec θ + cosec θ − 6 = 0
cosec θ(cosec θ − 6) + 1(cosec θ − 6) = 0
cosec θ − 6) (cosec θ + 1) = 0
Either cosec θ = 6
1
6
sin 
1
sin  
6
  9.6, 170.4
Or cosec θ + 1 = 0
1
 1
sin 
  270
Hence θ = 9.6°, 170.4° and 270°

Example IV (UNEB Question)

Solve 2sin 2x = 3cos x, for –1800  x  180°.
Solution
2 sin 2x = 3 cos x
2 sin 2x - 3 cos x = 0
But sin 2x = 2sinxcosx
4 sin x cos x – 3cos x = 0
cos x (4sin x – 3) = 0
cos x = 0
x = cos–1(0)
x = 900, -90
4 sin x – 3 = 0
3
sin x =
4
3
x = sin 1  
4
x = 48.6°, 131.4°
 x = (–90°, 48.6°, 90°, 131.4°) are the solutions to the equation 2sin 2x = 3cos x

Example V (UNEB Question)

Solve the equation cos x + cos 2x = 1 for values of x from 00 to 3600 inclusive
Solution
cosx + cos2x = 1
But cos2x = 2cos2 x – 1

292
By substitution, we have
cosx + 2cos2x – 1 = 1
2cos2x + cosx – 2 = 0
1  (1)2  4  2  (2)
x
2 2
1  1  16
2

cos x 
4
1  17

4
1  17
Taking cosx =
4
x = 38.7° , 321.3°
1  17
Taking cos x 
4
cosx = -1.280776406
(The values of x are not defined because x is maximum at 1)
Hence x = 38.70, 321.30

Example VI (UNEB Question)

Solve 7tanθ + cot θ = 5secθ for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°.
Solution
(a) 7 tan θ + cot θ = 5 sec θ
sin  cos  5
7  
cos  sin  cos 
Multiplying through by cosθ sinθ
7sin2θ + cos2θ = 5sinθ
7 sin2 θ + 1 − sin2 θ = 5 sin θ
6 sin2 θ − 5 sin θ + 1 = 0
6sin2 θ − 3 sin θ − 2 sin θ + 1 = 0
3 sin θ (2 sin θ − 1) −1 (2 sin θ − 1) = 0
(2sin θ − 1)(3 sin θ − 1) = 0
Either 2 sin θ = 1
1
sin  
2
1
  sin 1  
2  
θ = 300, 1500
Or 3 sin θ − 1 = 0
1
sin  
3
1
  sin 1  
3  
θ = 19.50, 160.50
 19.5 , 30 , 150 , 160.5 are the solutions to the equation
0 0 0 0

Example VII (UNEB Question)

293
Solve the equation 4cosx – 2cos2x = 3 for 00 ≤ x ≤ π.
Solution
4 cos x − 2(2 cos2 x − 1) = 3
4 cos x − 4 cos2 x + 2 = 3
4 cos x − 4 cos2 x − 1 = 0
4 cos2 x − 4 cos x + 1 = 0
4 cos2 x − 2 cos x − 2 cos x + 1 = 0
2 cos x (2 cos x − 1) − 1(2 cos x − 1) = 0
(2 cos x − 1)(2 cos x − 1) = 0
⟹ 2 cos x − 1 =0
2cos x = 1
1
cos x 
2
x  60,300
 3
x= , .
3 3

Elimination of 𝜃 from a set of equations

Example
Eliminate 𝜃 from the following equations:
(i) x = a cosθ, y = b sinθ
(ii) x =a cotθ, y = b secθ
(iii) x = a tanθ, y = b tanθ
(iv) x = 1 – sinθ, y = 1 + cosθ
(v) x = sinθ + tanθ, y = tanθ – sinθ
(vi) x cosθ + y sinθ = a, x sinθ – y cosθ = b

Solution
(i) x = a cosθ, y = b sinθ
x y
 cos  ,  sin 
a b
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
x2 y 2
 =1
a 2 b2

(ii) x = a cotθ, y = b cosecθ

x y
 cot  , =  cosecθ
a b
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
2 2
 x  y
1     
a b
x2 y 2
1+ 2  2
a b

(iii) x = a tanθ, y = b cosθ

294
 x y b
 tan  ,  cos    sec
a b y
1 + tan θ = sec θ
2 2
2
 x b2
1+   = 2
a y
2 2
x b
1+ 2 = 2
a y

(iv) x = 1 – sinθ, y = 1 + cosθ

sinθ = 1 – x , y – 1 = cosθ
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
(1 – x)2 + (y – 1)2 = 1
 (x – 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 1

(v) x = sinθ + tan θ …………………… (i)

y = tanθ – sinθ ………………..…… (ii)
Eqn (i) + Eqn (ii);
 x + y = 2tanθ
x y
tanθ =
2
Eqn (i) − Eqn (ii);
x – y = 2sinθ
x y
 sin 
2
x y
From tan  
2
2
 cotθ =
x y
x y
From sin  
2
2
 cosecθ =
x y
1 + cot2θ = cosec2θ
2 2
 2   2 
1+    
 x y  x y
4 4
1+ 
( x  y) 2
( x  y)2
 (x2 – y2)2 = 16xy

(vi) x cosθ + y sinθ = a …………………..(i)

x sinθ – y cosθ = b ………………….. (ii)

From Eqn (i);

a  y sin 
cosθ = …………….. (iii)
x

295
 Substituting Eqn (iii) in Eqn (ii);
 a  y sin  
x sin   y   =b
 x 
 x2sinθ – ay + y2sinθ = xb
(x2 + y2)sinθ = xb + ay
bx  ay
sinθ = 2 ……………………. (iv)
x  y2

Substitute Eqn (iv) in Eqn (iii)

a  y ( xbx2  ay
y2
)
 cosθ =
x
ax 2  ay 2  bxy  ay 2
cosθ =
x( x 2  y 2 )
ax 2  bxy
cosθ =
x( x 2  y 2 )
ax  by
cosθ =
x2  y 2
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
(bx  ay ) 2 (ax  by ) 2
 =1
( x 2  y 2 )2 ( x 2  y 2 )2
(bx + ay)2 + (ax – by)2 = (x2 + y2)2
b2x2 + 2abxy + a2y2 + a2x2 – 2abxy + b2y2 = (x2 + y2)2
(a2 + b2)x2 + (a2 + b2)y2 = (x2 + y2)2
(x2 + y2)(a2 + b2) = (x2 + y2)2
a2 + b2 = x2 + y2

Proving Trigonometric Identities

(i) secθ + cosecθ cotθ = secθ cosec2θ
(ii) sin2θ(1 + sec2θ) = sec2θ – cos2θ
1  cos  1
(iii) 
sin  cos ec  cot 
tan   cot  1
(iv) 
sec  cosec sin   cos 
cosec
(v) sec 2  
cosec  sin 
1  sin 
(vi)  sec  tan 
cos 
1  sin 
(vii)  (sec  tan  ) 2
1  sin 
cot   tan 
(viii)  cot  tan 
cot   tan 
Solution
(a) secθ + cosecθ cotθ

296
 1 1  cos 
   
cos sin   sin  
1 cos
  2
cos sin 
sin 2   cos 2 

sin 2  cos 2 
1
 2
sin  cos 2 
1 1
 
cos  sin 2 
 sec  cosec

(b) sin2θ(1 + sec2θ)

 sin 2   sin 2  sec 2 
sin 2 
 sin 2  
cos 2 
= sin2θ + tan2θ
= sin2θ + sec2θ – 1
= 1 – cos2θ + sec2θ – 1
= sec2θ – cos2θ

1  cos 
(c)
sin 
1  cos 1  cos 
 
sin  1  cos 
1  cos 2 

sin   sin  cos
sin 2 

sin   sin  cos
sin 2 
sin 2 
 sin 
sin 2 
 sin  cos 
sin 2 

1

cosec  cot 

tan   cot 
(d)
sec  cosec
sin 
cos   cos 
sin 
 1
cos   sin1
sin 2   cos 2 
sin  cos  1
= sin   cos  
sin  cos  sin   cos 

297
 1
(e) sec 2  
cos 2 
1
sec 2  
1  sin 2 
1
sin 
 1
sin  
sin 2 
sin 
cosec

cosec  sin 

1  sin 
(f)  sec  tan 
cos 
1  sin  (1  sin  ) cos 

cos  cos   cos 
cos   sin  cos 

cos 2 
cos sin  cos
 
cos 2  cos 2 
1 sin 
 
cos cos
 sec  tan 

1  sin  (1  sin  )
(g)
1  sin  (1  sin  )
(1  sin  )2

1  sin 2 
(1  sin  ) 2

cos 2 
1  2sin   sin 2 

cos 2 
1 2sin  sin 2 
  
cos 2  cos 2  cos 2 
 sec 2   2 tan  sec  tan 2 
 (sec  tan  ) 2

cot   tan 
(h)
cot   tan 
sin 
cos 
sin   cos 
 cos 
sin   cos
sin 


298
 cos  cos   sin  sin 
sin  cos 
 cos  cos   sin  sin 
cos  sin 

cos  sin 

cos  sin 
cos  sin 
 
sin  cos 
 cot  tan 

Formulae for sin(A ± B), cos(A ± B), and tan(A ± B)

sin(A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
sin(A – B) = sinAcosB – cosAsinB
cos(A + B) = cosAcosB – sinAsinB
cos(A – B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
tan A  tan B
tan(A + B) =
1  tan A  tan B
tan A  tan B
tan(A – B) =
1  tan A  tan B

Examples
Find the values of the following:
(a) cos(45° – 30°)
(b) cos 105°
(c) cos 75°
(d) sin(60° + 45°)
(e) sin 15°

Solution
(a) cos(45° – 35°)
= cos45° cos30° + sin45°sin30°
1 3 1 1
   
2 2 2 2
3 1
 
2 2 2 2
1 3

2 2
(1  3)2 2

(2 2)(2 2)
2 22 6 2 6
 
8 4
(b) sin(30° +45°)
= sin30 cos45 + cos30 sin 45

299
 1 1  3 1
    
2 2  2 2
1 3
 
2 2 2 2
3 1

2 2
2 2( 3  1) 6 2
 
4 2

(c) cos 105°

= cos(60° + 45°)
= cos60 cos45 – sin60 sin45
1 1 3 1
   
2 2 2 2
1 3
 
2 2 2 2
3 1 (1  3) 2
 
2 2 2 2 2
2 6

4

(d) cos 75°

= cos(30° + 45°)
= cos30° cos45° – sin30° sin45°
3 1 1 1
   
2 2 2 2
3 1
 
2 2 2 2
3  1 ( 3  1)2 2
 
2 2 2 22 2
6 2

4

(f) sin(60° + 45°)

= sin60 cos45 + cos60 sin45

300
 3 1 1 1
   
2 2 2 2
3 1
 
2 2 2 2
3 1

2 2
( 3  1)2 2

2 22 2
2 2( 3  1) 6 2
 
8 4

(f) sin 15°

= sin(45 – 30)
= sin45 cos30 – cos45 sin30
1 3 1 1
   
2 2 2 2
3 1
 
2 2 2 2
2 3 1

2 2
( 3  1)2 2 6 2
 
8 4

Example II
3 5
If sin A = and sinB = , where A and B are acute angles, find the values of the following:
5 13
(a) sin(A + B)
(b) cos(A + B)
(c) cot(A + B)

Solution

5 3 13 5
A B
x p

x 2 + 32 = 52 p2 + 52 = 132
x2 + 9 = 25 p2 + 25 = 169
x2 = 16 p2 = 144
x=4 p = 12

301
 3 4 3
 sin A = ; cos A = ; tan A =
5 5 4
5 12 5
sin B = ; cos B = ; tan B =
13 13 12
sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
3 12 4 5
=   
5 13 5 13
36 20
= 
65 65
56
=
65

(b) cos(A + B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB

4 12 3 5
=   
5 13 5 13
48 15
= 
65 65
33
=
65
1
(c) cot(A + B) =
tan( A  B)
tan A  tan B
tan(A + B) =
1  tan A tan B
1  tan A tan B
 cot( A  B ) 
tan A  tan B
1 34  125
= 3 5
4  12
1  15 33
= 48
 16
7 7
6 6

33 6
= 
16 7
99
=
56

Example III
4 12
If sinA = , cosB = ,where A is obtuse and B is acute, find the values of:
5 13
(a) sin(A – B)
(b) tan(A – B)
(c) tan(A + B)

Solutions

302
 5 13 5
4
A B
x p

x 2 + 42 = 52 p2 + 122 = 132
2
x + 16 = 25 p2 + 144 = 169
2
x =9 p2 = 25
x=3 p=5
A is obtuse
4 3 4
 sin A = ; cosA = ; tanA =
5 5 3
B is acute
5 12 5
 sinB = ; cosB = ; tanB =
13 13 12
Sin(A – B) = sinA cosB – cosA sinB
4 12 3 5
=   
5 13 5 13
48 15
= 
65 65
63
=
65

tan A  tan B
(b) tan(A – B) =
1  tan A tan B
4
5
= 3 4 12 5
1  3  12
7 63
= 4 =
4
9 16
tan A  tan B
(c) tan(A + B) =
1  tan A tan B
4  5
 3 12
1  34  12
5

11
12
=
1 20
36
11
33
= 12
56

36 56

Example III
3 12
If cosA = and tanB = ; where A and B are reflex angles. Find the values of:
5 5
(a) sin(A – B)
(b) tan(A – B)
(c) cos(A + B)

303
Solutions
3 5
A B
5 4 12 13

A and B are reflex

3 4 4
 cos A  ; sin A  ; tan A =
5 5 3
5 12 12
cos B = , sin B = ; tan B =
13 13 5

(a) sin(A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B

4 5 3 12
=   
5 13 5 13
20 36
= 
65 65
56
=
65

tan A  tan B
(b) tan(A – B) =
1  tan A tan B
4
 12
= 3 5
1  34  125
56 56
= 15 
11 33
5

(c) cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sinB

3 5 4 12
   
5 13 5 13
15 48
 
65 65
63

65

Example IV
From the following, find the values of tan x
(a) sin(x + 45°) = 2cos(x + 45°)
(b) 2sin(x – 45°) = cos(x + 45°)
(c) tan(x – A) = 32 , where tan A = 2
(d) sin(x + 30°) = cos(x + 30°)

Solution
(a) sin(x + 45°) = 2cos(x + 45°)
sinx cos45°+cosx sin45° = 2(cosx cos45°–sinx sin45°)

304
 1 1 1 1
sin x   cos x   2(cos x   sin x)
2 2 2 2
2 2
sin x  cos x  2( 22 cos x  22 sin x)
2 2
2 2
sin x  cos x  2 cos x  2 sin x
2 2

 2
2

 2 sin x  2 cos x 
2
2
cos x

3 2 2
sin x  cos x
2 2
3sin x = cos x
3sin x cos x

cos x cos x
3 tan x = 1
1
tan x =
3

(b) 2sin(x – 45°) = cos(x + 45°)

2(sinx cos45 – cosxsin45) = cosx cos45 – sinxsin45

2 sin x( 2
2
)  cos x( 22 )  cos x( 2
2
)  sin x( 22 ) 
2 sin x − 2 cos x = 2
2
cos x − 2
2
sin x
2 2
2 sin x + 2 sin x = 2 cos x + 2 cos x
3 2 3 2
2 sin x = 2 cos x
tan x = 1

3
(c) tan(x – A) = , tan A = 2
2
tan x  tan A 3

1  tan x tan A 2
tan x  2 3

1  2 tan x 2
2(tan x – 2) = 3(1 + 2tan x)
2tan x – 4 = 3 + 6tan x
4tan x = -7
7
tan x =
4
(d) sin(x + 30) = cos(x + 30)
sin x cos 30 + cos x sin 30 = cos x cos 30 – sin x sin 30
3 sin x + 1 cos x = 3 cos x – 1 sin x
2 2 2 2
3 sin x + 1 sin x = 3 cos x – 1 cos x
2 2 2 2
sin x ( 3 1) = cos x( 3 1 )
2 2

305
 3 1
sin x
 2
3 1
cos x 2

3 1
tan x =
1 3
( 3  1)(1  3)
tan x =
( 3  1)(1  3)
3  3 1 3
tan x =
2
tan x = 2 – 3

Example V
Solve the following equations for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°
(a) 2sin x = cos(x + 60°)
(b) cos(x + 45°) = cos x
1
(c) sin(x – 30°) = cos x
2
(d) 3sin(x + 10°) = 4cos(x – 10°)

Solutions
(a) 2sin x = cos(x + 60°)
2sin x = cos x cos 60° − sin x sin 60°
2sin x = 1 cos x – 3 sin x
2 2
2sin x + 3 sin x = 1 cos x
2 2
(4 + 3) sin x = cos x
1
tan x =
4 3
x = 9.9°, 189.9°

(b) cos(x + 45°) = cos x

cos x cos 45° – sin x sin 45° = cos x
2 cos x − 2 sin x = cos x
2 2

2
2
cos x  cos x  cos x  2
2
sin x
( 2
2
 1)cos x  2
2
sin x
2 2 2
( 2
) cos x = sin x
2
22 sin x

2 cos x
22
 tan x
2
x = 67.5°, 247.5°

306
(c) sin(x + 30) = 1 cos x
2
sin x cos 30 – cos x sin 30 = 1 cos x
2
3 sin x - 1 cos x = 1 cos x
2 2 2
3 sin x = cos x
2
sin x 2

cos x 3
tan x = 2
3
x = 49.1°, 229.1°

(d) 2sin(x + 10°) = 4cos(x – 10°)

2(sin x cos10 − cosx sin10)
= 4(cosx cos10° + sinx sin 10°)
2sinxcos10–2cos x sin10=4cos x cos10+4sinxsin10
2sin x cos 10 – 4sin x sin 10
= 4cos x cos 10 + 2cos x sin 10
sin x(2cos 10 – 4sin 10) = cos x(4cos 10 + 2 sin10)
sin x 4cos10  2sin10

cos x 2cos10  4sin10
4cos10  2sin10
tan x 
2cos10  4sin10
x = 73.4°, x = 253.4°

Example VI
If tan(x + 45°) = 2, find the value of tan x
Solution
tan(x + 45°) = 2.
tan x  tan 45
2
1  tan x tan 45
tan x  1
=2
1  tan x
tan x + 1 = 2(1 – tan x)
tan x + 1 = 2 – 2tan x
3tan x = 1
1
tan x =
3

Example VII
1
If tan(A + B) = and tan A = 3, find the value of tan B.
7
1
tan(A + B) =
7

307
 tan A  tan B 1

1  tan A tan B 7
tan A = 3
3  tan B 1

1  3tan B 7
7(3 + tan B) = 1 – 3tan B
21 + 7tan B = 1 – 3tan B
10tan B = -20
tan B = -2

Example VIII
Express the following as single trigonometric ratios.
1
(a) cos x – 3 sin x
2 2
3  tan x
(b)
1  3 tan x
1 1
(c) sin x + cos x
2 2
1
(d)
cos 24cos15  sin 24sin15
1
(e) cos 75 + 3 sin 75
2 2
1  tan15
(f)
1  tan15

Solutions
1
(a) cos x – 3 sin x
2 2
= cos60 cos x – sin 60 sin x
cos(60 + x)
1
 cos x – 3 sin x = cos(60 + x)
2 2
3  tan x
(b)
1  3 tan x
tan 60  tan x
=
1  tan 60 tan x
= tan(60 + x)
1 1
(c) sin x + cos x
2 2
= cos45 sin x + sin45 cos x
= cos(45 – x)

1
(d)
cos 24cos15  sin 24sin15

308
 1

cos(24  15)
1

cos39
= sec 39°

1
(e) cos 75 + 3 sin 75
2 2
cos 60° cos 75° + sin 60° sin 75°
cos 75° cos 60° + sin 75° sin 60°
cos(75° – 60°)
cos 15°

1  tan15 tan 45  tan15

(f) =
1  tan15 1  tan 45 tan15
= tan(45 – 15)
= tan(30)

Example IX
Prove the following identities:
(i) sin(A + B) + sin(A – B) = 2sin A cos B
(ii) cos(A + B) – cos(A – B) = -2sin A sin B
sin( A  B )
(iii) tan A + tan B =
cos A cos B
(iv) tan(A + B + C) = tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C
1  tan B tan C  tan A tan C  tan A tan B

Hence prove that if A, B, and C are angles of a triangle, then tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C

Solution
sin (A + B) + sin(A – B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B + sin A cosB – cosA sinB
= 2sin A cos B
 sin(A + B) + sin(A – B) = 2sin A cos B

(ii) cos(A + B) – cos(A – B)

cos A cos B – sin A sin B – (cos A cos B + sin A sin B)
= -2sin A sin B
 cos(A + B) – cos(A – B) = -2sin A sin B

(iii) tan A + tan B

sin A sin B
= 
cos A cos B
sin A cos B  cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B
sin( A  B )
=
cos A cos B

309
 sin( A  B )
 tan A + tan B =
cos A cos B

(iv) tan(A + B + C)
Let B + C = D
tan A  tan D
tan(A + D) =
1  tan A tan D
tan A  tan( B  C )
=
1  tan A tan( B  C )
tan A  1tan B  tan C
 tan B tan C
=
1  tan A( 1tan B  tan C
 tan B tan C )
tan A tan A tan B tan C  tan B  tan C
1 tan B tan C
= 1 tan B tan C  tan A tan B  tan A tan C
1 tan B tan C
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C

1  tan B tan C  tan A tan C  tan A tan B
Since A, B, and C are angles of a triangle, then
A + B + C = 180°
tan(A + B + C) = tan 180°
tan(A + B + C) = 0
tan A  tan B  tan C  tan A tan B tan C
 0
1  tan B tan C  tan A tan C  tan A tan B
tan A + tan B + tan C – tan A tan B tan C = 0
tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C.

Example (UNEB Question)

Without using tables or calculator, evaluate tan 15°
Solution
tan 15° = tan(45° – 30°)
tan 45  tan 30

1  tan 45 tan 30
1  13
=
1  13
3 1

3 1
( 3  1)(1  3)
=
( 3  1)(1  3)
3  3 1 3
=
1 3
2 34
= 2 3
2

Example (UNEB Question)

310
The acute angles A and B are such that cosA = ½, sin B = 1/3. Show without the use of tables or calculator,
show that
9 3 8 2
tan( A  B ) 
5
Solution
C
C

1 3
2

B
A A B
B 1 A
1 8
tan B  
8 8
2 2 2
 
8 4
3
tan B 
2
From compound angle formula,
tan A  tan B
tan( A  B) 
1  tan A tan B
3  42

1  ( 3  42 )
4 3 2
 4
4 3 2
4

4 3 2 4
 
4 4 6


 4 3 42 3  2 
 4  64  6 
4 3 2  4  6 
4 3  2 4 6

 4  64 4 6 64  6 


16 3  4 18  4 2  12
16 3 4 18  4 2  12
 16  6
16  6
16 3  4  3 2  4 2  2 3
16 3 4  3 2  4 102 2 3

10
18 3  16 2

18 3  16 210

109 3  8 2

9 3 8 2 5

5

311
Double angle & Triple angle formulae
By writing A = B in the additional formulae for sine, cosine, and tangent, we obtain the double angle
formula for each of them.

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A cos B

 sin 2A = sin(A + A)
= sin A cos A + cos A sin A
= 2sin A cos A

sin 2A = 2sin A cos A

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B

cos(A + A) = cos A cos A – sin A sin A.
= cos2A – sin2A
But cos A = 1 – sin2A
2

 cos 2A = 1 – sin2A – sin2A

= 1 – 2sin2A
But when sin2A = 1 – cos2A
cos2A = cos2A – sin2A
= cos2A – (1 – cos2A)
= 2cos2A – 1
cos 2A = 2cos2A – 1 OR
cos 2A = 1 – 2sin2A

tan A  tan B
tan(A + B) = ; where A = B
1  tan A tan B
tan A  tan A
tan(A + A) =
1  tan A tan A
2 tan A
=
1  tan 2 A
2 tan A
tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A

sin 3A = sin(A + 2A)

= sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 2A
= sin A(1 – 2sin2A) + cos A(2sin A cos A)
= sin A – 2sin3A + 2cos2A sinA
= sin A – 2sin3A + 2(1 – sin2A)sin A
= sin A – 2sin3A + 2sin A – 2sin3A
= 3sin A – 4sin3 A
sin 3A = 3sin A – 4sin3A

cos 3A = cos(2A + A)
= cos2A cos A – sin 2A sin A
= (2cos2A – 1)cos A – (2sin A cos A)sin A
= 2cos3A – cos A – 2sin2A cosA
= 2cos3A – cos A – 2(1 – cos2A)cosA
= 2cos3A – cos A – 2cos A + 2cos3A

312
 = 4cos3A – 3cos A
 cos 3A = 4cos3A – 3cos A

tan 3A = tan(A + 2A)

tan A  tan 2 A
=
1  tan A tan 2 A
tan A  12 tan
tan A
2
A
=

1  tan A 1 tan 2 A
2 tan A

tan A  12 tan
tan A
2
A
=
1  tan A  2 tan A
1 tan 2 A 
tan A tan A 2 tan A
3

1 tan 2 A
= 1 tan 2 A 2 tan 2 A
1 tan 2 A
3tan A  tan 3 A
=
1  3tan 2 A
3tan A  tan 3 A
 tan 3 A 
1  3tan 2 A

Example I
Simplify the following expressions
(i) 2sin 17 cos 17
2 tan 30
(ii)
1  tan 2 30
(iii) 2cos242 – 1
(iv) 2sin 12  cos 12 
(v) 1 – 2sin2 22 12 
2 tan 12 
(vi)
1  tan 2 2
(vii) 1 – 2sin23θ
1  tan 2 20
(viii)
tan 20
(ix) sec θ cosec θ
(x) 2sin 2A cos 2A

Solutions
(i) sin 2(17°) = 2sin 17° cos 17°
sin 34° = 2sin 17° cos 17°
 2sin 17 cos 17 = sin 34

tan 30  tan 30

(ii) tan(30° + 30°) =
1  tan 30 tan 30
2 tan 30
tan 60° =
1  tan 2 30

313
 2 tan 30
= tan 60°
1  tan 2 30

(iii) 2cos242° – 1
cos 2θ = 2cos2θ – 1
cos 2(42°) = 2cos242° – 1
cos 84° = 2cos242° – 1
2cos242° – 1 = cos 84°

(iv) 2sin 12 𝛉 cos 12 𝛉

sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ
sin 2 ( 12  ) = 2sin 12  cos 12 
sin θ = 2sin 12  cos 12 
 sin θ = 2sin 12  cos 12 
2sin 12  cos 12  = sin θ

(v) 1 – 2sin222½°
cos 2A = 1 – 2sin2A
cos 2(22½) = 1 – 2sin222½
cos 45 = 1 – 2sin2 22½
1 – 2sin2 22½ = cos 45

2 tan 12  tan 12   tan 12 

(vi) 
1  2 tan 2 12  1  tan 12  tan 12 
= tan ( 12   12  )
= tan θ

(vii) 1 – 2sin2θ
cos2(3θ) = 1 – 2sin2 3θ
cos 6θ = 1 – 2sin23θ
1 – 2sin23θ = cos 6θ

1  tan 2 20
(viii)
tan 20
tan 40 = tan(20 + 20)
2 tan 20

1  tan 2 20
1 1  tan 2 20

tan 40 2 tan 20
2 1  tan 2 20

tan 40 tan 20
1  tan 2 20
2cot 40 
tan 20
1  tan 20
2
 2cot 40
tan 20

314
 1 1
(ix) sec cosec  
cos  sin 
1

cos  sin 
But sin 2θ = 2sinθ cosθ
1
sin 2θ = sin θ cos θ
2
1
sec cosec  1
2 sin 2

2
sec cosec 
sin 2
sec cosec  2cosec 2

(x) 2sin 2A cos 2A

sin 4A = sin2(2A)
= 2sin 2A cos2A
 2sin 2A cos 2A = sin 4A

Example II
Evaluate the following without using tables or calculator:
(a) 2sin 15° cos 15°
(b) 2cos275° – 1
(c) cos2 22½° - sin2 22 ½°
1  2cos 2 25
(d)
1  2sin 2 65
2 tan 22 12
(e)
1  tan 2 22 12
(f) 1  2sin 2 67 12

Solution
(a) 2sin 15° cos 15° = sin 2(15°)
= sin 30°
1
=
2

(b) 2cos275° – 1 = cos 150°

= -cos 30°
 3
=
2

(c) cos2 22½° - sin2 22 ½°

= cos(22 12 ° + 22 12 )
= cos 45
2
=
2

315
 1  2cos 2 25 1(2cos 2 25  1)
(d) 
1  2sin 2 65 1  2sin 2 65
1(cos50)

cos130
1(cos50)
 1
 cos50
2 tan 22 12
 tan(22 12   22 12 )
(e) 1  tan 2 22 12
tan 45  1
2 tan 22 12
 tan 45  1
1  tan 2 22 12

(f) 1  2sin 2 67 12 = cos 135°

= -cos 45°
 2
=
2

Example III
Solve the following equations from 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360°
(a) cos 2θ + cos θ + 1 = 0
(b) sin 2θ cos 𝛉 + sin2𝛉 = 1
(c) 2sin θ(5cos 2θ + 1) = 3 sin 2θ
(d) 3cot 2θ + cot θ = 1
(e) 4tan θ tan 2θ = 1

Solution
(a) cos 2θ + cos θ + 1 = 0
2cos 2   1  cos   1  0
2cos 2   cos   0
cos  (2cos   1)  0
1
cos   0, cos  
2
For cos  0,   90, 270
1
For cos   ,  = 120°, 240°
2
 The solutions to the equation
cos 2θ + cos θ + 1 = 0 are 90°, 120°, 240° and 270°.

(b) sin 2θ cos 𝛉 + sin2𝛉 = 1

(2sin  cos  ) cos   sin 2   1
2cos 2  sin   sin 2   1
2(1  sin 2  )sin   sin 2   1
2sin   2sin 3   sin 2   1

316
 2sin 3   sin 2   2sin   1  0
sin   1, sin   1
1
sin  
2
For sin   1 , θ = 90°
For sin   1 , θ = 270°
1
For sin   , θ = 30°, 150°
2
 30°, 90°, 150°, 270° are the solutions to the equation sin 2θ cos 𝛉 + sin2𝛉 = 1

(c) 2sin θ(5cos 2θ + 1) = 3 sin 2θ

2sin  [5(2cos 2   1)  1]  3  2sin  cos 
2sin  (10cos 2   5  1)  6sin  cos 
20cos 2  sin   8sin   6sin  cos 
20cos 2  sin   8sin   6sin  cos   0
2sin  [10cos 2   3cos  4]  0
1
sin   0, cos  0.8, cos 
2
For sin 𝜃 = 0, 𝜃 = 0°, 180°, 360°
1
For cos 𝜃 = , 𝜃 = 120°, 240°
2
For cos 𝜃 = 0.8, 𝜃 = 36.9°, 323.1°

 0, 36.9, 120, 180, 240, 323.1, 360 are the solutions to the equation
2sin θ(5cos 2θ + 1) = 3 sin 2θ

(d) 3cot 2θ + cot θ = 1

3 1
 1
tan 2 tan 
2 tan 
tan 2 
1  tan 2 
 1  tan 2   1
 3  1
 2 tan   tan 
3  3tan 2   2  2 tan 
3tan 2   2 tan   5  0
5
tan   1, tan  
3
For tanθ = 1, θ = 45°, 225°
5
For tanθ = , θ = 121°, 301°.
3

(e) 4tan θ tan 2θ = 1

317
  2 tan  
4 tan    1
 1  tan  
2

8 tan 2 
1
1  tan 2 
8 tan 2   1  tan 2 
9 tan 2   1
1
tan   
3
1
When tan   , θ = 18.4°, 198.4°
3
1
When tan   , θ = 161.6°, 341.6°
3

t-formula
If t = tan 2x ,
2t 1 t2
sin x  , cos x 
1 t2 1 t2
And if t = tan x
2t 1 t2
sin 2 x  , cos 2 x 
1 t2 1 t2

Proof
If t = tan 2x ,
sin x  sin  2x  2x 
 sin 2x cos 2x  cos 2x sin 2x
 2sin 2x cos 2x
2sin 2x cos 2x
sin x 
1
2sin 2x cos 2x
sin x 
sin 2 2x  cos 2 2x
Dividing through by cos 2 x
2

2sin 2x cos 2x
cos2 2x
2x
sin x  sin 2 cos 2 x
cos2 2x
 cos2 2x
2
x
2 tan
sin x  2

tan 2 2x  1
2t

1 t2

318
 2t
sin x 
1 t2
cos x  cos( 2x  2x )
 cos 2 2x  sin 2 x
2

cos 2 2x  sin 2 x
 cos x  2

1
cos 2  sin 2
2 x 2 x
cos x 
sin 2 2x  cos 2 2x
Dividing through by cos 2 x
2

cos2 2x sin 2 x
cos2 2x
 cos2 2x
cos x  2
sin 2 2x 2
cos 2x
cos2 2x
 cos2 2x
1  tan 2 2x
cos x 
tan 2 2x  1
1 t2
cos x 
1 t2

For t = tan x
2sin x cos x
sin 2 x 
1
2sin x cos x

sin 2 x  cos 2 x
Dividing through by cos2 x
2sin x cos x
sin 2 x  cos 2 x
sin 2 x
cos 2 x
 cos 2 x
cos 2 x

2 tan x
sin 2 x 
tan 2 x  1
2t
sin 2 x 
1 t2

cos 2 x  2cos2 x  1
2
 1
sec 2 x
2  sec 2 x

sec 2 x
2  (1  tan 2 x)

sec 2 x

319
 1  tan 2 x
cos 2 x 
1  tan 2 x
1 t2
cos 2 x 
1 t2
Note: The t-formula is used to solve equations of the form a cos  b sin   c

Example I
Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360°
(a) 2cos  3sin   2  0
(b) 3cos  4sin   1  0
(c) 3cos  4sin   2
(d) 4cos sin   15cos 2  10

Solution
(a) 2cos  3sin   2
1 t2 2t
cos  , sin   , for t  tan 2
1 t 2
1 t2
 1  t 2   2t 
2 2 
 3 2 
2
1 t  1 t 
2(1 – t2) + 3(2t) = 2(1 + t2)
2 – 2t2 + 6t = 2 + 2t2
4t2 – 6t = 0
2t(2t – 3) = 0
t=0
3
 tan 2 = 0 and tan 2 
2

For tan 2  0 ,  tan 1 (0)
2

= 0°, 180°, …
2
θ = 0, 360.
3 
For tan 2  , = 56.3°
2 2
θ = 112.6°
 0°, 112.6°, and 360° are solutions to the equation 2cos  3sin   2  0

(b) 3cos  4sin   1  0

 1  t 2   2t 
3 2 
 4 2 
1  0
1 t  1 t 
3 – 3t2 – 8t + 1 + t2 = 0
-2t2 – 8t + 4 = 0
t2 + 4t – 2 = 0

320
 4  (4) 2  4  1  (2)
t
2 1
4  16  8
t
2
t  2  6
tan 2  2  6
tan 2  2  6
For t = 2  6 , tan 2  2  6

= 102.7, 282.7
2
θ = 205.4°
When t = tan 2  2  6

= tan-1(-2 + 6 )
2

= 24.2°
2
θ = 48.4°
 θ = 48.4° and 205.4° are the solutions to the equation

(c) 3cos  4sin   2

 1  t 2   2t 
3 2 
 4 2 
2
1 t  1 t 
3 – 3t2 + 8t = 2(1 + t2)
3 – 3t2 + 8t = 2 + 2t2
5t2 – 8t – 1 = 0
8  ( 8) 2  4  5  (1)
t
25
8  64  20
t
10
8  84
t
10
t = -0.11652
t = 1.71652

For t = -0.11652, tan 2 = -0.11652


= 173.4  θ = 346.7°
2

tan = 1.71652
2

= 59.8°  θ = 119.6°
2
 119.6° and 346.7° are solutions to the above equation.

321
(d) 4cos θ sin θ + 15 cos2θ = 10
2 × 2sinθ cos θ + 15cos 2θ = 10
2sin 2θ + 15cos 2θ = 10
2sin 2θ + 15cos 2θ = 0
Let t = tan θ
2t 1 t2
sin   and cos  
1 t2 1 t2
 2t  1 t2 
2 2 
 15  2 
 10
1 t  1 t 
4t + 15 – 15t2 = 10 + 10t2
25t2 – 4t – 5 = 0
4  (4) 2  4  25  (5)
t
2  25
t = 0.5343
t = -0.3743

For t = 0.5343
tan θ = 0.5343
θ = 28.1°
θ = 208.1°
For t = -0.3743, tan θ = -0.3743
θ = tan-1(0.3743)
θ = 159.5°, 200.5°
 28.1°, 208.1°, 159.5° and 200.5° are the solutions to the above equation

The R- Formula
The R-formula is used to solve equations of the form a cos  b sin   c.
Rcos(θ ± α) = c
Rsin(θ ± α) = c
Where R = a 2  b 2 and   tan 1  ba 
Example I
Solve the equation 3cosθ + 4sinθ = 2 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360°
Solution
R cos(   )  2
R (cos  cos   sin  sin  )  2
R cos  cos   R sin  sin   2
By comparison
R cos  cos   3cos 
R sin  sin   4sin 
 R cos   3 ……………………….. (i)
R sin   4 ……………………….. (ii)

Eqn (ii) ÷ Eqn (1);

322
 4
 tan  
3
4
  tan 1  
 3
  53.1
R 2 cos 2   R 2 sin 2   32  42
R 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  25
R5
R cos(   )  2
5cos(  53.1)  2
2
  53.1  cos 1  
 5
θ – 53.1° = 66.4°, 293.6°
θ – 119.5°, 346.7°

Alternatively
3cos θ + 4sin θ = 2
Rcos(θ – α) = 2
R  a 2  b2
 (3) 2  42
5
b
  tan 1  
 
a
4
  tan 1  
3
α = 53.1
5cos(θ – 53.1) = 2
2
cos(θ – 53.1°) =
5
θ – 53.1° = 66.4°, 293.6°
θ = 119.5°, 346.7°

Example II
sin θ + 3 cosθ = 1 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360
Solution
R sin(   )  1
R  (1)2  ( 3)2  2
 3
  tan 1    60
 1 
R sin(θ + α) = 1
2sin(θ + 60°) = 1
1
sin(θ + 60°) =
2

323
 θ + 60° = sin(½)
θ + 60° = 30, 150°
θ = -30, 90°
 θ = 90°, and 330°.

Example III
cos θ – 7sin θ = 2 for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 360°
Solution
cos θ – 7sin θ = 2
R cos(   )  2
R  12  (7) 2  50
7
  tan 1      81.9
 
1
50 cos(  81.9)  2
2
cos(  81.9) 
50
θ + 81. 9° = 73.6°, 286.4°
θ = -8.3°, 204.5°
 θ = 204.5°, 351.7°

Example IV
Solve: 5sinθ – 12cosθ = 6
Solution
Rsin(θ – α) = 6
R  52  12 2  13
 12 
  tan 1  
 5
  67.4
13sin(θ – 67.4) = 6
6
sin(θ – 67.4) =
13
θ – 67.4° = 27.5°, 152.5°
θ = 94.9°, 219.9°

Example V
Solve cosθ + sinθ = secθ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360°
Solution
1
cos  sin  
cos
cos   sin  cos  1..............................(i)
2

But cos 2θ = 2cos2θ – 1

1
 cos 2   (1  cos 2 )
2
Subsituting for cos2θ and sin θ cos θ in Eqn (i);
sin 2θ = 2sinθ cosθ

324
 1
sinθ cos θ = sin2θ
2
1 1
(1  cos 2 )  sin 2  1
2 2
1 1 1
cos 2  sin 2 
2 2 2
cos 2θ + sin 2θ = 1
Rcos(2θ – α) = 1
R  12  12  2
1
  tan 1    45
1
2 cos(2  45)  1
1
cos(2  45) 
2
 1 
2  45  cos 1  
 2
2  45  45, 315, 405
θ = 45°, 180°, 225°

Example VI
Solve the equation 4cosθ sinθ + 15cos 2θ = 10
Solution
4cosθ sinθ + 15cos 2θ = 10
2(2sinθ cosθ) + 15cos2θ = 10
2sin2θ +15cos2θ = 10
R sin(2θ + α) = 10
R  22  152
 229
229 sin(2θ + α) = 10
 15 
  tan 1    82.4
2
229 sin(2θ + 82.4°) = 10
10
sin(2θ + 82.4°) =
229
 10 
2θ + 82.4° = sin 1  
 229 
2θ + 82.4° = 41.4°, 138.6°, 401.4°, 498.4°
θ = 339.5°, 28.1°, 159.5°, 208°

Example VII
Show that 3cosθ + 2sinθ can be written as 13 cos(θ – α). Hence find the minimum and maximum values
of the function, giving the corresponding values of θ from -180° to 180°
Solution
3cosθ + 2sinθ

325
 Rcos(θ – α)
R  a2  b2
R  32  2 2  13
2
  tan 1    33.7
  3
 3cosθ + 2sinθ = R cos(θ – α)
 13 cos(  33.7)
Let y  13 cos(  33.7)
For the maximum value of y, cos(  33.7)  1
 ymax  13
And for minimum value of y, cos(  33.7) = -1
 ymin   13
For ymax cos(θ – 33.7°) = 1,
 θ – 33.7° = cos-1(1)
θ – 33.7° = 0, 360°.
θ = 33.7°
For ymin cos(θ – 33.7°) = -1,
θ – 33.7° = 180°.
θ = 213.7°

Example VII
Find the maximum and minimum values of the following expressions, stating the value of θ for which
they occur (from 0° to 360°)
(g) 8cosθ – 15sinθ
(h) 4sinθ – 3cosθ
(i) sinθ – 6cosθ
(j) cos(θ + 60) – cosθ

Solution
(a) 8cosθ – 15sinθ
R cos(θ – α)
R  82  152  17
 15 
  tan 1    61.9
8
17cos(θ – 61.9°)
Let y = 17cos(θ – 61.9°)
For ymax, cos(θ – 61.9°) = 1
 ymax = 17
θ – 61.9° = cos-1(1)
θ – 61.9° = 0, 360°
θ = 61.9°

For ymin, cos(θ – 61.9) = -1

 ymin = -17
θ – 61.9° = cos-1(-1)
θ – 61.9° = 180°

326
 θ = 241.9°

(b) 4sinθ – 3cosθ

R  42  32  5
R sin(θ – α)
5 sin(θ – α)
3
  tan 1    36.9
4
5 sin(θ – 36.9°)
Let y = 5 sin(θ – 36.9°)
ymin = -5
ymax = 5
For ymin, sin(θ – 36.9°) = -1
θ – 36.9° = 270°
θ = 306.9°
For ymax, sin(θ – 36.9°) = 1
θ – 36.9° = 90°
θ = 126.9°

(c) sinθ – 6cosθ

R  12  (6) 2  37
37 sin(θ – α)
6
  tan 1    80.5
1
y = 37 sin(θ – 80.1)
ymax = 37 and it occurs when sin(θ – 80.1) = 1
θ – 80.1° = 90°
θ = 170.5°
ymin =  37 and it occurs when
sin(θ – 80.1) = -1
θ – 80.1° = 270°
θ = 350.5°

(d) cos(θ + 60) – cosθ

= cosθ cos 60 – sinθ sin60 – cosθ
= 1 cosθ - sinθ 3 − cosθ
2 2
1 3
= cos  sin 
2 2
1 3 
y =   cos  sin  
2 2 
y =   R cos(   )
2 2
1  3
R       1
 2  2

327
 y =   cos(   )
  tan 1  3   60
y = -[cos(θ – 60)]
ymin occurs when cos(θ – 60) = 1
θ – 60° = 0, 360
θ = 60°
ymax = 1 and occurs when cos(θ - 60°) = -1
θ – 60° = cos-1(-1)
θ = 240°

Example VIII (UNEB Question)

Solve cos  3 sin  2 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
Solution
cos  3 sin  2
R cos(θ – α) = 2
R  12  ( 3)2  2
2 cos(θ – α) = 2
 
  tan 1 13  60
2 cos(θ – 60°) = 2
cos(θ – 60°) = 1
θ – 60° = cos-1(1)
θ – 60° = 0
θ = 60°


3
60 
Since 180 = π radians,    
180 3

Example IX (UNEB Question)

(a) Express 4cosθ – 5sinθ in the form R cos (θ + β), where R is a constant and β an acute angle.
Determine the maximum value of the expression and the value of θ for which it occurs
(b) Solve the equation 4 cos θ – 5 sin θ = 2.2,
for 00 < θ <3600.
Solution
4cosθ – 5sinθ
Rcos(θ + β)
β = tan 1  54   51.3
R  42  52  41
41 cos(θ + 51.3°)
Let y = 41 cos(θ + 51.3°)
ymax = 41 and it occurs when cos(θ + 51.3°) = 1
θ + 51.3° = 0
θ = -51.3°

328
  θ = 308.7° (00 < θ <3600)
4cosθ – 5sinθ = 2.2
 41 cos(θ + 51.3°) = 2.2
cos(θ + 51.3°) = 2.2
41
θ + 51.3° = 69.9°, 290.1°
θ = 18.6°, 238.8°

Example XI (UNEB Question)

Express y = 8cosx + 6sin x in the form R cos (x –  ) where R is positive and  is acute . Hence find the
1
maximum and minimum values of
8 cos x  6 sin x  15
Solution
8cosx + 6sin x = Rcos(x – α)
8cosx + 6sin x = R cos x cos α + R sin x sin α

By comparison
Rcos α = 8 …............………………… (i)
Rsin α = 6……………............……….(ii)

Eqn (i)2 + Eqn (ii)2;

R2 = 82 + 62 = 100
R = 10
Eqn (ii)  Eqn (i)
6
tan  
8
  36.87 0
Hence 8cosx + 6sinx = 10cos(x − 36.870)
1 1
Now 
8 cos x  6 sin x  5 10 cos  x  36.87   15
Note: For y to be maximum, the denominator must be minimum and for y to be minimum, the denominator
must be maximum.
1
Let m 
10 cos  x  36.87   15
1
M max 
10   1  15
1 1
   0.2
10  15 5
1
M min 
10  1  15
1
  0.04
25
1
The maximum and minimum values of are 0.2 and 0.04 respectively.
8 cos x   sin x  15 

329
 Factor Formula
1. sin P + sin Q = 2sin( P 2Q ) cos( P 2Q )
2. sin P − sin Q = 2cos( P 2Q )sin( P 2Q )
3. cos P + cos Q = 2cos( P 2Q ) cos( P 2Q )
4. cos P – cos Q = - 2sin( P2Q )sin( P2Q )

Application of the factor formula

Example 1
Express the following in factors:
(a) sin 7θ + sin 5θ
(b) sin 4x – sin 2x
(c) cos 7x + cos 5x
(d) cos 3A – cos 5A
(e) sin(x + 30) + sin(x – 30)
(f) cos(x + 30) – cos(x – 30)
(g) cos 32 x – cos 2x
1
(h) + cos 2θ
2
(i) 1 + sin 2x
(j) Sin 2(x + 40) + sin 2(x – 40)
Solution
(a) sin 7θ + sin 5θ
From sin P + sin Q = 2sin ( P 2 Q )cos ( P 2 Q )
sin 7θ + sin 5θ = 2sin ( 7 2 5 )cos 7 2 5
= 2 sin 6θ cos θ
(b) sin 4x – sin 2x
From sin P – sin Q = 2cos P 2 Q sin P 2 Q
sin 4x – sin 2x = 2cos 4 x 2 2 x sin 4 x 2 2 x
sin 4x – sin 2x = 2cos 3x sin x
(c) cos 7x + cos 5x
From cos P + cos Q = 2cos ( P 2 Q ) cos ( P 2Q )
 Cos 7x + cos 5x = 2cos ( 7 x 2 5 x ) cos ( 7 x 25 x )
= 2cos 6x cos x
(d) cos 3A – cos 5A
From cos P – cos Q = -2sin P 2 Q sin P 2 Q
cos 3A – cos 5A = -2 sin ( 3 A25 A ) sin ( 3 A25 A )
= -2 sin 4A sin (−A)
= 2 sin 4A sin A
(e) sin(x + 30) + sin(x – 30)
= -2sin ( ( x  30) 2 ( x 30) ) cos ( ( x  30) 2 ( x 30) )
= -2 sin x cos 30
(f) cos(x + 30) – cos(x – 30)

330
= 2sin ( ( x  30) 2 ( x 30) ) sin ( ( x  30) 2 ( x 30) )
= 2sinx sin30
 3x  x   3x  x 
(g) cos ( 32x ) - cos 2x = −2sin  2 2  sin  2 2 
 2   2 
x
= 2sin x sin 2
1
(h) + cos 2θ
2
cos 60 + cos 2θ
= 2cos 6022 cos 6022
= 2cos(30 + θ) cos(30 – θ)
(i) 1 + sin 2x
sin 90 + sin 2x
2sin 9022 x cos 9022 x
= 2sin(45 + x)cos(45 – x)
(j) sin2(x + 40) + sin2(x – 40)
= 2sin 2( x  40) 2 2( x  40) cos 2( x  40) 2 2( x  40)
= 2sin 2x cos 80

Example II
Solve the following equations from x = 0° to 360° inclusive.
(a) cos x + cos 5x = 0
(b) sin 3x – sin x = 0
(c) sin (x + 10) + sin x = 0
(d) cos(2x + 10) + cos(2x – 10) = 0
(e) cos(x + 20) – cos(x – 70) = 0

Solution
(a) cos x + cos 5x = 0
2cos x 25 x cos x 25 x = 0
2cos 3x cos−2x = 0
2cos 3x cos 2x = 0
cos 3x cos 2x = 0
 cos 2x = 0 OR
cos 3x = 0
For cos 2x = 0;
2x = cos−1(0)
2x = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°, 810°
 x = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°.
For cos 3x = 0;
3x = cos−1(0)
3x = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°, 810°, 990°, 1170°
x = 30°, 90°, 150°, 210°, 270°, 330°.
∴ The solutions to the equation cosx + cos 5x = 0 are 30°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 150°, 210°, 225°, 270°,
315°, 330°.

(b) sin 3x – sin x = 0

2cos 3 x2 x sin 3 x2 x = 0

331
 2cos2x sin x = 0
cos2x sin x = 0
 2x = cos−1(0)
2x = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°, 810°, 990°
 x = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°
And for sin x = 0;
x = sin−1(0)
x = 0, 180°, 360°
 The solutions to the equation sin 3x – sin x = 0 are 0, 45, 135, 180, 225, 315, 360.
(c) sin(x + 10) + sin x = 0
2sin ( x 102 x ) cos ( x 102 x ) = 0
2sin(x + 5) (cos 5) = 0
sin (x + 5) = 0
x + 5 = sin−10)
x + 5 = 0, 180°, 360°
x = 355°, 175°.
 x = 175°, 335° are solutions to the equation
sin(x + 10) + sin x = 0

(d) cos(2x + 10) + cos(2x – 10) = 0

2cos( (2 x10) 2(2 x 10) )cos( (2 x 10) 2(2 x 10) )
2cos 2x cos 10 = 0
cos 2x = 0
2x = cos−1(0)
2x = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°.
x = 45°, 135°, 225°, 315°
 The solutions to the equation cos(2x + 20) + cos(2x – 10) = 0 are x = 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°

(f) cos(x + 20) – cos(x – 70) = 0

−2sin ( x  20) 2 ( x  70) sin ( x  20) 2 ( x  70) = 0
−2sin(x – 25)sin 45 = 0
sin(x – 25) = 0
x – 25 = sin−1(0)
x – 25 = 0, 180°, 360°
x = 25, 205°, 385°

Example II
Prove the following identities:
cos B  cos C
(a)  cot B 2C
sin B  sin C
cos B  cos C
(b)   tan B 2C
sin B  sin C
sin B  sin C
(c)  cot B 2 C tan B 2C
sin B  sin C
sin B  sin C
(d)  tan B 2C
cos B  cos C
Solution

332
 cos B  cos C
(a)
sin B  sin C
2cos( B 2C ) cos( B 2C ) )

2cos( B 2C )sin( B 2C ) )
cos B 2C

sin B 2C
 cot( B 2C )
cos B  cos C
(b)
sin B  sin C
2sin B 2C sin B 2C

2sin B 2C cos B 2C
 sin B 2C

cos B 2C
  tan( B 2C )
cos B  cos C
   tan( B 2C )
sin B  sin C
sin B  sin C
(c)
sin B  sin C
sin B  sin C 2cos( B 2C )sin( B 2C )

sin B  sin C 2sin( B 2C ) cos( B 2C )
cos( B 2C ) sin( B 2C )
 
sin( B 2C ) cos( B 2C )
 cot( B 2C ) tan( B 2C )
sin B  sin C
(d)
cos B  cos C
2sin B 2C cos B 2C

2cos B 2C cos B 2C
 tan B 2C
sin B  sin C
  tan B 2C
cos B  cos C

Example IV
Prove the following
(a) sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin 2x(2cosx + 1)
(b) cos x + sin 2x – cos 3x = sin 2x(2sinx + 1)
(c) cosθ – 2cos 3θ + cos 5θ = 2sinθ (sin 2θ – sin 4θ)
(d) sin x – sin(x + 60) + sin(x + 120) = 0
(e) 1 + 2cos 2θ + cos 4θ = 4cos2θ cos 2θ

Solutions
(a) sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x
= sin x + sin 3x + sin 2x
= 2sin x 23 x cos x 23 x + sin 2x

333
 = 2sin 2x cos(−x) + sin 2x
= 2sin 2x cos x + sin 2x
= sin 2x(2cos x + 1)
 sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin 2x(2cos x + 1)

(b) cos x + sin 2x – cos 3x

= cos x – cos 3x + sin 2x
= −2sin x 23 x sin x 23 x + sin 2x
= −2sin 2x sin(-x) + sin 2x
= 2sin 2x sin x + sin 2x
= sin 2x[2sin x + 1]
 cos x + sin 2x – cos 3x = sin 2x[2sin x + 1]

(c) cosθ − 2cos 3θ + cos 5θ

= cos θ − cos3θ + cos 5θ − cos 3θ
= −2sin 2θ sin(-θ) + −2sin 4θ sin θ
= 2sin 2θ sin θ – 2sin 4θ sinθ
= 2sin θ (sin 2θ – sin4θ)
 cosθ − 2cos 3θ + cos 5θ = 2sin θ (sin 2θ – sin4θ)

(d) sin x – sin(x + 60) + sin(x + 120)

= sin x + sin(x + 120) – sin(x + 60)
= 2sin(x + 60)cos -60 – sin(x + 60)
= sin(x + 60) – sin(x + 60)
=0
 sin x – sin(x + 60) + sin(x + 120) = 0

(e) 1 + 2cos 2θ + cos 4θ

Since cos 4θ = cos22θ − 1,
 1 + 2cos 2θ + 2cos22θ – 1
= 2cos 2θ + 2cos22θ
= 2cos2θ [1 + cos 2θ]
= 2cos 2θ [1 + 2cos2θ – 1]
= 4 cos2θ cos 2θ
 1 + 2cos 2θ + cos 4θ = 4 cos2θ cos 2θ

Example V
Solve the following equations for values of θ from 0° to 180° inclusive
(a) cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ = 0
(b) sin θ − 2sin 2θ + sin 3θ = 0
(c) sin θ + cos 2θ − sin 3θ = 0
(d) sin 2θ + sin 4θ + sin 6θ = 0
(e) cos 12 θ + 2cos 32 θ + cos 52 θ = 0
Solution
(a) cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ = 0
cos θ + cos 5θ + cos 3θ = 0
2cos3 θ cos−2 θ + cos3θ = 0
cos 3 θ(2cos2 θ + 1] = 0

334
 Either cos 3θ = 0 OR
1
cos 2θ = −
2
For cos 3θ = 0;
3θ = cos−1(0)
3θ = 90°, 270°, 450°, 630°, 810°, 990°
θ = 30°, 90°, 150°, 210°, 270, 330°
 θ = 30°, 90°, 150° (for 0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°)
1
For cos 2θ = − ;
2
2θ = cos−1( 21 )
2θ = 120°, 240°.
θ = 60°, 120°
 30°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 150° are the solutions to the equation cos 3θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ = 0

(b) sin θ − 2sin 2θ + sin 3θ = 0

sin θ + sin 3θ – 2sin 2θ = 0
2sin 2θ cos(-θ) – 2sin 2θ = 0
2sin 2θ cos θ – 2sin 2θ = 0
2sin 2θ (cos θ – 1) = 0

Either sin 2θ = 0 OR cos θ = 1

For sin 2θ = 0;
2θ = sin−10
2θ = 0°, 180°, 360°
 θ = 0°, 90°, 180°

(c) sin θ + cos 2θ − sin 3θ = 0

sin θ – sin 3θ + cos 2θ = 0
2cos 2θ sin -θ + cos 2θ = 0
cos 2θ(-2sin θ + 1) = 0
1
cos 2θ = 0 OR sinθ =
2
For cos 2θ = 0
2θ = cos-10
2θ = 90°, 270°, 450°
= 45°, 135°
1
For sin θ = ;
2
θ = sin-1( 12 )
θ = 30°, 150°
 30°, 45°, 135°, 150° are the solutions to the equation sin θ + cos 2θ − sin 3θ = 0

(d) sin 2θ + sin 4θ + sin 6θ = 0

(sin 2θ + sin 6θ) + sin 4θ = 0
2sin 4θ cos -2θ + sin 4θ = 0
2sin 4θ cos 2θ + sin 4θ = 0
sin 4θ (2cos 2θ + 1) = 0

335
 For sin 4θ = 0;
4θ = sin-10
4θ = 0, 180, 360, 540, 720
= 0, 45, 90, 135, 180

For 2cos 2θ + 1 = 0
1
cos 2 θ = 
2
2θ = 120°, 240°
θ = 60°, 120°
 0°, 45°, 60°, 90°, 120°, 135°, 180° are the solutions to the equation sin 2θ + sin 4θ + sin 6θ = 0
(e) cos 12 θ + 2cos 32 θ + cos 52 θ = 0
cos 12 θ + cos 5
2
θ + 2cos 3
2
θ =0
2cos 62 cos(-θ) + 2cos 3
2
=0
2cos 32 (cos θ + 1) = 0
cos 32 = 0
3
= cos-1(0)
2
3
= 90, 270, 450
2
θ = 60, 180

For (cosθ + 1) = 0;
cos θ = −1
θ = cos-1(−1)
θ = 180
 60, 180 are the solutions to the equation
cos 12 θ + 2cos 32 θ + cos 52 θ = 0

Example V
Prove the following identities if A, B and C are taken to be angles of a triangle.
(a) sin A + sin(B – C) = 2sin B cos C
(b) cos A – cos (B – C) = -2cos B cos C
(c) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4cos A2 cos B2 cos C2
(d) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4sin A sin B sin C
(e) cos A + cos B + cos C – 1
= 4sin A2 sin B2 sin C2

Solutions
Sin A + sin(B – C)
= 2sin A B2 C cos A ( B2 C )
= 2sin A B2 C cos AC2  B
But A + B + C = 180
A + B + C – 2C = 180 – 2C

336
 A + B – C = 180 – 2C
A B C
= 90 – C
2
 sin A B2 C = sin(90 – C)
= sin 90 cos C – cos 90 sin C
= cos C
A + B + C = 180
A + C + B – 2B = 180 – 2B
A + C – B = 180 – 2B
cos AC2  B = cos 18022 B
cos AC2  B = cos(90 – B)
= cos 90 cos B + sin90 sin B
= sin B
 sin A + sin(B – C) = 2sin B cos C

(c) sin A + sin B + sin C

= sin A2 B cos A2 B + sin C
= 2sin A2 B cos A2 B + 2sin C2 cos C2
But A + B + C = 180
C = 180 – (A + B)
C
= sin (90 - A2 B )
2
sin C2 = sin 90 cos A2 B - cos 90 sin A2 B
= cos A2 B
C A B
cos 2
= cos(90 - 2
)
A B
cos C
2
= cos 90 cos 2
+ sin 90 sin A2 B
= sin A2 B
A B
 2cos C2 cos 2
+ 2cos A2 B cos C2
= 2cos C2 cos A2 B +2cos A2 B cos C2
= 2cos C2 cos A2 B  cos A2 B 
= 2cos C2 [2cos A2 cos B2 ]
= 4cos A2 cos B2 cos C2 .
sin A + sin B + sin C = 4cos A2 cos B2 cos C2 .

(d) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C.

= 2sin(A + B) cos(A – B) + 2sin C cos C
But A + B + C = 180
C = 180 – (A + B)
 sin C = sin[180 – (A + B)]
sin C = sin 180 cos (A + B) – cos 180 sin(A + B)
sin C = sin(A + B)
cos C = cos(180 – (A+B))
cos C = cos 180 cos(A + B) + sin 180 sin(A + B)
= −cos(A + B)

337
  2sin(A + B)cos(A – B) + 2sin C cos C
= 2sin C cos (A – B) + 2sin C(-cos(A+B))
= 2sin C[cos(A – B) – cos(A + B)]
= 2sin C[-2sin A sin –B]
= 4sinA sin B sin C
 sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4sin A sin B sin C

(e) cos A + cos B + cos C − 1

cos C = 2cos2 C2 - 1
cos C = 1 – 2sin2 C2
 2sin2 C2 = 1 – cos C
cos A + cos B + cos C – 1 = cos A + cos B – 2sin2 C2
= 2cos A2 B cos A2 B − 2sin2 C2
A + B + C = 180
A B
C
2
= 90 – 2
A B
sin C2 = sin (90 – 2
)
sin C2 = sin 90 cos A2 B - cos 90 sin A2 B
A B
 sin C2 = cos 2
A B
 2cos 2
cos A2 B - 2sin C2 sin C2
= 2cos A2 B cos A2 B - 2sin C2 cos A2 B
A B
= 2sin C2 cos 2
- 2 sin C2 cos A2 B
= 2sin C2 [cos A2 B - cos A2 B ]
= 2sin C2 [-2sin A2 sin 2B ]
= 2sin C2 [2sin A2 sin B2 ]
= 4sin A2 sin B2 sin C2
 cos A + cos B + cos C – 1 = 4sin A2 sin B2 sin C2

Example VI (UNEB 2007)

sin   2sin 2  sin 3 
Show that   tan 2
sin   2sin 2  sin 3 2
Solution
sin   2sin 2  sin 3
sin   2sin 2  sin 3
Sin3  sin   2sin 2

sin 3  sin   2sin 2
 3     3   
2sin   cos    2sin 2 2sin 2 cos   2sin 2
  2   2  
 3     3    2sin 2 cos   2sin 2
2sin   cos    2sin 2
 2   2 

2sin 2  cos   1

2sin 2  cos   1

338
 cos   1 (1  cos  )
 
cos  1 1  cos 
But cos   1  2sin 2 2
cos   2sin 2 2  1

(1  cos  ) (1  (1  2sin 2 ))

2
 
1  cos  1  2sin 2 2

2sin 2 2

2 cos 2 2

  tan 2 2

Example VII (UNEB Question)

sin 3 sin 6  sin  sin 2
Show that  tan 5 .
sin 3 cos 6  sin  cos 2
Solution
sin 6 sin 3  sin 2 sin 

cos 6 sin 3  cos 2 sin 
cos A  cos B   sin A2 B sin A2 B
1
 cos A  cos B 
sin A2 B sin A2 B 
2
1
sin 6 sin 3   cos A  cos B 
2
A B
 6
2
A + B = 6θ …………………….. (i)
A B
 3
2
A – B = 6θ ……………………… (ii)
Solving Eqn (i) and Eqn (ii) simultaneously;
A = 9θ, B = 3𝜃
1
sin 6 sin 3   cos9  cos3 
2

sin 3 sin 6  sin  sin 2


sin 3 cos 6  sin  cos 2
1
(cos9  cos3 )  21 (cos3  cos  )
 2
1
2 (sin 9  sin 3 )  12 (sin 3  sin  )
1
(cos  cos9 )
 2
1
2 (sin 9  sin  )
2sin 5 sin( 4 )
2cos5 sin 4

339
 2sin 5 sin(4 )
  tan 5
2cos5 sin 4

Example VIII (UNEB Question)

If A, B, C are angles of the triangle, show that
cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = -1 − 4 cosA cos B cos C.

Solution
cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C
2cos(A + B) cos(A – B) + 2cos2C – 1
= -1 + 2cos(A + B) cos (A – B) + 2cos2C
A + B + C = 180
A + B = (180 – C)
cos(A + B) = cos(180 – C)
cos (A + B) = cos 180 cos C + sin 180 sin C
= -cos C
 -1 + 2cos(A + B) cos (A – B) + 2cos2A
= -1 – 2cos C cos(A – B) + 2cos2C
= -1 – 2cos C[cos(A – B) − cos C]
= -1 – 2cos C[cos(A – B) – cos C]
cos C = -cos(A + B)
= -1 – 2cos C[cos(A – B) + cos (A + B)
= -1 – 4cos A cos B cos C.
cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = -1 − 4 cosA cos B cos C.

Example IX (UNEB Question)

sin  A  2 B   sin A
Use the factor formula to show that  tan  A  B 
cos  A  2 B   cos A
Solution
sin  A  2 B   sin A
cos  A  2 B   cos A
2sin( A  B)cos B
=
2cos( A  B)cos B
sin( A  B)

cos( A  B)
= tan(A + B)
sin  A  2B   sin A
  tan  A  B 
cos  A  2 B   cos A

UNEB 2008
cos A  cos B A B
(i) Prove that  cot
sin A  sin B 2

cos A  cos B C
(ii) Deduce that  tan where A, B and C are solution
sin A  sin B 2

340
 A B A B
cos A  cos B 2 cos 2 cos 2
(i) 
A B A B
sin A  sin B 2 sin 2 cos 2
A B
2 cos
 2
A B
2 sin 2
A B
 cot 2
(ii) A + B + C = 1800
A + B =180 – C
A B C
 90 
2 2

cot
A B

cos  90  2c 
2 sin  90  2c 
cos 90 cos 2c  sin 90sin 2c

sin 90 cos 2c  cos 90sin 2c
sin 2c

cos 2c
 tan 2c
cos A  cos B
  tan C2
sin A  sin B

Example X (UNEB Question)

Solve sinx – sin 4x = sin2x – sin3x for    x  

Solution
sin x – sin 4x = sin 2x – sin 3x
sin 3x + sin x = sin 4x + sin 2x
2sin  3x2 x  cos  3x2 x   2sin  4 x 2 2 x  cos  4 x 2 2 x 
2 sin2 x cos x  2 sin 3x cos x
sin 2x cos x  sin 3x cos x  0
cos xsin 2 x  sin 3x   0
Taking cos = 0
x  cos1 0
 
x ,
2 2
Taking sin 2x – sin 3x = 0
sin 3x – sin 2x = 0
 3x  2 x   3x  2 x 
2 cos   sin  0
 2   2 
cos  52 x  sin  12 x   0
5 
Either cos  x   0
2 

341
 x  cos1 0 
5
2
5  3
x  ,  
2 2 2
 3
x  , 
5 5
Or Sin  12 x   0
1
x  sin 1  0   0,  
2
x  00
    3 3
 x = 0,  , , , , , are the solutions to the equation
2 2 5 5 5 5

Relationship between sides of a triangle

In a triangle ABC with angles A, B and C, we denote the side opposite these angles by their corresponding
small letters a, b, and c respectively as shown in the figure below.

C
b a

A B
A B
c

The sine rule

Let O be the centre of the circle circumscribing the triangle ABC with radius, R.
A
Figure I

A D

c A
b
2R O

B a C

342
 C
Figure II
C D

b C
a
2R O

A c B

B
Figure III
D
B
a B
c
2R O

C b A

From figure I,  BCD = 90°

Since this angle is subtended by the diameter,
a
 sin A  from figure I.
2R
a
 2R  …………………. (i)
sin A

From figure II;

c
sin C =
2R
c
2R  ……………………… (ii)
sin C

From figure III;

b
sin B 
2R
b
2R = …………………….. (iii)
sin B
Equating equations (i), (ii), and (iii)
a b c
    2R
sin A sin B sin C
This is the sine rule

The Cosine rule

Consider a triangle ABC. Assume angle A is acute.

343
 B

a c
h

A A
C b–x D x
Considering the right-angled triangle BDA,
x2 + h2 = c2 …………………..…. (i)

from the right-angled triangle BCD,

a2 = (b – x)2 + h2
a2 = b2 – 2bx + x2 + h2 ………….. (ii)
From Eqn (i);
h2 = c2 – x2 …………………..…. (iii)
Substituting Eqn (iii) in Eqn (ii)
a2 = b2 – 2bx + x2 + c2 – x2
a2 = b2 – 2bx + c2 ……………….. (iv)
From triangle ABD;
x
cos A 
c
x = c cos A …………..………….. (v)
Substituting Eqn (v) into (iv)
 a2 = b2 – 2bc cos A + c2
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A

Application of cosine and sine rules

Example I
a 2  b 2 sin( A  B )
Prove that in a triangle ABC, 
c2 sin( A  B )
Solution
a b c
From the sine rule;    2R
sin A sin B sin C
a = 2R sin A, b = 2R sin B and c = 2R sin C
4 R sin A  4 R sin B
2 2 2 2

4 R 2 sin 2 C
sin 2 A  sin 2 B
sin 2 C
(sin A  sin B )(sin( A  sin B)
sin C sin C
A + B + C = 180
C = 180 – (A + B)

344
 sin C = sin(180 – (A + B))
sin C = sin 180 cos (A+B) – cos 180 sin (A+B)
= sin (A + B)
(sin A  sin B)(sin A  sin B)
[sin( A  B)]2
2sin A2 B cos A2 B  2cos A2 B sin A2 B
=
 2sin A2 B cos A2 B sin( A  B)
2sin A2 B cos A2 B

sin( A  B)
sin( A  B)
=
sin( A  B)

Example II
a 2  b2  c 2
Prove that in any triangle ABC, = tanB cot C
a 2  b2  c 2
Solution
From the cosine rule;
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cosA ……………… (i)
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B ……………… (ii)
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C ……………… (iii)

From Eqn (i);

2ac cos B = a2 + c2 – b2
From Eqn (iii);
2ab cos C = a2 + b2 – c2
a 2  b 2  c 2 2ab cos C

a 2  b 2  c 2 2ac cos B
b cos C

c cos B
But from the sine rule;
a b c
 
sin A sin B sin C
a = 2R sinA, b = 2R sin B, and c = 2R sin C
b cos C 2 R sin B cos C
 
c cos B 2 R sin C cos B
sin B cos C
 
cos B sin C
= tan B × cot C
a 2  b2  c2
 2 = tanB cot C
a  b2  c2

Example III
Prove that in any triangle ABC, tan B 2C  bbcc cot A2
Solution
b c
bc
cot A2

345
 a b c
From the sine rule;    2R
sin A sin B sin C
a = 2R sin A, b = 2Rsin B, c = 2R sin C
2 R sin B  2 R sin C sin B  sin C
 cot A2 = cot A2
2 R sin B  2 R sin C sin B  sin C
2cos B 2C sin B 2C cos A2
=
2sin B 2C cos B 2C sin A2
But A + B + C = 180
A = 180 – (B + C)
A BC
 90 
2 2
cos 2 = cos(90 – B 2C )
A

= cos 90 cos B 2C + sin 90 sin B 2C

= sin B 2C
B C
sin A2 = sin(90 – 2
)
= sin 90 cos B 2C − cos 90 sin B 2C
B C
= cos 2

2cos B 2C sin B 2C sin B 2C

  tan B 2C
2sin B 2C cos B 2C cos B 2C
bc
 tan B 2C  cot A2
bc

Example IV
bc cosec ( B  C )
Prove that in any triangle ABC, 
ab  ac cosecB  cosec C
Solution
a b c
From the sine rule,   = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
a = 2R sinA, b = 2R sin B, and c = 2R sin C
bc 2R sin B  2R sin C

ab  ac (2R sin A)(2R sin B)  (2R sin A)(2R sin C )
4 R 2 sin B sin C
=
4 R 2 sin A sin B  4 R 2 sin A sin C
sin B sin C
=
sin A sin B  sin A sin C
sin B sin C
sin B sin C
= sin A sin B
sin B sin C  sin A sin C
sin B sin C

1
=
 sin
sin A
sin A
sin C B

1
=
sin A( sin1C  sin1 B )
1
=
sin A(cosecB  cosec C )

346
 1 1
= 
sin A (cosec B  cosec C )

From triangle ABC;

A + B + C = 180
A = 180 – (B + C)
sin A = sin(180 – (B + C))
= sin 180 cos B + C – cos 180 sin(B + C)
= sin (B + C)
1 1 cosec ( B  C )
  
sin( B  C ) (cosec B  cosec C ) cosecB  cosec C
bc cosec ( B  C )
 
ab  ac cosecB  cosec C

Area of a triangle
Let D denote the area of a triangle ABC, then
1
D = bc sin A
2
1
 D  bc  2sin A2 cos A2
2
D = bc sin A2 cos A2
abc
S=
2
Where S is the semi perimeter.
From the cosine rule, a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2  c 2  a 2
cos A =
2bc
cos A = 1 – 2 sin2 A2
1  cos A
sin2 A2 =
2
1  b2  c2  a 2 
sin2 A2 = 1  
2 2bc 
1  a 2  b 2  c 2  2bc 
sin2 A2 =  
2 2bc 
1  a 2  (b  c) 2 
sin2 A2 =   
2 2bc 
(a  b  c)(a  c  b)
sin A2 
4bc
a + b + c = 2s
a + b – c = a + b + c – 2c
= 2 s – 2c
= 2(s – c)

347
 a + c – b = a + b + c – 2b
= 2 s – 2b
= 2(s – b)
2( s  c)2( s  b)
sin A2 
4bc
( s  b)( s  c)
sin A2 
bc
From the cosine rule, a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2  c 2  a 2
cos A =
2bc
cos A = 2 cos2 A2 − 1
1
cos2 A2 = (1 + cos A)
2
1  2bc  b 2  c 2  a 2 
cos 2 A
2
  
2 2bc 
1  (b  c) 2  a 2 
cos 2 A
2
  
2 2bc 
(b  c  a )(b  c  a )
cos 2 A
2

4bc
(b  c  a )(b  c  a )
cos A2 
4bc
a + b + c = 2s
b + c – a = a + b + c – 2a
= 2s – 2a
= 2(s – a)
2s  2( s  a) s ( s  a)
cos A2  
4bc bc
From the area of a triangle D;
D = bc sin A2 cos A2
( S  b)( S  c S ( S  a)
cos A2  bc 
bc bc
S ( S  a)( s  b)( S  c)
 bc
bc
 S ( S  a)( S  b)( S  c)
The area of a triangle is S (S  a)(S  b)(S  c)
This is called the Heron formula named after the Greek Mathematician Heron

Differentiation and integration of trigonometric functions

Function Differentiate Integrate
Sin x Cos x −cosx

348
 cos x -sinx sin x
Sin ax a cos ax 1
cos ax
a
cos ax -a sin ax 1
sin ax
a
sin 3x 3 cos 3x 1
cos 3x
3
cos 3x −3 sin 3x 1
sin 3x
3

Differentiation of trigonometric functions

Example I
Differentiate the following
(a) sin 6x
(b) −3 cos 5x
(c) −4 sin 32 x

(d) sin x2
(e) 2sin 12 (x + 1)

Solutions
(a) y = sin 6x
dy
 6cos 6 x
dx
(b) −3 cos 5x
y = −3 cos 5x
dy
 35(  sin 5 x) 
dx
dy
 15sin 5 x
dx
(c) −4 sin 32 x

y = −4 sin 32 x

dy 3
 4  cos 32x
dx 2
 6cos 32x

(d) sin x2
y = sin x2

349
 dy
 2 x cos x 2
dx
(e) 2sin 12 (x + 1)
y = 2sin 12 (x + 1)
dy 1
 2  cos 12 ( x  1)
dx 2
dy
 cos 12 ( x  1)
dx

Example II

Differentiate the following

(a) sin2x
(b) 4cos2x
(c) cos3x
(d) 2sin3x
(e) 3 sin42x
(f) sin 2x

Solutions
(a) sin2x
y = sin2x
dy
 2sin x(cos x)
dx

(b) 4cos2x
y = 4cos2x
dy
 8cos x( sin x)
dx
 8sin x cos x
dy
 8sin x cos x
dx

(c) cos3x
y = cos3x
dy
 3(cos 2 x)( sin x)
dx
dy
 3cos 2 x sin x
dx

(d) 2sin3x
y = 2sin3x
dy
 6sin 2 x(cos x)
dx
dy
 6sin 2 x(cos x)
dx

350
(e) 3 sin42x
y = 3 sin42x
dy
 12sin 3 2 x(2cos 2 x)
dx
dy
 24sin 3 2 x cos 2 x
dx

(f) sin 2x
dy 1 1
 (sin 2 x) 2  2cos 2 x
dx 2
cos 2 x

sin 2 x

Example II

Differentiate the following

(a) x cos x
(b) x sin 2x
(c) x2sin x
x
(d)
sin x
x2
(e)
cos x
cos 2x
(f)
x

Solutions
(a) y = x cos x
From y = uv;
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx
dy
= x(-sinx) + cos x
dx
dy
= -x sin x + cos x
dx

(b) x sin 2x
y = x sin 2x
dy
= x .2cos 2x + sin 2x.1
dx
dy
= 2x cos 2x + sin 2x
dx

(c) x2sin x
y = x2sin x
dy dv du
u v
dx dx dx

351
 dy
 x2cos x + (sin x) 2x
dx
dy
 x2 cos x + 2x sin x
dx

x
(d)
sin x
x
y=
sin x
u
y=
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
x
y
sin x
dy sin x  1  x cos x

dx (sin x) 2
dy sin x  x cos x

dx (sin x)2
x2
(e)
cos x
x2
y=
cos x
u
From y = ;
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v
2
x
y
cos x
dy cos x  2 x  x 2 ( sin x)

dx (cos x) 2
dy 2 x cos x  x 2 sin x

dx cos 2 x 2

cos 2x
(f)
x
cos 2x
y=
x
u
From y = ;
v
dy v du  u dv
 dx 2 dx
dx v

352
 dy x   2sin 2 x  cos 2 x

dx x2
dy  2 x sin 2 x  cos 2 x

dx x2

Derivatives of tan x, cot x, sec x, and cosec x

d
(i) (tan x) = sec2x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
(cot x) = -cosec2 x)
dx
d
(cosec x) = -cosec x cot x
dx

Proofs
d d  sin x 
(tan x) =  
dx dx  cos x 
cos x(cos x)  sin x( sin x)
=
(cos x)2
cos 2  sin 2 x
=
cos2 x
1
=
cos 2 x
d
 (tan x) = sec2x
dx

d d  cos x 
(cot x) =  
dx dx  sin x 
sin x( sin x)  cos x(cos x)
=
(sin x)2
 sin 2 x  cos 2 x
=
sin 2 x
(sin 2 x  cos2 x)
=
sin 2 x
= -cosec2 x
d
= -cosec2 x
dx

d
(iii) (sec x)
dx
d  1 
=  
dx  cos x 

353
 dy cos x  0  1( sin x)

dx cos 2 x
sin x

cos 2 x
1 sin x
= 
cos x cos x
= sec x tan x
d
 (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d d  1 
 cosec x   
dx dx  sin x 
sin x  0  1  cos x)

(sin x) 2
 cos x
sin 2 x
 cos x 1
 
sin x sin x
= -cot x cosec x

Example I
Differentiate the following
(a) tan 2x
(b) cot 3x
(c) 2cosec 12 x
(d) –tan (2x + 1)
1
(e) sec(3x – 2)
3
(f) tan x

Solution

(a) tan 2x
y = tan 2x
dy
 2sec22x
dx

(b) cot 3x
y = cot 3x
dy
 3(-cosec2 3x)
dx
= -3cosec23x

(c) 2cosec 12 x
y = 2cosec 12 x

354
 dy 1
 2   cosec 12 x cot 12 x 
dx 2
dy
  cosec 12 x cot 12 x 
dx

(d) –tan (2x + 1)

y = –tan (2x + 1)
dy
= -2sec2(2x + 1)
dx

1
(e) sec(3x – 2)
3
1
y = sec(3x – 2)
3
dy 1
  3sec(3 x  2) tan(3 x  2)
dx 3
dy
= sec(3x – 2) tan(3x – 2)
dx

(f) tan x
y = tan x
dy 1 21
 x sec 2 x
dx 2
dy sec 2 x

dx 2 x

Example II
Differentiate the following:
(a) x tan x
(b) sec x tan x
(c) x2cot x
(d) 3x cosec x
(e) cosec x cot x
tan x
(f)
x

Solutions
(a) x tan x
y = x tan x
dy
= x sec2x + (tan x).1
dx
dy
= x sec2x + tan x
dx

(b) sec x tan x

y = sec x tan x

355
 dy
= sec x sec2x + tan x  (sec x tan x)
dx
dy
= sec3x + tan2xsec x.
dx

(d) 3x cosec x
y = 3x cosec x
dy
= 3x(-cosec x cot x) + cosec  3
dx
dy
= -3x cosec x cot x + 3cosec x
dx

(e) cosec x cot x

y = cosec x cot x
dy
= cosec x  -cosec2x + (cot x)(-cot x cosec x)
dx
dy
= cosec3x – cot2xcosec x
dx

Example III
Differentiate the following
(a) tan2x
(b) sec2x
(c) 3cosec2x
(d) –tan22x
1
(e) cot23x
2
(f) tan x
(g) -2cosec4 x

Solution
(a) tan2x
y = tan2x
dy
= 2tan x(sec2x)
dx
dy
= 2sec2x tan x
dx

(b) sec2x
y = sec2x
dy
= 2sec x(sec x tan x)
dx
dy
= 2sec2x tan x
dx

(c) 3cosec2x
y = 3cosec2x

356
 dy
= 3 × 2cosec x(-cosec x cot x)
dx
dy
= -6cosec2xcot x
dx

(d) -tan22x
y = -tan22x
dy
= -2(tan 2x)(2sec22x)
dx
dy
= -4sec22x tan 2x
dx

1
(e) cot23x
2
1
y = cot23x
2
dy 1
= × 2 cot 3x(-3cosec23x)
dx 2
= -3cosec23xcot 3x

(f) tan x
dy 1 1
 (tan x) 2  sec 2 x
dx 2
dy sec 2 x

dx 2 tan x

(g) -2cosec4x
y = -2cosec4x
dy
= -8cosec3x(-cosec x cot x)
dx
dy
= 8cosec4 x cot x
dx

Integration of Trigonometric functions

Integration is the process of obtaining a function from its derivative
1
Note:  cos ax dx  sin (ax) + c
a
1
 sin ax dx  a cos(ax) + c
Example I
Integrate the following
(a) cos 3x
(b) sin 3x
(c) cos(3x – 1)

357
 (d) sin(2x + 1)
(e) 6 cos 4x

Solution
(a) cos 3x
y = cos 3x
 y dx   cos3x dx
1
= sin 3 x  c
3
1
 cos 3x dx  3 sin 3x  c
1
(b)  sin 3x dx  3 sin 3x + c
1
= cos 3x + c
3
1
(c)  cos(3 x  1) dx  sin(3x – 1) + c
3
1
(d)  sin(2 x  1) dx = cos(2x + 1) + c
2
(e)  6 cos 4x dx = 6  cos 4x dx
1 
= 6  sin 4 x  + c
 4 
3
= sin 4x + c
2

Example
Integrate the following
(a) sec22x
(b) 3sec x tan x
(c) –cosec2 12 x
1
(d) cosec 3x cot 3x
3
(e) 2sec2x tan x
sin x
(f)
cos 2 x
1
(g)
sin 2 2x
cos 2 x
(h)
sin 2 2 x

Solution
d
Note: (tan x) = sec2x
dx

358
   sec 2 x dx = tan x + c
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
  sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
d
(cot x ) = -cosec2x
dx
  cosec2 x dx = -(cot x) + c
d
( cos ec x ) = -cosec x cot x
dx
  cos ec x cot x dx = -cosec x + c

 sec
2
(a) 2x dx
Let u = 2x
du = 2dx
du
dx =
2
du
 sec 2 x dx   sec 2 u 
2

2
1

2  sec 2 u du

1
 tan u  c
2
1
 tan(2 x)  c
2
(b)  3sec x tan x dx
 3 sec x tan x dx
= 3 sec x + c



(c) cosec2 12 x dx
1
Let u = x
2
du 1

dx 2
dx = 2 du
  cosec x dx   cosec2u (2du )
2 1
2

 2 cosec2u
 2  cot u   c
 2cot 12 x  c
(d)  1
3
cosec 3 x cot 3x dx

359
 Let u = 3x
du = 3 dx
du
dx 
3
1
 1
3
cosec 3 x cot 3x dx =
3
cosec 3 x cot 3 x dx

1 du
=
3  cosec u cot u 
3
1
9
= cosec u cot u du

1
= (-cosec u) + c
9
1
= cosec 3x + c
9

 2 sec
2
(e) x tan x dx
d
Consider (sec2x) = 2sec x(sec x tan x)
dx
= 2 sec2x tan x
  2sec2 x tan x dx = sec2x + c

sin x
(f)  cos 2
x
dx

sin x 1
  dx
cos x cos x
  tan x sec x dx
= sec x + c
1
(g) =  cosec 2 2x dx
sin 2 2x
Let u = 2x
du = 2 dx
du
dx 
2
du
 cosec 2 x dx   cosec 2u 
2

2
1

2  cosec 2 u

1
 cot u  c
2
1
 cot 2 x  c
2
cos 2 x
(h)
sin 2 2 x

360
 cos 2 x 1
  dx
sin 2 x sin 2 x
  cot 2 x cosec 2 x dx
Let u = 2x
du = 2 dx
du
dx 
2
du
 cot u cosec u  2
1
2
 cosec u cot u du

1
 (cosec u )  c
2
1
 cosec 2 x  c
2

Example III
Evaluate the following



2
(a) sin 2x dx
0


 sec2 x dx
6
(b) 
3


(c) 
0
sin 2 x dx

Solution



2
(a) sin 2x dx
0

 1 2
  cos 2 x 
2 0
1 1
 cos 2  2   cos 0
2 2
1 1
 (1) 
2 2
1


 sec2 x dx
6
(b) 
3

361
   tan x  6


 tan  6   tan  3 




1
3
  3  
1
  3
3
3 4 3
  3
3 3


(c) 0
sin 2 x dx
From cos 2x = 1 – 2sin2 x
1
sin2x = (1 – cos 2x)
2

 1
0  0 2 (1  cos 2 x) dx
2
sin x dx


1 1 
  x  sin 2 x 
2 2 0
1  1  
    sin 2   (0  0) 
2  2  
1
  
2
1
 
2

Example
A particle moves in a straight line such that its velocity in m/s after passing through a fixed point O is
3cos t – 2sint. Find:
(a) Its distance from O after 12  s
(b) Its acceleration after π s
(c) The time when its velocity is first zero.
Solution
V = 3cos t – 2 sin t
dS
= 3cos t – 2 sin t
dt
dS = (3cos t – 2sin t) dt
S = 3 sin t + 2 cos t + c

When t = 0, S = 0
0 = 3 sin(0) + 2 cos (0) + c
-2 = c
 S = 3 sin t + 2 cos t – 2.
When t = 12  ,

362
 S = 3sin 2 + 2 cos 2 - 2
S=3–2
S=1m
V = 3 cost – 2 sin t
dV
a= = -3 sin t – 2cos t
dt
dV
a= = -3 sin π – 2 cos π
dt 
= 2 m/s2
 a = 2 m/s2
V = 3cos t – 2 sin t
3 cos t – 2 sin t = 0.
R = cos(t + α) = 0

R= 32  22  13

13 cos(t + α) = 0

13 cos(t + 33.7) = 0
cos(t + 33.7) = 0
t + 33.7 = cos-10
t + 33.7 = 90
t = 56.3
56.3
t=
180
t = 0.983 s

Revision Exercise
1. Solve the following for all values of x from 0° to 360°.
1 (d) tan x = –1
(a) sin x 
2  3
(e) sin x =
1 2
(b) cos x 
2 1
(f) cos x =
(c) tan x = 1 2
2. Solve the following equations for values of x from -180° to 180°
1
(a) sin x 
2
1
(b) cos x 
2
3
(c) sin x 
2

363
 (d) tan x  3
1
(e) cos x 
2
 3
(f) cos x 
2
3. Solve the following equations for all values of x from 0° to 360°
1
(a) sin x 
2
(b) cos x = -0.7
(c) tan x -0.75
1
(d) cos2x =
4
(e) sin x = 2cos x
(f) 2sin x – 3cos x = 0
 3
(g) sin 2x =
2
1
(h) cos 2x =
2
 3
(i) sin(x + 20) =
2
(j) tan(x – 30) = 1
(k) 3(cos x – 1) = -1
(l) sin x (1 – 2cos x) = 0
(m) cos x(2sin x + cos x) = 0
(n) 2sin x cos x + sin x = 0
(o) 4sin x cos x = 3cos x
(p) 4cos2x + cos x = 0
(q) tan x = 4 sin x
(r) (2sin x – 1)(sin x + 1) = 0
(s) 2sin2x – sin x – 1 = 0
(t) 2tan2x – tanx – 6 = 0
1
(u) 2tan x – =1
tan x
Solve the following equations for all values of x from
-180° to 180°
3
1. cos2x =
4
2. sin 2x = 2cos 2x
1
3. cos(x – 20) =
2
4. cos x(sin x – 1) = 0
5. 3sin2x = 2sin x cos x

364
 6. 2cos2x – 5cos x + 2 = 0
7. Factorise the expression 6sinθ cosθ + 3cosθ + 4sinθ + 2. Hence solve 6sinθ cosθ + 3cosθ + 4sinθ + 2
= 0 for -180° ≤ 180°
8. Factorise the equation 3sinθ cosθ – 3sinθ + 2cosθ – 2. Hence solve 3sinθ cosθ – 3sinθ + 2cosθ = 2.
9. Without using tables or calculator, find the values of:
(a) sec 45° (g) cosec 330°
(b) cot 45° (h) sec 240°
(c) cosec 30 (i) cot -135°
(d) sec 60° (j) sec -60°
(e) cosec 135° (k) sec(-120°)
(f) sec 120° (l) cosec 315°
10. Simplify the following expression:
(a) (1  sin A)(1  sin A)
(b) cosecθ tanθ
1 1
(c) 
sin  cos 2 
2

(d) cot  1  cos 2 

11. Prove the following identities
(a) sinθ tanθ + cosθ = secθ
(b) cosecθ – sinθ = cotθ cosθ
(c) (sinθ + cosθ)2 + (sinθ – cosθ)2θ = 2
(d) (sinθ + cosecθ)2 = sin2θ + cot2θ + 3θ
(e) cot4θ + cot2θ = cosec4θ – cosec2θ
1  cos
(f) = cosecθ – cotθ
1  cos
sin  1  cos 
(g)  = 2cosecθ
1  cos  sin 
cosec
(h) = cotθ
cos   tan 
sin 2
(i) = tanθ
1  cos 2
sin  sin 
(j)  = 2cosecθ
1  cos  1  cos 
(k) cos4x – sin4x = cos2x
(l) cos A + cos(B + C) = 0
cos 2 
(m) = 2cosθ
1  cot 2 
12. Prove the following identities:
(a) 2cosec 2θ = cosecθ secθ
(b) tan A + cot A = 2coesec 2A
1  tan 2 A
(c) = sec 2A
2  tan 2 A

365
 (d) cot 2A = cosec 2A – tan A
sin 2
(e) = cotθ
1  cos 2
(f) tanθ – cotθ = -2cot 2θ
13. Prove the following identities:
1  cos 2
(a) = tan2θ
1  cos 2
3tan   tan 3 
(b) tan 3θ =
1  3tan 2 
sin   sin 2
(c) = tan θ
1  cos   cos 2
14. Eliminate θ from each of the following pairs of relationships
(a) x = sin θ , y = cos θ
(b) x = 3sin θ , y = cosec θ
(c) 5x = sin θ, y = 2cos θ
(d) x = 3 + sin θ, y = cos θ
(e) x = 2 + sin, cos θ = 1 + y.
15. Solve the following equations for all values of θ from -180° to 180°.
(a) 4 – sin θ = 4cos2 θ
(b) sin2θ + cos θ + 1 = 0
(c) 5 – 5cos θ = 3sin2θ
(d) 8tan θ = 3cos θ
(e) sin2θ + 5cos2θ = 0
(f) 1 – cos2θ = -2sin θ cos θ
16. Solve the following equations from 0° to 360°
(a) sec θ = 2
2
(b) cot 2θ =
5
(c) 3cot θ = tan θ
(d) 2sin θ = -3cot θ
(e) 2sec2θ – 3 + tan θ = 0
17. If A + B + C = 180°, prove that
cos2A + cos2B + cos2C = 1 – cosAcosBcosC
18. Prove that sin 3A = 4sinAsin(60 + A)sin(60 – A)
19. Show that in a triangle ABC, if 2S = a + b + c, then
C
1 – tan A2 + tan B2 =
A
20. Prove that in any triangle ABC,
(a + b + c)(tan A2 + tan B2 ) = 2c cot C2 .
21. Prove that in any triangle
abc
ABC, = tan A2 tan B2
abc

366
22. From a point A, a light wind due to north of A has an elevation α from a point B, due west of A. The
angle of elevation is β. Prove that the angle of elevation from the midpoint of AB. is
 2 
tan 1  
 3cot 2   cot 2  
 
23. Solve: 4cos α – 3sin α = 2
24. Solve the equation 15cos2θ + 20sin2θ + 7 = 0

25. Find all the possible values of x that satisfy tan 1 3 x  tan 1 x 
4
sin 8 cos   sin 6 cos3
26. Prove that  tan 2
cos 2 cos   sin 3 sin 4
27. Solve the equation 2cos 2 ( x  2 )  3cos( x  2 ) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
7 
28. Solve cos4x + sin4x = for 0 ≤ x ≤ .
8 2
29. Find the value of x for 3cos x – 8cosx + 4 = 0
2

 1  sin   cos   1  cos 

2

30. Show that   

 1  sin   cos   1  cos 
tan  cot 
31. Prove that   1  tan   cot 
1  cot  1  tan 
32. Solve the equation cos x – cos 4x = cos 2x – cos 3x for –π ≤ x ≤ π.
33. Given that y = 4cos x – 6sin x. Express y in the form Rcos(x + α), where R is a constant. Find the
maximum and minimum value of y.
34. Express (45° + x) in terms of tan x. Hence or otherwise express tam 75° in the form a + b 3 .
4
35. Given sin x = , where 180° ≤ x ≤ 270, find without using tables or calculator the value of tan 3x.
5
36. Show that:
1 1 
(a) tan 1  sin 1 
3 5 4
1 1 
(b) 2 tan 1  tan 1 
3 7 4

(c) cos-1x + sin-1x =
2
37. Solve the equation
(a) tan-1(2x + 1) + tan-1(2x – 1) = tan-12
(b) tan-1(1 + x) + tan-1(1 – x) = 32

(c) cos-1x + cos-1x 8 =
2
x 
(d) 2sin  sin 1 x 2 
2 2
1 1 1
38. Without using tables or calculator, evaluate tan 1  tan 1  tan 1
2 5 5

367
 6. ±1, ±i, 
1 (1 – i), 1 (1 + i)
2 2
7. (i) -1 + i 3 , 2, 2π/3; 3 + 1
2
i, 1, π/6
2
(ii) 1 ±2i; (a) p2 = q – 4, (b) 2p = q + 5
8. (a) 3 3  5i; 2 13, 2.38 rad, (b) 5, 20 .
9. (i) -1 – i, 3π/4, (ii) 2 – i, 2; -10.
1 3
10.(b) -1,  i , (c) -1 – 3i, 12 (1  3 3)  12 (3  3)i
2 2
3 3
11.  12  i; 1  i 3; , 52  i ; 28
2 2
12. (ii) x3 – 3abx + a3 + b3; 3 2  3 4 ,  3 2   2 3 4 ,  2 3 2   3 4
13. (i) ±(3 – 2i), (ii) 3 ± i 3 .
14. (i) (a) 7/5, -4/5; (b) 2 ± i
15. (i) 1 – i, -1 ± 2i, (ii) 12 (3  i 3) ; π/6, 2π/3
16. (i) 2, 32, π/3, -π/3; 16 3 , (ii) 2 + 3i
17. (i) -1, (ii) 1 + 2i, 2 5
18. (i) 2 , -π/4; 12  12 i , 8i.
20. (i) 2 – i, 3 – 4i; (2, -1)
21. (ii) 3x2 + 3y2 + 10x + 3 = 0.
22. (i) x = 1, y = 2 or x = -1, y = -2
23. (i) a) 13, -23°, (b) 1, 90°; (ii) 12;
(iii) |z + 1 + i| ≥ 4
24. 2sin  ; 12 cosec ,   ; y   12 . 25. 2 2  2 .

VECTORS
Straight line in space The Cartesian equation is given by;
A straight line is uniquely determined in space if 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 𝑧 − 𝑧𝑜
= = =𝜆
either; we know one point on the straight line and its 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
direction or two points on the straight line. Where a, b and c are direction vectors
Vector equation of a line
Example 1
The vector equation of a line is given by
Find the vector and Cartesian equation of a line passing
r = a + λAB
through 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌 and is parallel to 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌
B
Solution;
𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑑
r = a + λAB 3 3
𝑟 = (−1) + 𝜆 (−1)
A
2 2
r = a + λAB Cartesian equation
r = a + λd 𝑥 3 3
Where; a = any point on the line (𝑦) = (−1) + 𝜆 (−1)
d = directional vector of the line. 𝑧 2 2
𝑥 = 3 + 3𝜆

368
 𝑦 = −1 − 𝜆 𝑥 2 2
𝑧 = 2 + 2𝜆 (𝑦) = (−1) + 𝜆 ( 7 )
𝑥−3 𝑦+1 𝑧−2 𝑧 1 −3
= 𝜆, =𝜆, =𝜆 x2
3 −1 2 x – 2 = 2λ  
𝑥−3 𝑦+1 𝑧−2 2
= = =𝜆
3 −1 2 y 1
y + 1 = 7λ  
7
Example II
z 1
Find the vector and the Cartesian equation of a line z – 1 = -3λ  
passing through A(3, 4, -7) and B(1, -1, 6) 3
x  2 y 1 z 1
Solution   
𝒓 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑑 2 7 3
𝑑 = 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
1 3 −2 Example III
(−1) − ( 4 ) = (−5) Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the a line
6 −7 13 passing through the following points
3 −2 (a) 5, -4, 6) and (3, 7, 2)
𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−5)(vector equation of line) (b) (3, 4, -7) and (5, 1, 6)
−7 13
𝑥 3 −2 Solution
(𝑦) = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−5) r = a + λAB
𝑧 −7 13 r = a + λd
x = 3 – 2λ 3 5 −2
y = 4 - 5λ 𝒅 = (7) − (−4) = ( 11 )
z = -7+13λ 2 6 −4
5 −2
x3
 (a) 𝒓 = (−4) − 𝜆 ( 11 )
2 6 −4
y4 x5 y 4 z 6
   
5 2 11 4
z7
 (b) A(3, 4, -7) and B(5, 1, 6)
13 r = a + μd
Cartesian equation 5 3
𝑥−3 𝑦−4 𝑧+7 𝒅 = (1) − ( 4 )
= = =𝜆
−2 −5 13 6 −7
2
Example III 𝒅 = (−3)
Find the vector and Cartesian equation of a line 13
passing through (2, -1, 1) and is parallel to the line 3 2
𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜇 (−3)
whose equation
−7 13
𝑥−3 𝑦+1 𝑧−2
= = =𝜆 x3 y 4 z 7
2 7 −3   
Solution 2 3 13
Since the lines are parallel, it implies that they have
the same parallel vectors.
Example IV
𝒓 = 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑑
2 2 Find the coordinates of the point where the line joining
𝒓 = (−1) + 𝜆 ( 7 ) the points (2, 3, 1) and (3, -4 -5) meets the x-y plane
1 −3 2 1
Cartesian equation: 𝒓 = (3) + 𝜆 (−7)
1 −6

369
 𝑥 =2+𝜆 −4 −1 3
𝑦 = 3 − 7𝜆 ( 5 ) = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1)
𝑧 = 1 − 6𝜆 −1 1 2
−4 = -1 + 3λ  λ = -1
For the line to meet the x-y plane, z = 0 5 = 4 – λ  λ = -1
0 = 1 − 6𝜆 -1 = 1 + 2λ  λ = -1
1 −4
𝜆= ⇒ ( 5 ) lies on the line.
6
1 −1
𝑥 =2+ 5
6 For B, (2)
13
𝑥= 3
6 −1 3
7 𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1)
𝑦 =3−
6 1 2
11 5 −1 3
𝑦=
6 (2) = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1)
13 11
The coordinates are ( , , 0) 3 1 2
6 6
5 = -1 + 3λ  λ = 2
Example V
2=4–λ  λ=2
Show that 4i – j – 12k lies on the line
3 = 1 + 2λ  λ = 1
𝒓 = 2𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 4𝒌 + 𝜆(𝒊 − 𝟐𝑗 + 4𝒌
Since the values of λ are not the same, point B
Solution
2 1 does not lie on the line.
𝒓 = (3) + 𝜆 (2) 8
4 4 For C, (1)
(4, −1,12) 7
−1 3
4 2 1
𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1)
(−1) = (3) + 𝜆 (−2)
1 2
12 4 4 8 −1 3
4 = 2 + 𝜆𝜆 = 2 (1) = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1)
−1 = 3 − 2 𝜆  𝜆 = 2 and 7 1 2
12 = 4 + 4𝜆  𝜆 = 2 8 = -1 + 3λ  λ = 3
∴ The point lies on the line since the values of μ are 1=4–λ  λ=3
the same. 7 = 1 + 2λ  λ = 3
 Since the vales of λ are the same, point C lies
Example V on the line.
The points A, B, C have position vectors
−4 5 8
( 5 ) , (2) , (1). Find which of the three points lie in
−1 3 7
−1 3 Angle between two lines
the line 𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1) The angle between two lines is the angle between their
1 2 directional vectors
Solution Consider two lines L1 and L2 with vector
−1 3 equations
𝒓 = ( 4 ) + 𝜆 (−1) r = a + λd1 and r = b + μd2 respectively
1 2 The angle between the two lines is given by the
−4 d d
For A, 𝒓 = ( 5 ) formula 1 2
| d1 || d2 |
−1
Examples

370
1. Find the angle between the lines; Solution
𝒓 = 3𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 4𝒌 + 𝜆(𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 2𝒌) x 1 y  2 z  2 x 1 y  3 z  7
   and  
𝒓 = 5𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 𝜇(3𝒊 + 2𝒋 + 6𝒌) 2 1 1 2 1 2
𝒂. 𝒃 = |𝒂||𝒃|𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜽 x 1 y  3 z  7
𝑎. 𝑏   
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜽 = 2 1 2
|𝑎||𝑏| 2 −2
𝑑1 . 𝑑2 𝒅𝟏 = ( 1 ) and 𝒅𝟐 = ( 1 )
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑑1 ||𝑑2 | −1 2
1 3 d1  d 2
𝑑1 = (2) 𝑑2 = (2) cos 
| d1 |  | d 2 |
2 6
1 3 2 −2
(2) . (2) ( 1 ).( 1 )
2 6 cosθ = −1 2
cos 𝜃 =
√1 + 2 + 2 √32 + 22 + 62
2 2 2 √2 + 1 + (−1) √(−2)2 + 12 + (2)2
2 2 2

3 + 4 + 12 −4 + 1 − 2
cos 𝜃 = cosθ =
√9√49 √6 . √9
19  The acute angle between the two lines is 47.1°
cos 𝜃 =
21
19 Example IV
𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
21 Find the angle between the lines:
𝜃 = 25.2° x 1 y 1 z  2 x  5 y 1 z
    and   
3 2 1 1 1 2
Example II Solution
Find the angles between the lines 3 1
𝑥+4 𝑦+1 𝑧+3 𝑥+1 𝑦−4 𝑧−5 𝒅𝟏 = (2) and 𝒅𝟐 = (1)
= = & = =
3 5 4 1 1 2 1 2
Solution d1  d 2
𝑑1 . 𝑑2 cos 
cos 𝜃 = | d1 |  | d 2 |
|𝑑1 ||𝑑2 | 3 1
3 1 (2) . (1)
𝑑1 = (5) , 𝑑2 = (1) 1 2
4 2 cosθ =
3 1 √3 + 2 + (1) √(1)2 + 12 + (2)2
2 2 2

(5) . (1) 3+2+2

cosθ =
cos 𝜃 = 4 2 √14 . √6
√32 + 52 + 42 √12 + 12 + 22 θ = 40.2°
3+5+8  The acute angle between the two lines is 40.2°
cos 𝜃 =
(√50)√6
16 Note: If two lines are perpendicular, then
cos 𝜃 = (𝒅𝟏 . 𝒅𝟐 ) = 𝟎
√300
16
𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) Point of Intersection of two Lines
√300 Example
𝜃 = 22.5°
Find the point of intersection of the lines
𝑥 𝑦+2 𝑧−5 𝑥−1 𝑦+3 𝑧−4
Example III = = & = =
Find the acute angle between the lines: 1 2 −1 −1 −3 1
x 1 y  2 z  2 1 x y  3 z  7 Solution
  and   𝑥 𝑦+2 𝑧−5
2 1 1 2 1 2 = 2 = = 𝜆 ………………. (i)
1 −1

371
 𝑥−1 𝑦+3 𝑧−4 1 2
= = = 𝜇 ……………. (ii)
−1 −3 1 𝒓 = (−2) + 𝜆 ( 1 )
From equation (i) 3 −1
x = λ ………………………………. (iii) 𝒙 1 + 2𝜆
𝑦+2 (𝒚) = (−2 + 𝜆)…………………… (1)
=𝜆 𝒛
2 3−𝜆
𝑦 + 2 = 2𝜆 𝒓 = −𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 7𝒌 + 𝜇(−2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌)
𝑦 = 2𝜆 − 2 ………………………. (iv) −1 −2
𝑧−5 𝒓 = ( 3 )+𝜆( 1 )
=𝜆 1 2
−1 −1 − 2𝜇
𝑧 − 5 = −𝜆
(𝒓) = ( 3 + 𝜇 )
𝑧 = −𝜆 + 5 ………………………. (v)
1 + 2𝜇
From equation (ii) 𝒙 −1 − 2𝜇
𝑥 = −𝜇 + 1 ………………………. (vi) (𝒚) = ( 3 + 𝜇 ) … … … … … … … . (2)
𝑦 + 3 = −3𝜇 𝒛 7 + 2𝜇
𝑦 = −3𝜇 − 3 … … … … … … … … … … (vii) Equating the corresponding x components:
z = μ + 4 …………………………... (viii) 1 + 2𝜆 = −1 − 2𝜇
𝜆 = −𝜇 + 1 … … … … … … … … … … (∗) 2𝜆 + 2𝜇 = −2
2𝜆 − 2 = −3𝜇 − 3 𝜆 + 𝜇 = −1 … … … … … … … … … … … (3)
2𝜆 + 3𝜇 = −1 … … … … … … … … . . (∗∗) Equating the corresponding y components:
Substituting Eqn (*) in Eqn (**) −2 + 𝜆 = 3 + 𝜇
𝜆 − 𝜇 = 5 … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
2(1 − 𝜇) + 3𝜇 = −1 Equating the corresponding z component;
2 − 2𝜇 + 3𝜇 = −1 3 − 𝜆 = 7 + 2𝜇
2 + 𝜇 = −1 2𝜇 + 𝜆 = −4 ……………………….. (5)
𝜇 = −3 Eqn (3) –eqn (4)
𝜆 = −𝜇 + 1 2𝜇 = −6
𝜆 =3+1 𝜇 = −3
𝜆=4 From Eqn (4)
Equating Eqn (v) and Eqn (viii) 𝜆 − (−3) = 5
−𝜆 + 5 = 𝜇 + 4 𝜆=2
−4 + 5 = −3 + 4 Substituting 𝜆 = 2 and 𝜇 = −3 in Eqn (5);
1=1  The two lines intersect at (5, 0, 1)
The two lines intersect
𝑥=4 Example III
𝑦 = 2𝜆 − 2 Find the point of intersection of the lines
𝑦 =8−2 𝑦+3 𝑧−5 𝑥−1 𝑦−8 𝑧−3
𝑦=6 𝑥−2= = & = =
4 2 −1 1 −2
𝑧 = −4 + 5 Solution
𝑧 = −4 + 5=1 𝑦+3 𝑧−5
𝑥−2= = = 𝜆 … … … … … … (∗)
The point of intersection of the lines is (4, 6, 1) 4 2
𝑥−1 𝑦−8 𝑧−3
= = = 𝜇 … … … … … … (∗∗)
Example II −1 1 −2
Find the point of intersection of the line From equation (*)
𝒓 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 + 𝜆(2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌) 𝑥−2=𝜆
𝒓 = −𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 7𝒌 + 𝜇(−2𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌) 𝑥 = 2 + 𝜆 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
Solution 𝑦 + 3 = 4𝜆
From 𝒓 = 𝒊 − 2𝒋 + 3𝒌 + 𝜆(2𝒊 + 𝒋 − 𝒌) 𝑦 = 4𝜆 − 3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (2)
𝑧 − 5 = 2𝜆

372
 𝑧 = 2𝜆 + 5 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (3) (𝐴𝑂 + 𝑂𝑅). 𝑛 = 0
From equation (**) (−𝒂 + 𝒓). 𝑛 = 0
𝑥 − 1 = −𝜇 (−𝑛. 𝒂 + 𝑛. 𝒓) = 0
𝑥 = 1 − 𝜇 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (4) 𝑛. 𝒂 = 𝑛. 𝒓
𝑦−8 = 𝜇
Equation of a plane is given by 𝐧. 𝒓 = 𝐧. 𝒂
𝑦 = 𝜇 + 8 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (5)
𝑧 − 3 = 2𝜇 Where n = normal and a = the point that lies on the
𝑧 = 2𝜇 + 3 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (6) plane.
Equating the corresponding components Example I
2+𝜆 =1−𝜇 Find the equation of a plane passing through (1, 2, 3),
𝜇 + 𝜆 = −1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … (7) and is perpendicular to vector 𝟒𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 6𝒌
𝜇 + 8 = 4𝜆 − 3 Solution
𝜇 − 4𝜆 = −11 … … … … … … … … … … … (8) 𝐧. 𝐫 = 𝐧. 𝒂
Eqn(8) - (7) 4 𝑥 4 1
-5𝜆 = −10 (5) . (𝑦) = (5) . (2)
𝜆=2 6 𝑧 6 3
Substitute λ = 2 in Eqn (8) 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 4 + 10 + 18
𝜇 − 4 × 2 = −11 4𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 6𝑧 = 32
𝜇 = −3
∴ The point of intersection is (4, 5, 9) Example II
Find the equation of a plane which contains A with
PLANES position vector 𝟑𝒊 + 4𝒋 + 2𝒌 and is perpendicular to
A plane is a surface which contains at least three non- 𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 2𝒌.
collinear points. If two points are taken then the lines Solution
joining the two lines lies completely on the surface of 𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂
1 𝑥 1 3
the plane.
( 2 ) . (𝑦) = ( 2 ) . (4)
A plane is completely known if we know one point 𝑧
−2 −2 2
that lie on the plane and then the normal to the plane. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3 + 8 − 4
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑦 = 7
Equation of a Plane
Suppose a plane P passes through a point A with a Example III
position vector a and is perpendicular to vector n. Let r Find the equation of a plane passing through a point A
be any point (x, y, z) in the plane. with a position vector −2𝒊 + 4𝒌 and is perpendicular
If two lines are perpendicular, dot product of their to the vector 𝒊 + 3𝒋 − 2𝒌.
direction vector = 0 Solution
n 𝐧 𝐫 = 𝐧 𝒂
1 𝑥 1 −2
𝑦
( 3 ).( ) = ( 3 ).( 0 )
−2 𝑧 −2 4
A R 𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −2 + 0 − 8
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −10
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 + 10 = 0
a r
Angle between two planes
The angle between two planes is the angle between
O their normals
𝐴𝑅. 𝑛 = 0

373
 𝑛1 . 𝑛2
cos 𝜃 = n
|𝑛1 ||𝑛2 | r=a+λd
Example I
α
Find the angle between the planes 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7,
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 = 8
Solution
2 3 θ
𝑛1 = (3) , 𝑛2 = ( 4 )
5 −1 Line
𝑛1 . 𝑛2
cos 𝜃 =
|𝑛1 ||𝑛2 |
2 3 n. d = |𝑛||𝑑| cos 𝛼
(3) ( 4 ) 𝜃 + 90° + 𝛼 = 180°
cos 𝜃 = 5 −1 𝜃 + 𝛼 = 90°
√2 + 3 + 52 . √32 + 42 + 12
2 2
𝛼 = 90° − 𝜃
6 + 12 − 5 13 n. d = |𝑛||𝑑| cos(90° − 𝜃)
cos 𝜃 = =
√38. √26 √38. √26 n. d = |𝑛||𝑑| sin 𝜃
−1
13 𝑛. 𝑑
θ = cos sin 𝜃 =
√38. √26 |𝑛||𝑑|
θ = 65.6° 𝒏. 𝒅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 =
|𝒏||𝒅|
Example II
Find the angle between the planes 3x – 3y – z = 0 and Example
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 4 Find the angle between the lines
Solution 𝒓 = 𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 2𝒌 + 𝜇(𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌) and the plane 2𝑥 −
3 1 𝑦+𝑧 =4
𝑛1 = (−3) , 𝑛2 = ( 4 ) Solution
−1 −2 𝑛. 𝑑
𝑛1 𝑛2 sin 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 = |𝑛||𝑑|
|𝑛1 ||𝑛2 |
3 1 1 2
(−3) ( 4 ) (−1) (−1)
−1 −2 sin 𝜃 1 1
cos 𝜃 =
√32 + (−3)2 + (−1)2 . √12 + 42 + (−2)2 √1 + (−1) + 1 . √22 + (−1)2 + 12
2 2 2

3 − 12 + 2 −7 2+1+1
cos 𝜃 = = sin 𝜃 =
√19. √21 √21. √19 √3. √6
−7 4
θ = cos−1 ( ) sin 𝜃 = ( )
√21. √19 √18
4
θ = 69.5° 𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
√18
Angle between a line and a plane 𝜃 = 70.5°

Find the acute angle between the line

𝑥−1 𝑦−8 𝑧−3
−1
= 1
= −2
and 7𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −5
Solution
𝑛. 𝑑
sin 𝜃 =
|𝑛||𝑑|

374
 5 7 𝜆=4
(−1) (−1) From equation (1)
sin 𝜃 1 5 𝑥 = 2(4) − 1 = 7
√5 + (−1) + 1 . √72 + (−1)2 + 52
2 2 2 From equation (2)
35 + 1 + 5 𝑦 = 5(4) + 3 = 23
sin 𝜃 = From equation (3)
√27. √75
41 𝑧 = −1 − 4 = −5
sin 𝜃 = ( ) ∴ The point of intersection (7, 23, −5)
√2025
41 Example II
𝜃 = sin−1 ( )
√2025 x y  2 z 1
𝜃 = 65.7° Find the point of intersection of the line  
5 2 4
and the plane 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 25
Solution
𝑥+1 𝑦−3 𝑧+1 Solution
Find the angle between the line = = and x y  2 z 1
2 5 −1
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 12     ……………….. (*)
5 2 4
Solution 𝑥 = 5𝜆………………………….. (1)
𝑛. 𝑑 𝑦 + 2 = 2𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
|𝑛||𝑑| 𝑦 = 2𝜆 − 2……………………... (2)
1 2 𝑧 − 1 = 4𝜆
(1) ( 5 )
𝑧 = 4𝜆 + 1…………………….. (3)
sin 𝜃 1 −1
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 25
√12 + 12 + 12 . √22 + 52 + 12
2+5−1 3(5𝜆) + 4(2𝜆 − 2) + 2(4 𝜆 + 1) = 25
sin 𝜃 = 15𝜆 + 8𝜆 − 8 + 8𝜆 + 2 = 25
√3. √30
6 31𝜆 = 25 + 6
sin 𝜃 = ( ) 31𝜆 = 31
√90
6 𝜆=1
𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) 𝑥 = 5, 𝑦 = 2 − 2 = 0, 𝑧=5
√90 ∴ The point of intersection = (5, 0, 5)
𝜃 = 39.2°
Example
Point of intersection of a line and a plane 𝑥+2 𝑦−2
Example I Find the point of intersection of the line; −1 = 2 =
Find the point of intersection of the line
𝑥+1
=
𝑦−3
= 𝑧 − 4 and the plane 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
2 5 Solution
𝑧+1
−1
and 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 19 𝑥+2 𝑦−2
= =𝑧−4=𝜆
Solution −1 2
x 1 y  3 z 1 𝑥 = −𝜆 − 2…………….. (1)
    ………………. (*) 𝑦 = 2𝜆 + 2……………... (2)
5 1 1
From (*) 𝑧 = 𝜆 + 4………………. (3)
𝑥 + 1 = 2𝜆 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 10
𝑥 = 2𝜆 − 1……………….. (1) 2(−𝜆 − 2) − (2𝜆 + 2) + 3(𝜆 + 4) = 10
𝑦 − 3 = 5𝜆 −2𝜆 − 4 − 2𝜆 − 2 + 3𝜆 + 12 = 10
𝑦 = 3 + 5𝜆……………….…. (2) −4𝜆 + 3𝜆 + 6 = 10
𝑧 + 1 = −𝜆 −𝜆 = 4
𝑧 = −1 − 𝜆………………..... (3) 𝜆 = −4
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 12 𝑥 = −4 − 2 = −6, 𝑦 = −8 + 2 = −6,
(2𝜆 − 1) + (5 + 3𝜆) + (−𝜆 − 1) = 12 𝑧 = −4 + 4 = 0
4𝜆 = 16 The point of intersection (-6, -6, 0)

375
Perpendicular distance of a point from a 𝑥+1
=𝜆
plane −5
𝑥+1 𝑦−1
The perpendicular distance of a point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) from = =𝑧=𝜆
−5 2
the plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given by the
formula; Example II
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 Find the line of intersection of planes 2x + 3y – z = 4
𝐷=| | and x – y + 2z = 5.
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
Example Solution
Find the distance of a point (−2, 0, 6) from the plane 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 4
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 21 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
Solution Let 𝑧 = 𝜆
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝜆 = 4
𝐷=| | 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝜆 = 5
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 = (−2, 0, 6) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4 + 𝜆 ……………… (i)
Comparing 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 with 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 5 − 2𝜆……………….. (ii)
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3𝑧 − 21 = 0; Multiply Eqn (ii) by 3;
𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = −1, 𝑐 = 3, 𝑑 = −21 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 15 − 6𝜆 …………… (iii)
−4 + 0 + 18 − 21
𝐷=| | Eqn (iii) + Eqn (i);
√22 + (−1)2 + 32 5𝑥 = 19 − 5𝜆
−7 −7
𝐷= = Units 5𝜆 = −𝑥 + 19
√4+1+9 √14
19
𝜆 = −𝑥 +
Line of intersection of two planes 5
19
Two planes intersect in a line (𝑥 − )
𝜆= 5
−1
Examples I Multiply Eqn (ii) by 2;
Find the line of intersection of the planes 2x + 3y + 4z 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 10 − 4𝜆 …………… (iv)
= 1 and x + y + 3z=0 Eqn (iv) – Eqn (i);
Solution −5𝑦 = 6 − 5𝜆
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 1 5𝜆 = −6 + 5𝑦
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 −6
Let 𝑧 = 𝜆 𝜆= +𝑦
5
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 1 − 4𝜆…………………….. (1) 6
𝑦−
𝑥 + 𝑦 = −3𝜆 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (2) 𝜆= 5
Eqn (2) ×2 1
19 6
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −6𝜆 ………………………. (3) 𝑥−
5 =
𝑦−
5=𝑧=𝜆
Eqn (1) – Eqn (3); −1 1
𝑦 = 1 + 2𝜆
𝑦−1 Example
=𝜆
2 Find the Cartesian equation of a line of intersection of
From Eqn (2); the lines.
But y = 1 + 2 𝜆 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1
x + y = -3λ 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
x + 1 + 2λ = -3λ Let 𝑥 = 𝜆
𝑥 + 1 = −3𝜆 − 2𝜆 −3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1 − 2𝜆 …………… (i)
𝑥 + 1 = −5𝜆 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 − 3𝜆 …………… (ii)
Eqn (i) × 2

376
 −6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 2 − 4𝜆 ………….. (iii) 𝑝 7
Eqn (iii) + Eqn (ii) (𝑞) . (1) = 0
−2𝑦 = 5 − 7𝜆 𝑟 3
7𝑝 + 𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0 …………………… (ii)
−2𝑦 − 5 = −7𝜆
−2𝑦 − 5 From (i)
=𝜆 𝑝 = 2𝑞 − 3𝑟 ………………………… (iii)
−7
5 ⇒ 7(2𝑞 − 3𝑟) + 𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0
−2 (𝑦 + 2) 14𝑞 − 21𝑟 + 𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0
=𝜆
−7 15𝑞 − 18𝑟 = 0
Eqn (i) × 4 5𝑞 − 6𝑟 = 0
⇒ −12𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 4 − 8𝜆 ……….. (iv) 5𝑞 = 6𝑟
6
Eqn (ii) × 3 𝑞 = 𝑟……………………………… (iv)
5
12y + 6z = 9 − 9λ ………………. (v) 6𝑟
⇒ 𝑝 = 2 ( ) − 3𝑟
Eqn (iv) + Eqn (v) 5
2z = 13 − 17λ 12
𝑝= 𝑟 − 3𝑟
2z − 13 5
=λ 3
−17 𝑝=− 𝑟
13 5
2 (z − 2 ) −3𝑟⁄
=λ 𝑝 5 𝑟 −3
−17 𝑞
( ) = ( 6𝑟⁄ ) = (6)
1 13 𝑟 5 5
(y + 2) (z − 2 ) 𝑟 5
𝑥= =− =λ −3
7 17
2 2 ∴𝑛=( 6 )
1 13 5
(y + 2) (z − 2 )
𝑥= = =λ 𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂
7 17 𝑥 −3 −3 0
2 −
2 (𝑦 ) . ( 6 ) = ( 6 ) . ( 3 )
𝑧 5 5 −4
Equation of a Plane −3𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0 + 18 − 20
Given three points on the plane, we can find the −3𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −2
equation of a plane; 3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 − 2 = 0

Example I Example II
Find the Cartesian equation of a plane passing through Find the equation of a plane passing through points
A (0, 3, -4) B (2, -1, 2) and C (7, 4, -1) P(4, 2, 3), Q(5, 1, 4) and R(-2, 1, 1).
Solution Solution
𝑝 𝑝
Let the normal = (𝑞) Let the normal to the plane be (𝑞)
𝑟 𝑟
2 0 2 5 4 1
𝐴𝐵 = (−1) − ( 3 ) = (−4) 𝑃𝑄 = (1) − (2) = (−1)
2 −4 6 4 3 1
7 0 7 −2 4 −6
𝐴𝐶 = ( 4 ) − ( 3 ) = (1) 𝑃𝑅 = ( 1 ) − (2) = (−1)
−1 −4 3 1 3 −2
𝑝 2 𝑝 1
(𝑞) . (−4) = 0 (𝑞) . (−1) = 0
𝑟 6 𝑟 1
2𝑝 − 4𝑞 + 6𝑟 = 0 𝑝 − 𝑞 − 𝑟 = 0 …………………… (i)
𝑝 − 2𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0 …………………… (i)

377
 𝑝 −6 p – q + 3r = 0 …………………… (i)
(𝑞) . (−1) = 0 𝑝 −8
𝑟 −2 (𝑞) . ( 2 ) = 0
−6𝑝 − 𝑞 − 2𝑟 = 0 𝑟 4
6𝑝 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 0 ………………… (ii) −8𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 4𝑟 = 0
-4p + q + 2r = 0 …………………… (ii)
From Eqn (i);
𝑝 − 𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0
𝑝 =𝑞−𝑟
𝑝 = 𝑞 − 3𝑟
6(𝑞 − 𝑟) + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 0
−8(𝑞 − 3𝑟) + 2𝑞 + 4𝑟 = 0
6𝑞 − 6𝑟 + 𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 0
−8𝑞 + 24𝑟 + 2𝑞 + 4𝑟 = 0
7𝑞 − 4𝑟 = 0
−6𝑞 + 28𝑟 = 0
7𝑞 = 4𝑟
4𝑟 6𝑞 = 28𝑟
𝑞= 14𝑟
7 𝑞=
4𝑟 3
𝑝= −𝑟 14𝑟 5𝑟
7 𝑝= − 3𝑟 =
−3r 3 3
p= 𝑝 5𝑟⁄
7 3 𝑟 5
−3r (𝑞) = (14𝑟⁄ ) = (14)
p 𝑟 3 3
7 r −3 𝑟 3
(q) = 4r = ( 4 ) 5
r 7
7 7 𝑛 = (14)
( r ) 3
−3 𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂
𝑛=( 4 ) 𝑥 5 5 0
7 (𝑦) . (14) = (14) ( 2 )
n. r = n. a 𝑧 3 3 −4
x −3 −3 4 5𝑥 + 14𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0 + 28 − 12
(y) ( 4 ) = ( 4 ) . (2) 5𝑥 + 14𝑦 + 3𝑧 − 16 = 0
z 7 7 3
−3x + 4y + 7z = −12 + 8 + 21 (ii) A (-1, 0, 1), B(3, 3, -2), C(-1, 1, 1)
−3x + 4y + 7z = 17 𝑝
3x − 4y − 7z + 17 = 0 Let the normal = (𝑞)
𝑟
Example III 3 −1 4
Find the equation of the planes passing through the AB = ( 3 ) − ( 0 ) = ( 3 )
following points: −2 1 −3
−1 −1 0
(i) A (0, 2, -4) B (2, 0, 2) C (-8, 4, 0) 𝐴𝐶 = ( 1 ) − ( 0 ) = (1)
Solution 1 1 0
𝑝 𝒑 4
Let the normal 𝑛 = (𝑞 ) (𝒒 ) . ( 3 ) = 0
𝑟 𝒓 −3
2 0 2
4𝑝 + 3𝑞 − 3𝑟 = 0 ………………… (i)
𝐴𝐵 = (0) − ( 2 ) = (−2)
𝑝 0
2 −4 6 𝑞
−8 0 −8 ( ) . (1) = 0
𝐴𝐶 = ( 4 ) − ( 2 ) = ( 2 ) 𝑟 0
0 −4 4 𝑞=0
𝑝 2 Substitute q = 0 in Eqn (i);
(𝑞) . (−2) = 0 4𝑝 = 3𝑟
𝑟 6 3r
2𝑝 − 2𝑞 + 6𝑟 = 0 p
4

378
 𝑝 3𝑟⁄ 𝑥 0 0 1
4 𝑟 3 (𝑦) . (3) = (3) . (3)
(𝑞) = ( 0 ) = (0)
𝑟 4 𝑧 1 1 1
𝑟 4
3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 10
3
𝑛 = (0)
Example V
4
𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂 Find the Cartesian equation of the plane passing
𝑥 3 3 −1 through the points A(1, 0, -2), B (3, -1, 1) parallel to
(𝑦) . (0) = (0) ( 0 ) the line
𝑧 4 4 1 𝒓 = 3𝒊 + (2𝛼 − 1)𝒋 + (5 − 𝛼)𝒌
3𝑥 + 4𝑧 = −3 + 4 Solution:
(3𝑥 + 4𝑧 = 1) 𝒓 = 3𝒊 + 2𝛼𝒋 − 𝒋 + 5𝒌 − 𝛼𝒌
3𝑥 + 4𝑧 − 1 = 0 𝒓 = 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 5𝒌 − 𝛼(𝟎𝒋 + 𝟐𝒋 − 𝒌)
3 1 2
Example IV 𝐴𝐵 = (−1) − ( 0 ) = (−1)
Find the Cartesian equation of a plane containing the 1 −2 3
point (1, 3, 1) and it’s parallel to vectors (1, -1, -3) and 2
(2, 1, -3) 𝐴𝐵 = (−1)
Solution 3
0
1 2 𝐴𝐶 = ( 2 )
𝐴𝐵 = (−1)and 𝐴𝐶 = ( 1 )
−1
3 −3 2 𝑝
𝑝
(−1) . (𝑞) = 0
Let the normal = (𝑞)
3 𝑟
𝑟
𝑝 1 2p – q + 3r = 0 …………………….. (i)
(𝑞) . (−1) = 0 𝑝 0
𝑟 3 (𝑞 ) . ( 2 ) = 0
𝑝 − 𝑞 + 3𝑟 = 0 ……………….. (i) 𝑟 −1
𝑝 2 2𝑞 − 𝑟 = 0………………………… (ii)
(𝑞) ( 1 ) = 0 From Eqn (ii);
𝑟 −3 ⇒ 𝑟 = 2𝑞
2𝑝 + 𝑞 − 3𝑟 = 0 ……………… (ii) 2𝑝 − 𝑞 + 3(2𝑞) = 0
𝑝 = 𝑞 − 3𝑟 2𝑝 − 𝑞 + 6𝑞 = 0
2(𝑞 − 3𝑟) + 𝑞 − 3𝑟 = 0 2𝑝 + 5𝑞 = 0
2𝑞 − 6𝑟 + 𝑞 − 3𝑟 = 0 −5
𝑝= 𝑞
3𝑞 − 9𝑟 = 0 2
5 q
q = 3r 𝑝 2 𝑞 −5
p = 3r – 3r (𝑞 ) = ( 𝑞 ) = ( 2 )
𝑟 2
p=0 2𝑞 4
𝑝 0 −5
(𝑞) = (3𝑟) 𝑛=( 2 )
𝑟 𝑟 4
𝑝 0 𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂
(𝑞) = 𝑟 (3) 𝑥 −5 −5 1
𝑟 1 (𝑦 ) ( 2 ) = ( 2 ) ( 0 )
r n = n a
𝑧 4 4 −2
0 −5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −5 − 8
𝑛 = (3)
(−5𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = −13)
1
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 13 = 0

379
Example VI 3p + q + 3r = 0 …………….. ….(i)
Find the equation of the plane containing line 𝑝 4
1 −2 (𝑞 ) . (2) = 0
𝑟 = (−1) + 𝑡 ( 1 ) and is parallel to the line 𝑟 5
0 −1 4p + 2q + 5r = 0 ……………… (ii)
2 −1 From Eqn (i);
𝑟 = (1) + 𝑆 ( 1 ) q = -3p – 3r
1 2 4p + 2(-3p – 3r) + 5r = 0
−2 −1 𝑝
4p – 6p – 6r + 5r = 0
𝐴𝐵 = ( 1 ) , 𝐴𝐶 = ( 1 ) , 𝑛 = (𝑞 )
𝑟 -2p – r = 0
−1 2
𝑝 −2 r = -2p
(𝑞 ) . ( 1 ) = 0 ; q = -3p – 3(-2p)
𝑟 −1 q = 3p
−2p + q – r = 0 𝑝 𝑝 1
⇒2p – q + r = 0 ……………….. (i) (𝑞 ) = ( 3𝑝 ) = 𝑝 ( 3 )
𝑝 −1 𝑟 −2𝑝 −2
(𝑞 ) ( 1 ) = 0 1
𝑟 2 𝑛=( 3 )
-p + q + 2r = 0……………….. (ii) −2
From Eqn (i); 𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂
r = –2p + q 𝑥 1 1 −2
⇒ p – q – 2(q – 2p) = 0 (𝑦 ) . ( 3 ) = ( 3 ) . ( 5 )
𝑧 −2 −2 −11
p – q – 2q + 4p = 0
x + 3y – 2z = -2 + 15 + 22
5p – 3q = 0
x + 3y – 2z = 35
3q
p=
5 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL DIVISIONS
 3q  Let A and B be points in space with position vectors A
r  2    q
 5  and B.
q
r
5
A
3q
𝑝 5 3 𝜆
q
𝑛 = (𝑞 ) = 𝑞 = (5)
5
𝑟 R
q −1
5
( ) μ
𝑛. 𝒓 = 𝑛. 𝒂 a
𝑥 3 3 1 B
(𝑦) . ( 5 ) = ( 5 ) (−1)
𝑧 −1 −1 0 b
3x + 5y – z = 3 – 5 + 0
3x + 5y – z = -2 0
Let R be a point on a line segment AB dividing AB
Example VII internally in the ratio of 𝜆 ∶ 𝜇
Find the Cartesian equation of the plane formed by the
lines r = -2i + 5j – 11k + λ(3i + j + 3k) and OR = OA + AR
𝜇
r = 8i + 9j + λ(4i + 2j + 5k) 𝑂𝑅 = 𝒂 + 𝐴𝐵
Solution 𝜆+𝜇
𝑝 𝑝 3 𝝀
=𝒂+ (𝒃 − 𝒂)
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = (𝑞 ) ⟹ (𝑞 ) . (1) = 0 𝜆+𝜇
𝑟 𝑟 3

380
 𝑎𝜆 + 𝑎𝜇 + 𝑏𝜆 − 𝑎𝜆 3 9
𝑂𝑅 = −3 (−2) + 5 ( 1 )
𝜆+𝜇
𝑎𝜇 + 𝑏𝜆 5 −1
𝑂𝑅 = 5 + −3
𝜆+𝜇
−9 45
Example I ( 6 )+( 5 )
4 1 −15 −5
Given that; 𝑂𝑃 = (−3) , 𝑂𝑄 = (0). Find the 2
5 2 −9 + 45
coordinates of R such that PR :RQ = 1:2 ( 6+5 )
𝒂𝜇 + 𝒃𝜆 −15 − 5
𝒓=
𝜆+𝜇 2
4 1
𝑂𝑅 = 2 (−3) + 1 (0) 1 36
( 11 )
5 2 2
−20
9
(−6) 18
𝑂𝑅 = 12 𝑂𝐶 = (11⁄2)
3 10
1 0
𝑂𝑅 = (−6) 11
3 𝐶 = (18, , −10)
12 2
𝑅 = (3, −2, 4)
Example IV
Example II Given that A(0, 5, -3), B(2, 3, -4) and C(1, -1, 2).
2 7 Find the coordinates of D if ABCD is a rectangle or
The points A (−1) and 𝐵 (6) form a line segment parallelogram.
6 1
which is divided externally in the ratio of 4:-1. Find D
C (1, -1,2)
the coordinates of T
2 7
−1 (−1) + 4 (6)
(𝑂𝑇) = 6 1 B (2, 3, -4)
−1 + 4 A (0, 5, -3)
−2 + 28 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐶
( 1 + 24 )
(𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴) = (𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐷)
𝑂𝑇 = −6 + 4
3 𝑂𝐷 = 𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐵
1 26
= ( ) ( 25 ) 1 0 2
3
−2 𝑂𝐷 = (−1) + ( 5 ) − ( 3 )
26 25 2
𝑂𝑇 = ( , , − ) 2 −3 −4
3 3 3
1 2
Example III 𝑂𝐷 = ( 4 ) − ( 3 )
3 9 −1 −4
Find the position vectors (−2) and ( 1 ) , Find the −1
5 −1 𝑂𝐷 = ( 1 )
position vectors of C which divides AB externally in 3
the ratio of 5:-3
Solution: 𝐷 = (−1, 1,3)

381
Proving that three points are vertices of a 4−𝑥 𝑦 1−𝑧
= =
triangle 2 6 3
𝑥−4 𝑦 𝑧−1
Give a triangle ABC with vertices ⇒ = =
−2 6 −3
𝐴 = (𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1 ) B (x2, y2, z2) C (x3, y3, z3) A(2, 3, -4)

B(4-2λ), 6λ, (1-3λ)

A B 4 −2
𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑨 = 𝟎 𝑟 = ( 0 )+𝜆( 6 )
𝑶𝑩 − 𝑶𝑨 + 𝑶𝑪 − 𝑶𝑩 + 𝑶𝑨 − 𝑶𝑪 = 𝟎 −1 −3
𝑥 4 −2
Example 𝑦
( ) = ( 0 )+𝜆( 6 )
Show that 3𝒊 + 3𝒋 + 𝒌, 8𝒊 + 𝟕𝒋 + 4𝒌 and 𝑧 −1 −3
𝟏𝟏𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 + 𝟓𝒌 are vertices of a triangle 𝑥 4 − 2𝜆
C(11, 4, 5 𝑦
( ) = ( 6𝜆 )
𝑧 −1 − 3𝜆
−2
𝐴𝐵. ( 6 ) = 0
−3
A(3, 3,1) B(8, 7, 4
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐴 = 0
4 − 2𝜆 − 2 2 − 2𝜆
𝑂𝐵 − 𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐶 − 𝑂𝐵 + 𝑂𝐴 − 𝑂𝐶 = ( 6𝜆 − 3 ) = (6𝜆 − 3)
8 3 11 8 3 11 1 − 3𝜆 − 4 5 − 3𝜆
= (7) − (3) + ( 4 ) − (7) + (3) − ( 4 ) 2 − 2𝜆 −2
4 1 5 4 1 5 (6𝜆 − 3) ( 6 )=0
5 3 −8 5 − 3𝜆 −3
= (4) (−3) + (−1) (−2(2 − 2𝜆) + 6(6𝜆 − 3) − 3(5 − 3𝜆) = 0
3 1 −4
8 −8 0 −4 + 4𝜆 + 36𝜆 − 18 − 15 + 9𝜆 = 0
(1) + (−1) = (0) = 0 36𝜆 + 9𝜆 + 4𝜆 − 18 − 15 − 4 = 0
4 −4 0
49𝜆 = 37
37
Length and the equation of the perpendicular 𝜆=
drawn from the point 49
Example I 37
2 − 2( )
Find the equation and length of the perpendicular 49
drawn from a point (2, 3, -4) to the line 37
𝐴𝐵 = 6 ( ) − 3
4−𝑥 𝑦 1−𝑧 49
= = 37
2 6 3
Solution (5 − 3 (49))

382
 24⁄ 4𝜆 − 8 + 81𝜆 − 36 + 25𝜆 + 5 = 0
49 81𝜆 + 25𝜆 + 4𝜆 − 8 + 5 − 36 = 0
𝐴𝐵 = 75⁄49 110𝜆 = 39
134⁄ 39
( 49) 𝜆=
110
24
49
39
2 2( )−4
75 110
𝑟 = ( 3 )+𝜆 49 39
−4 𝐴𝐵 = 9 ( )−4
134 110
( 49 ) 39
Equation of the perpendicular ( 110) + 1)
5 (
x2 y 3 z4 −362
 
72 69 186
49 49 49 110
Length of the perpendicular AB −89
=
110
24 2 75 2 134 2 −305
𝐴𝐵 = √( ) +( ) +( )
49 49 49 ( 110 )
AB = 3.1719 units
−362 2 −89 2 −305 2
Find the length and equation of the perpendicular |𝐴𝐵| = √( ) ( ) ( )
drawn from a point (5, 4, -1) to the line; 𝒓 = 𝒊 + 110 110 110
𝜆(2𝒊 + 9𝒋 + 5𝒌)
|𝐴𝐵| = 4.379 units
Solution
A(5, 4, -1) Equation of the perpendicular bisector is
362
110
5
89
𝑟 =( 4 )+𝜇 110
−1 305
B(1+2λ, 9λ, 5λ) () 110

𝑥−5 𝑦−4 𝑧+1

= = =𝜇
1 2 −362⁄ −89⁄ 305⁄
110 110 110
𝑟 = (0) + 𝜆 (9)
0 5
𝑥 1 2𝜆
(𝑦) = (0) + (9𝜆) Shortest Distance between Parallel Planes
𝑧 0 5𝜆
𝑥 1 + 2𝜆 Example I
(𝑦) = ( 9𝜆 ) Find the perpendicular distance between two parallel
𝑧 5𝜆 planes;
1 + 2𝜆 − 5 2𝜆 − 4 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 14𝑧 = 30
𝐴𝐵 = ( 9𝜆 − 4 ) = (9𝜆 − 4) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 14𝑧 = −15
5𝜆 + 1 5𝜆 + 1 Solution
r.nˆ  d1
𝐴𝐵. 𝑑 = 0
2 Plane 1
𝑑 = (9) 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 14𝒌 30
5 𝑟. ( )=
2𝜆 − 4 2 15 15
(9𝜆 − 4) (9) = 0 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 14𝒌
5𝜆 + 1 5 𝑟. ( )=2
(2(2𝜆 − 4) + 9(9𝜆 − 4) + 5(5𝜆 + 1) = 0 15

383
 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 14𝒌
𝑟. ( )=2
15
Plane 2
𝑟. 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 14𝒌 = −15 units
O
2𝒊 + 5𝒋 − 14𝒌
𝑟. ( ) = −1 unit
15

3 4 7
   units
2 units 6 6 6

O 1 unit
Shortest distance between two parallel
lines
A
θ

Example II d
Find the perpendicular distance between two parallel
planes;
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 3 θ
r.nˆ  d1 O B
For plane 1 A
r.(i  2 j  k )  4
(i  2 j  k ) 4
r.  d
6 6
For plane 2
r.(i  2 j  k )  3 O B
0 (i  2 j  k ) 3
r. 
6 6 Distance between a point A and line B
d  AB sin
Example I
Find the shortest distance between the following
pairs of parallel lines

x  2 y 1 z  3
 
1 1 2
and

384
 x 1 y  3 z 1 A (2, 0, 3)
 
1 1 2 θ

AB   2  1  1  3   3  1
2 2 2
d
AB  17
θ
AB  OB  OA B (1, -1, 4)

AB   2  1   0  1   3  4 
2 2 2
−1 2 −3
( 3 ) − (1) = ( 2 )
AB  1  1  1
1 3 −2
AB  3
A (2, 1, 3)
2
θ cos 𝜃 =
√18
2
d 𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
√18
𝜃 = 61.9°
θ 𝑑
sin 𝜃 =
B (-1, 3, 1) √3
𝑑
sin 61.9° =
AB.d
cos   √3
AB .d 𝑑 = √3 sin 61.9°
𝑑 = 1.52789 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
−3 1
( 2 ) . (−1) SKEW LINES
cos 𝜃 = −2 2 These are lines which are neither parallel nor
√17√6 perpendicular
−9 Shortest distance between two skew lines
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
√100
Example I
𝜃 = 26.8° Find the shortest distance between the following
𝑑 skew lines
sin 26.8° = −1 1 0 2
√17 𝒓 = ( 2 ) + 𝜆 (2) and 𝒓 = (−1) + 𝜇 (1)
𝑑 = 1.859 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡s 3 1 1 3

Example II
Find the distance between the following pairs of
parallel lines
2 1
𝑟 = (0) + 𝜆 (−1)
3 2
1 1
𝑟 = (−1) + 𝜇 (−1)
4 2 AB  OB  OA
Solution

385
 2   (1   )   2    1  AB  OB  OA
   
 1    (2  2 )      2  3    1     2   3 
1  3  (3   )   3    2     
     1  3    1       3    2 
 2    1  1    1  2  2 
    1  2   2   
   2  3   2   0  3 0
 3    2  1    
  
 3     2   1   0
2    1  2  4  6  3    2  0  1  2   2   2 
  
7   6  7.......................(1)
3    2  2  4   4  0
 2    1   2  7   5  4  0
  
   2  3   1   0 7   5  4  0
 3    2   3 
   7   5  4..........................(1)
4   2  2    2  3  9  3  6  0  3  1 
14   7  7  0   
 3     2    3   0
14   7  7........................(2)  1  2   2    2 
  
1 7  12 
 ,     3  9   3  6  2  4   4  7
5 5
14   7  11  0 AB    6 
 7 
2  14   7  11......................(2)  3 
   7 
AB   0.4  9
  ,   1
 1.2  7
 
AB  22  (0.4) 2  (1.2) 2  2.3664units  12 2   6  2  3  2
AB      
 7   7  7
Example II
144 36 9
Find the shortest distance between the following AB   
pairs of skew lines 49 49 49
x  2 y 1 z x 1 y 1 z 1 3 21
  and   AB  units
0 1 2 1 3 2 7
Solution
Vector Geometry
2  0  1  1 
        Example I
r   1     1  , r   1      3  Triangle OAB has OA=a, OB=b. C is a point on OA
0   2 1   2 
        such that OC= 2 a. D is a mid point of AB when CD
3
is produced, it meets OB at E such that DE = nCD and
BE=kb. Express BE, DE in terms of;
a) n, a and b
b) k, b and a. Hence find the values of n and k.

386
 A 1 1
 k  3
2 2
3 1
k   1
2 2
C D
Example II
Given that OA is a and OB=b point R is on OB such
O E that OR:RB=4:1. Point P is on AB such that
B BP:PA=2:3. When RP and OA are both produced, they
meet at Q. Find OR and OP in terms of a and b
DE  nCD ii) OQ in terms of a
Solution
DE  n CA  AD  B

1 
DE  n  a  AD 
3  R

1 1 
DE  n  a  AB  P
3 2  b
1 1 1
DE  na  nb  na
3 2 2
a
1 1 O A Q
DE  na  nb...................(1)
6 2 4 4
OR  OB  OR  b
DE  DB  BE 5 5
1
DE  AB  kb OP  OB  BP
2
2
1 OP  b  BA
DE  (b  a)  kb 5
2
2
1 1 OP  b  (a  b)
DE  b  a  kb 5
2 2
1
OP  (3b  2a)
1  1 5
DE    k  b  a
2  2
OQ   OA  a
1 1
a   na OQ  OR  RQ
2 6
1 1 4
 n OQ  b   RP
2 6 5
6  2n 4  4 1 
OQ  b    b   2a  3b  
n3 5  5 5 
4 1  2
1  1 OQ      b   a
  k  b  nb 5 5  5
2  2

387
 4 1 1
  0 OT = a +  (a + b)
5 5 4
4 1
OT = a −  a +  b
4
1

2
 OT = (1 −  )a +  b ……..….. (ii)
5 4
8
Equating components of vectors a and b in Eqns (i)
 and (ii);
5
1
  1   .......................(iii)
8 2
OQ = a
5 1 1
  .........................(iv)
2 4
Example III From Eqn (iv);
O, A and B are non collinear points OA = a, OB = b, C 2  
is midpoint of AB, D is a point on OB such that 
1   1  2
OD = OB . T is a point of intersection of OC and AD. 2
4 5
Find the vector OT in terms of a and b. 1
2
Solution 2

B 5
4

5
3
21 1 
OT   a  b 
C 52 2 
1
OT   a  b 
D
T
1 5

a
Revision Exercise
O A
1. In a triangle ABC, the altitudes from B and C meet
OT = λOC the opposite sides at E and F respectively. BE and
OC = OB + BC CF intersect at O. Taking O as the origin, use the
1 dot product to prove that AO is perpendicular to
=b+ BA
2 BC
1 (b) Find the point of intersection of the line
= b + (a – b) x y2 z  1 with the plane
2  
5 2 4
1
OC = (a + b) 3x + 4y + 2z – 25 = 0
2
(c) Find the angle between the line
1 1 
OT    a  b  x4

y2

z  1 and the plane 4x + 3y + 1 =
 2 2  8 2 4
1 1 0
OT   a  b..........................(i)
2 2 2. (a) Show that the equation of the plane through
OT = OA + AT points A with position vector 2i + 2k
= a +  AD perpendicular to the vector i + 3j – 2k is x + 3y –
AD = AO + OD 2z + 10 = 0
1 (b) (i) Show that the vector 2i – 5j + 3.5k is
=a+ b
4 perpendicular to the line r = 2i – j + λ(4i + 3j +
2k)

388
 (ii) Calculate the angle between the vector 3i – 2j (b) coordinates (0, 6, -6) and (5, -7, 2)
+ k and the line in (b)(i) above. (c) coordinates (0, 0, 0) and (5, -2, 3)
3. A point P has coordinates (1, -2, 3) and a certain 11. Write down in parametric form the vector
plane has the equation x + 2y + 2z = 8. The line equations of the planes through the given points
x y 1 z 1 parallel to the given pairs of vectors.
through P parallel to the line  
3 1 2 (a) (1, -2, 0); i + 3j and –j + 2k
meets the plane at a point Q. (b) the origin; 2i – j and –i + 2j – 7k
4. (a) The line through A(1, -2, 2) and perpendicular (c) (3, 1, -1); j and i + j + k.
to the plane 4x – y + 2z + 12 = 0 meets the plane 12. Find a vector equation for the plane passing
in point B. Find the coordinates of B. through the points with position vectors 2k, i – 3j
(b) Given that the vectors ai – 2j + k and 2ai + aj + k and 5i + 2j.
– 4i are perpendicular, find the values of a. 13. Find the vector equation of the plane through the
5. Find the equation of the plane through the point points A(1, 0, -2) and B(3, -1, 1) which is parallel
(1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to the vector r = 4i + 5j to the line with vector equation r = 3i + (2λ – 1)j
+ k. + (5 – λ)k. Hence find the coordinates of the point
6. (a) The vertices of a triangle are P(2, -1, 5), Q(7, of intersection of the plane and the line r = μi + (5
1, -3) and R(13, -2, 0). Show that PQR = 90°. – μ)j + 2μ – 7)k.
Find the coordinates of S if PQRS is a rectangle. 14. Find a vector equation for the line joining the
(b) Find the equation of the line through A(2, 2, 5) points
and B(1, 2, 3) (a) (2, 6) and (5, 2)
(c) If the line in (b) above meets the line (b) (-1, 2, -3) and (6, 3, 0).
x 1 y  2 z 1 15. (a) Points A and B have coordinates (4, 1) and (2,
  at P, find the:
1 0 3 -5) respectively. Find a vector equation for the
(i) coordinates of P, line which passes through A and perpendicular to
(ii) angle between the two lines the line AB.
7. The position vector of points P and Q are 2i – 3j and (b) Points P and Q have coordinates (3, 5) and (-3,
3i – 7j + 12k respectively. Determine the length of -7) respectively. Find a vector equation for the
PQ. PQ meets the plane 4x + 5y – 2z = 5 at point S. line which passes through the point P and which is
Find: perpendicular to the line PQ
(a) the coordinates of S, 16. Find a vector equation for the perpendicular
(b) the angle between PQ and the plane. bisector of the points:
8. (a) Find the angle between the line r = 3k + λ(7i – j (a) (6, 3) and (2, -5)
+ 4k) and the plane r  (2i – 5j – 2k) = 8 (b) (7, -1) and (3, -3)
(b) Show that the lines with vector equations 17. Points P, Q and R have position vectors 4i – 4j, 2i
r1 = (1 + 4λ)i + (1 – λ)j + (2λ)k , and + 2j, and 8i + 6j respectively.
r2 = (5 + 3μ)i + (2μ)j + (2 – 5μ)k. (a) Find a vector equation for the line L1 which is
intersect at right angles and give the position the perpendicular bisector to the points P and
vector of the point of intersection.
Q
9. Find the equation of the line with directrix vector d
(b) Find a vector equation for the line L2 which is
which passes through the point with position vector
the perpendicular bisector to the points A and
a given that
R.
(a) a = i + 2j – k, d = 3i – k
(b) a = 4i – 3k, d = i – 3j + 3k (c) Hence find the position vector of the point
10. Find the vector equation of the line which passes where L1 and L2 meet.
through the points with (a) position vectors 3i – 3j
+ k and -2j + j + k.
(a) position vector i + 4j and 3i – j + 2k,

389
18. Two lines L1 and L2 have equations Find the Cartesian equation of the intersection
 x  0  1  x  2  1 point.
L1 : y  1    3 
    and L2 :  y    1     1  .  2
            28. The equation of a plane P is given by r   6   33 ,
 z   3   6 z 1  2  
9  
(a) Show that L1 and L2 are concurrent (meet at a
common point) and find the position vector of where r is the position vector of P. find the
their point of intersection. perpendicular distance from the plane to the
(b) Find the angle between L1 and L2. origin.
19. Points P, Q, and R have coordinates (-1, 1), (4, 6) 29. The line through point P(1, -2, 3) and parallel to
x y 1
and (7, 3) respectively. the line   z  1 meets the plane x + 2y
(a) Show that the perpendicular distance from the 3 1
+ 27 8 at Q. find the coordinates of Q.
point R to the point PQ is 3 2 .
30. (a) Find the angle between the plane x + 4y – z =
(b) Deduce that the area of the triangle PQR is 15
72 and the line r = 9i + 6j + 8k.
sq.units.
(b) obtain the equation of the plane that passes
20. Points A, B and C have position vectors –i + 3j +
through (1, -2, 2) and perpendicular to the line
9k, 5i + 6j – 4k and 4i + 7j + 5k respectively. P is x9 y6 z 8
 
the point on AB such that AP   AB . Find: 4 1 1
(a) AB (c) Find the parametric equations of the line of
(b) CP intersection of the plane x + y + z = 4 and
(c) Find the perpendicular distance from the point x – y + 2z + 2 = 0
C to the line AB. 31. Find the point of intersection of the three planes
21. Two lines L1 and L2 have vector equations 2x – y + 3z = 4, 3x – 2y + 6z = 3 and 7x – 4y + 5z
r1 = (2 – 3λ)i + (1 + λ)j + 4λk = 11.
r2 = (-1 + 3λ)i + 3j + (4 – λ)k respectively. Find: 32. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane with
(a) the position vector of their common point of  3 2  1
parametric vector equation r   0     1   1
intersection.      
(b) the angle between the lines. 1   
0  1 
22. Find the equation of the plane containing points 33. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane
P(1, 1, 1), Q(1, 2, 0) and (-1, 2, 1). 1
23. Find the equation of the plane containing point (4, containing the point with position vector  3  and
 
-2, 3) and parallel to the plane 3x – 7z = 12 1
24. Show that the point with position vector 7i – 5j –
1 2
4k lies in the plane r = 4i + 3j + 2k + λ(i – j – k) +
parallel to the vectors 1 and  1  .
 
μ(2i + 3j + k). Find the point at which the line x =    
y – 1 = 2z intersects the plane 4x – y + 3z = 8. 3  3 
25. Find the parametric equations for the line through 34. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane
the point (0, 1, 2) that is parallel to the plane x + y containing the points with position vectors
+ z = 2 and perpendicular to the line x = 1 + t, y = 1  2 3
 2  ,  1  and  3  .
1 – t, z = 2t.      
26. Find the distance between the parallel planes  1  2  3
z = x + 2y + 1 and 3x + 6y – 3z = 4 35. Find the perpendicular distance from the plane
27. Two planes are given by the parametric equations r.(2i – 14j + 5k) = 10 to the origin.
x=r+3 and x = 1 + r + s
y = 3s and y = 2 + r
z = 2r and z = -3 + 5

390
36. Find the position vector of the point where the (b) Find the equation of the plane in (a) above
2  5 (c) Show that the point T(5, -4, 3) lies on the plane
line r  1    3  meets the plane
  in (a) above.
    (d) Write down the equation in the form r = a + λb
3  2
of the perpendicular through the point P(3, 4, 2)
2 to the plane in (a) above.
r   1   15 . (e) If the perpendicular meets the plane in (a) above
 
 3  at N, determine vector NP.
3 1
37. Two lines have vector equations r   1    2 
   
1  1
 4  1
and r   4     1  . Find the position vector of
   
 
1 2 
the point of intersection of the two lines and the
Cartesian equation of the plane containing the two
lines.
38. The position vector of points P and Q are 3i - j +
2k and 2i + 2j + 3k, respectively. Find the acute
angle between PQ and the line 1 – x =
y3 4z
 .
2 4
(b) Find the point of intersection of the line x – 2
= 2y + 1 = 3 – z and the plane x + 2y + z = 3.
(c) Find the equation of the plane through the
origin parallel to the lines r = 3i + 3j – k + s(i – j –
2k) and r = 4i – 5j – 8k + t(3i + 7j – 6k)
39. (a) The points A and B have position vectors a =
2i – j + 6k and b = 7i – 6j + k respectively. Find
the coordinates of a point P which divides the
vector AB in the ratio:
(i) 4:1
(ii) 1:4
40. (b) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane
through the origin parallel to the lines
z 1
x3 3 y  and
2
x4 y5 x8
 
3 7 6
(c) Find the angle between the line
y  3 4  z and the plane
1 x  
2 4
2x – 3y – 2z + 5 = 0.
41. (a) Determine the unit vector perpendicular to the
plane containing the points A(0, 2, -4),
B(2, 0, 2) and C(-8, 4, 0).

391