Principles of Programming using C – 23ESCS11 Module – 1

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Dayananda Sagar Academy of Technology & Approved by AICTE
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(Autonomous Institute under VTU) 6 Programs Accredited by NBA
(CSE, ISE, ECE, EEE, MECH, CV)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

NOTES

SUBJECT: Principles of Programming using C

SUBJECT CODE: 23ESCS11

SEMESTER: I/II Sem

PREPARED BY

SRIDEVI G M

DEPARTMENT OF ISE, DSATM

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Principles of Programming using C – 23ESCS11 Module – 1

BASIC INFORMATION
Bits, Bytes and Words
Bit: The bit is smallest value which can be stored in computer. The bit is also called as binary
digit. The bit can hold binary value either 0 or 1.
Nibble: The nibble is a collection of four bits.
Byte: The byte is a collection of eight bits. The byte is the standard unit of measurement of computer
memory data storage and transmission speed.

The relationships between these units are expressed in the following manner:

Unit Equivalent to Remarks

1 kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes Space used by 10 lines of text.

I megabyte (MB) 1024 kilobytes Memory of the earliest PCs
1 gigabyte (GB) 1024 megabytes Storage capacity of a CD-ROM
1 terabyte (TB) 1024 gigabytes Capacity of today's hard disks.
1 petabyte (PB) 1024 terabytes Space used for rendering of film Avatar

Words: Even though computer memory is measured in bytes (rather mega- or gigabytes), the CPU
handles memory data in larger units, called words, where a word is usually an even multiple of
bytes (two bytes, four bytes, etc.). This number is purely based on processor architecture.

Most machine instructions are one word in size, and because a CPU register must be able to hold an
instruction, it too is one word wide.

Module I
INTRODUCTION TO C
1.1 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic device that is designed to accept data,
perform the required mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and output the result. The
processing is fast, accurate and consistent, and is generally achieved without significant human
intervention.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

A computer is an electronic device that performs a function based on a given set of instructions
known as a program. A computer accepts data, processes it, and produces information. Here, data
refers to some raw fact or figure, and information implies the processed data. The important
characteristics of a computer (refer to Figure 1.1) are discussed in the following text.

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Fig. 1.1 Characteristics of a Computer

Speed Computers can perform millions of operations per second, which means that data that may
otherwise take many hours to process is output as information in the blink of an eye. The speed
of computers is usually given in nanoseconds and picoseconds, where 1 nanosecond = 1 × 10 −9
seconds and 1 picosecond = 1 × 10 −12 seconds.

Accuracy A computer is a very fast, reliable, and robust electronic device. It always gives accurate
results, provided the correct data and set of instructions are input to it. Hence, in the event of an
error, it is the user who has fed the incorrect data/program is responsible. This clearly means that
the output generated by a computer depends on the given instructions and input data. If the input
data is wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. In computer terminology, this is known as
garbage-in, garbage-out (GIGO).

Automation Besides being very fast and accurate, computers are automatable devices that can
perform a task without any user intervention. The user just needs to assign the task to the
computer, after which it automatically controls different devices attached to it and executes the
program instructions.

Diligence Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a repetitive task. It can continually work for
hours without creating errors. Even if a large number of executions need to be executed, each and
every execution requires the same duration, and is executed with the same accuracy.

Versatile Versatility is the quality of being flexible. Today, computers are used in our daily life in
different fi elds. For example, they are used as personal computers (PCs) for home use, for
business-oriented tasks, weather forecasting, space exploration, teaching, railways, banking,
medicine, and so on, indicating that computers can perform different tasks simultaneously. On
the PC that you use at home, you may play a game, compose and send e-mails, listen to music,

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Principles of Programming using C – 23ESCS11 Module – 1

etc. Therefore, computers are versatile devices as they can perform multiple tasks of different
nature at the same time.

Memory Similar to humans, computers also have memory. Just the way we cannot store everything
in our memory and need secondary media, such as a notebook, to record certain important things,
computers also have internal or primary memory (storage space) as well as external or secondary
memory. While the internal memory of computers is very expensive and limited in size, the
secondary storage is cheaper and of bigger capacity.

No IQ Although the trend today is to make computers intelligent by inducing artificial intelligence
(AI) in them, they still do not have any decision-making abilities of their own. They need
guidance to perform various tasks.

Economical Today, computers are considered as short term investments for achieving long-term
gains. Using computers also reduces manpower requirements and leads to an elegant and efficient
way of performing various tasks. Hence, computers save time, energy, and money. When
compared to other systems, computers can do more work in lesser time.

1.3 STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT

All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program concept, which was introduced by
Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s. The following are the key characteristic features of this
concept:
• Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory.
• Instructions are stored in the computer’s memory for execution.
• Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and 1s).
• Processing starts with the fi rst instruction in the program, which is copied into a control unit
circuit. The control unit executes the instructions.
• Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a break in the current
flow.
• Input/Output and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While data is being
read/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another program in the memory that is
ready for execution.
Types of Stored Program Computers
1. Shared memory for instructions and data

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2. Separate memory for instructions and data

1.4 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

• Five of generations of computer is listed in (Table 1.1).

• The computer of each generation is faster, smaller and me powerful than its counterpart of the
preceding generation.
• Consequently, advances in hardware have also resulted in the development of powerful and
user-friendly programming language.

Table 1.1 Computer Generations (Hardware)

Generation. Based on Other Features
First Vacuum tubes Magnetic drums for memory
Magnetic cores, disks, punched cards and
Second Transistors
printouts
Third Integrated circuits Keyboard, monitor and operating system
(ICs)
Fourth Microprocessors Networking
ULSI Nano
Fifth Mainly unclear
technology

Vacuum Tubes: The First Generation

• Computers of this generation (like the Colossus and ENIAC) used thousands of vacuum
tubes for computation.
• Memory requirements were met by magnetic drums (forerunner of today's hard disk).
• Because of the size of vacuum tubes, first generation computers took up a lot of space.
• They also consumed enormous amounts of power and generated a lot of heat. In spite of
housing these computers in air-conditioned enclosures, frequent breakdowns were
common.
• The ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 sq. ft. of room space and consumed
180KW of power,
• Machines of this generation were prohibitively expensive to buy and maintain.
• First-generation computers were programmed using a first-generation language- machine
language.

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• Program input was provided by punched cards and output was obtained on paper.
• First-generation computers were only used for scientific work and were not deployed
commercially.

Transistors: The Second Generation

• The transistors replaced vacuum tubes in second-generation computers which became
available in the 1950s.
• Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors were faster, smaller and consumed less power
smaller magnetic cores also replaced the first-generation magnetic drums.
• Even though transistor generated less heat, second-generation computers still needed air-
conditioning.
• The input-output mechanism however remained largely unchanged.
• Second-generation computers were programmed using a symbolic or assembly language.
• The computers also implemented the stored program concept which allowed both program
and data to reside in memory.
• Higher level languages like COBOL language for most applications and FORTRAN also began
to make their appearance.

Integrated Circuits: The Third Generation

• Computer speed and efficiency got a sharp boost with the development of the integrated
circuit.
• By virtue of miniaturization, computers consequently got smaller, cheaper and energy
efficient. For these reasons, they could be seen in several medium-sized organizations.
• This generation adopted a keyboard and monitor to interact with the user.
• Memory capacity increased substantially, and the magnetic hard disk was used for
secondary storage.
• Third-generation computers also had an operating system, which is a special program
meant to control the resources of the computer.
• By virtue of a feature known as time sharing, the computer could run programs invoked
by multiple users.
• The existing programming languages were supplemented by BASIC, C, C++ and Java.

The Microprocessor: The Fourth Generation

• The integration of components went several steps ahead. Using LSI (Large Scale
Integration) and VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) technology, it is now possible to
have the entire CPU, its associated memory and input/output control circuitry on a single
chip.
• Intel introduced the 4004 microprocessor in 1971 and improvement in the usual parameters
(like speed, heat generation, size, etc.) continues at a frenetic pace to this day.

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• Microprocessors have invaded our homes to drive desktops, laptops, smartphones,

microwave ovens and washing machines.
• Laptops and smartphones offer gigabytes (GB) of memory compared to a few megabytes
(MB) that were available in the early days of this generation.
• Operating systems have moved from the rudimentary MSDOS to a mouse based Graphical
User Interface (GUI) like Windows. More advanced systems like Linux are now available
for desktops and laptops, and a variant of it (Android) powers most of our smartphones.
• There have been other sweeping changes in this generation. Laptops and smartphones offer
Fourth generation languages (4GLs), which resemble natural languages, have also come
into being.
• This generation has also made a rapid strides in networking technology, sharing of
information, became possible by connecting computers in a network using TCP/IP
technology.

Artificial Intelligence: The Fifth Generation

• The fifth generation represents a vision of the computers of the future. The conventional
parameters of computing (speed, size, energy consumption, VLSI to UL.SI, etc.) would
continue to improve path-breaking changes in the way we use computers are also expected.
• Fifth-generation systems should be capable of producing human-like behavior. These
systems expected to interact with users in natural language and learn from experience.
Speech recognition and speech output should also be possible with these systems.
• Computer speeds need to make an exponential jump, a feat that would be possible using
quantum computers. Google’s D-Wave 2X quantum computer is 100 million times faster
than today's machines.
• Computers must be able to perform parallel processing so that multiple processors
concurrently handle different aspects of a problem.
• Neural networks and expert systems have to be developed. These applications would be
able to make decisions and advise humans by analysing data using human-like intelligence
but without using the services of an expert.
• Other possibly disruptive technologies-like molecular computing that could take
miniaturization to molecular levels.

1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

The computers can also be categorized by their size. The size of a computer is often an indirect
indicator of its capabilities and the application domains where they are employed.

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The following categories are in order of descending size.

Supercomputers
• These are huge machines having the most powerful and fastest processors.
• A supercomputer uses multiple CPUs for parallel data processing.
• Speeds are measured in Hop (floating point operations per second).
• The fastest supercomputer (the Tianhe-2) operates at a speed of 34 peta flops. (1 peta =
1000 tera = 1,000,000 giga).
• Supercomputers can handle multiple users but that’s not its unique feature.
• Supercomputers are too powerful to be used for transaction processing.
• Used for weather forecasting, analysis of geological data, nuclear simulation and space
exploration.
• They are also used to solve complex scientific problems Supercomputers have enormous
storage, with huge amounts of power and generate a lot of heat.
• Because of their exorbitant cost, they are mainly used by government agencies

Mainframes
• These are multi-user machines that can support hundreds or thousands of users using the
feature of time sharing supported by systems like Linux.
• Users interact with this system using a terminal and keyboard, which is akin to the
way we use PCs.
• Mainframes can concurrently run multiple programs even with a single CPU.
• The processor speed in a mainframe is measured in mip (million instructions per second).
• Mainframes are generally used to handle data and applications related to the organization
as whole.
• The mainframes are employed to handle online transactions (stock exchange transactions,
for instance).
• The capability to handle large amounts of data makes the mainframe suitable for use in
government, banks and financial institutions, and large corporations.

Note:

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➢ The supercomputer is employed to run one program as fast as possible.

➢ The mainframe is meant to serve a large number of users.

Minicomputers
• Minicomputers or midrange computers as they can be considered as downsized
mainframes since they have the essential features of mainframes.
• Minicomputers can serve hundreds of users and are small enough to partially occupy a
room. But they are not affordable enough to be used in the home.
• The minicomputer, which Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced in the 1970s,
is thus rightly positioned between a mainframe and a micro-computer.
• Minicomputers are used in smaller organizations or a department of large one captive
machines of turnkey equipment running specialized software.

Microcomputers
• The microcomputer or personal computer (PC) introduced by Apple and later endorsed by
IBM.
• This computer is a single-user machine powered by a single microprocessor; Today's PCs
are very powerful machines having gigabytes of memory and a terabyte or two of disk
storage.
• They are used both in the standalone mode (at home) and in a network (in office).
• A microcomputer takes the form of a desktop, notebook (laptop) or a netbook (smaller
Laptop).
• Even though a PC has a single CPU, high-end PCs support microprocessors comes with
multiple cores like the Intel Core i5 and i7 etc. Each core can be considered with some
approximation processor by itself.
• PCs today are powered by three types of operating systems Windows, Mac OS and Linux.
• Businesses and individuals use the PC for word processing, spread sheet handling and
desktop publishing; PCs also support Internet browsing software like Firefox and Google
Chrome.
• All PCs are multimedia ready, they can handle images, audio and video files the PC is also
an entertainment device.
• A variant of the microcomputer is the workstation which essentially is a microcomputer
with a more powerful processor, high resolution terminal and high quality graphic
capabilities (like CAD/CAM).

Smartphones and Embedded Computers

The relentless drive toward miniaturization has led to the emergence of two types of devices
1. Smartphones:
• The smartphone is a general-purpose computer that sis also capable of making phone calls.

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• The smartphone has a powerful processor, usually with multiple cores like the quad- core
Snapdragon 820).
• It also supports gigabytes of main memory but doesn't have a hard disk for secondary
storage. This requirement is met by flash memory (1.10.4).
• Smartphones today run well-developed operating system (Android or iOS), and can run a
wide range of application (popular called “apps”).

2. Embedded computers:
• The embedded computer is a small computer-like that is part of a larger system. Embedded
computers (also called microcontrollers) arrived before smartphones.
• These are very small circuits containing CPU, non-volatile memory and input and output
handling facilities.
• They are embedded into many of the machines that we ears, washing machines, MP3
players and cameras.
• The processor here in a single modifiable program stored in memories embedded
computers can't match the capabilities of a smartphone.

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Word Processing software enables users to read and write documents. Users can add images, tables
and graphs. It has automatic correction of spelling mistakes and copy-paste features.
Internet is a network of networks that connects computers all over the world and provides access to
an enormous amount of information. E-mail, Chat software and video conferencing tools
Digital video or audio composition and editing is simpler with computers.
Desktop publishing enables users to create page layouts for entire books
● Government ● Simulation
● Traffic Control ● Geology
● Legal System ● Astronomy
● Retail ● Weather Forecasting
● Sports ● Education
● Music ● Online Banking
● Movies ● Industry and Engineering
● Travel and Tourism ● Robots
● Business and Industry ● Decision Support Systems
● Hospitals ● Expert Systems

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1.7 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device that performs five major operations:

• Accepting data or instructions (input)
• Storing data
• Processing data
• Displaying results (output)
• Controlling and coordinating all operations inside a computer

In this section, we will discuss all these functions and see how one unit of a computer interacts with
another to perform these operations. Figure 1.11 shows the interaction between the different units of
a computer system.

Input This is the process of entering data and instructions (also known as programs ) into the
computer system. The data and instructions can be entered by using different input devices such as
keyboard, mouse, scanner, and trackball. Note that computers understand binary language, which
consists of only two symbols (0 and 1), so it is the responsibility of the input devices to convert the
input data into binary codes.

Storage: Storage is the process of saving data and instructions permanently in the computer so that
they can be used for processing. The computer storage space not only stores the data and programs
that operate on that data but also stores the intermediate results and the final results of processing.
A computer has two types of storage areas:
Primary storage Primary storage, also known as the main memory , is the storage area that is directly
accessible by the CPU at very high speeds. It is used to store the data and parts of programs, the
intermediate results of processing, and the recently generated results of jobs that are currently being
worked on by the computer. Primary storage space is very expensive and therefore limited in
capacity. Another drawback of main memory is that it is volatile in nature; that is, as soon as the
computer is switched off, the information stored gets erased. Hence, it cannot be used as a permanent
storage of useful data and programs for future use. An example of primary storage is random access
memory (RAM).

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Secondary storage Also known as auxiliary memory, this memory is just the opposite of primary
memory. It overcomes all the drawbacks of the primary storage area. It is cheaper, non-volatile, and
used to permanently store data and programs of those jobs that are not being currently executed by
the CPU. Secondary memory supplements the limited storage capacity of the primary memory. An
example is the magnetic disk used to store data, such as C and D drives, for future use.

Output Output is the process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world (external to
the computer system). The results are given through output devices such as monitor, and printer.
Since the computer accepts data only in binary form and the result of processing is also in binary
form, the result cannot be directly given to the user. The output devices, therefore, convert the results
available in binary codes into a human-readable language before displaying it to the user.

Control The control unit (CU) is the central nervous system of the entire computer system. It
manages and controls all the components of the computer system. It is the CU that decides the manner
in which instructions will be executed and operations performed. It takes care of the step-by-step
processing of all operations that are performed in the computer. Note that the CPU is a combination
of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the CU. The CPU is better known as the brain of the computer
system because the entire processing of data is done in the ALU, and the CU activates and monitors
the operations of other units (such as input, output, and storage) of the computer system.

Processing The process of performing operations on the data as per the instructions specifi ed by the
user (program) is called processing . Data and instructions are taken from the primary memory and
transferred to the ALU, which performs all sorts of calculations. The intermediate results of
processing may be stored in the main memory, as they might be required again. When the processing
completes, the fi nal result is then transferred to the main memory. Hence, the data may move from
main memory to the ALU multiple times before the processing is over.

LAB SESSION - INSIDE THE COMPUTER

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The following are some of the major parts of the computer:

CPU The CPU is the brain of the computer. It performs all calculations and controls the devices
connected to the computer system. The faster the CPU, the quicker programs can process the
instructions.

RAM A fast CPU is of no use if the computer does not have sufficient RAM. As discussed earlier,
RAM is the computer’s memory which stores information used by applications that are currently
being executed by the CPU. More memory means more applications can be executed at the same
time without degrading the system’s performance.

Hard disk drive (HDD) The HDD of the computer is the secondary memory of the computer system
where information is stored permanently. All types of data, documents, and programs are stored on
the hard disk. The larger the hard disk, the more the amount of data that can be stored on the drive.
Though the size of the HDD does not affect the speed of execution of the program, it does affect the
speed at which the user can access his/ her files.

Video card The video card is a board that plugs into the motherboard of the computer and generates
images for display. Many video cards these days have their own RAM and processor to enhance the
speed of the graphics display. Many computers come with an in-built video chip. In such a computer,
a separate video card is used only if the computer has to be used for high-end multimedia work or to
play video games.

Sound card As with video cards, sound cards are expansion boards that are used to enable a computer
to manipulate sound. For example, sound cards allow the users to plug in speakers and a microphone.
Some sound cards also provide the jacks for hooking your computer up to a common stereo.

Modem A modem (modulator–demodulator) is a device that enables the computer to use a telephone
line to communicate and connect to the Internet.

Network card A network card is used to connect the computer either to other computers or to the
Internet (in case you are using a fast Internet connection such as cable or DSL).

Fans There are one or more fans inside the computer to keep the air moving and the computer cool.

Cables There are multiple wires inside the computer that are fl at, ribbon-like cables. They are used
to provide power and communication to the various parts inside the computer.

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INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

2.1 INPUT DEVICES
An input device is used to feed data and instructions into the computer
1. Keyboard
• Typing Keys
• Numeric Keys
• Function Keys
• Control Keys

Keyboard Inside a Keyboard

2. Pointing Devices
 Mouse
 Point, Click, Drag, Scroll
 Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Cordless Mouse
 Trackball
 Touchpad

Mechanical Mouse Optical Mouse Cordless Mouse

Trackball Trackpad

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3. Handheld Devices

• Joystick
• Stylus
• Touchscreen

Joystick Stylus Touchscreen

4. Optical Devices

• Barcode Reader
• Image Scanner
• Optical Character Recognition
• Optical Mark Recognition
• Magnetic Ink Character Reader

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Barcode Reader Image Scanner Optical Character Recognition

Optical Mark Recognition Magnetic Ink Character Reader

5. Audio visual Input Devices

• Audio Devices
• Video Input Devices

Microphone Web camera Digital camera

2.2 OUTPUT DEVICES

1. Soft Copy Devices
• Monitor-CRT Monitor, LCD, Plasma Monitor
• Projector- LCD, Digital Light Display(DLP) projector
• Speakers

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CRT Monitor Working of a CRT Monitor

LCD Monitor Working of LCD Monitor

Plasma Monitor Working of Plasma Monitor

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LCD Projector DLP Projector

Speakers Headphones Headset

2. Hard Copy Devices

• Printer

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Dot Matrix Printer Daisy Wheel Printer

Line Printer Band Printer

Inkjet Printer Laser Printer

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• Plotter
a. Drum Plotter

b. flatbed plotter

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3.1 HISTORY OF C
The root of all modern languages is ALGOL, introduced in the early 1960s. ALGOL was the first
computer language to use a block structure. Although it never became popular in USA, it was
widely used in Europe. ALGOL gave the concept of structured programming to the computer
science community.

In 1967, Martin Richards developed a language called BCPL (Basic Combined Programming
Language) primarily for writing system software.
In 1970, Ken Thompson created a language using many features of BCPL and called it simply B.
B was used to create early versions of UNIX operating system at Bell Laboratories. Both BCPL
and B were "typeless" system programming languages.
C was evolved from ALGOL, BCPL and B by Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Laboratories in 1972.
C uses many concepts from these languages and added the concept of data types and other
powerful features.
Since it was developed along with the UNIX operating system, it is strongly associated with
UNIX. This operating system, which was also developed at Bell Laboratories, was coded almost
entirely in C.
During 1970s, c had evolved into what is now known as "traditional C". The language became
me popular after publication of the book The C Programming Language' by Brian Kerningham
and Dennis Ritchie in 1978. The book was so popular that the language came to be known as
"K&R C”
To assure that the C language remains standard, in 1983, American National Standards institute
(ANSI) appointed a technical committee to define a standard for C. The committee approved a
version of C in December 1989 which is now known as ANSI C. It was then approved by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1990. This version of C is also referred to as C89.

History of ANSI C

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Uses of C
• It is primarily used for system programming. The portability, efficiency, the ability to
access specific hardware addresses and low runtime demand on system resources makes it
a good choice for implementing operating systems and embedded system applications
• Compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often
implemented in C
• C is sometimes used as an intermediate language for implementation of other languages
• Widely used to Implement end user applications

3.2 STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM

The figure shows the structure of a C program. Each section is as discussed below.
• A C program is composed of preprocessor commands, a global declaration section and one or
more functions.
• The preprocessor directives contain special instructions that indicate how to prepare the program
for compilation.
• include is the most commonly used preprocessor directive which tells the compiler that to
execute the program, some information from the specified header file is needed. define is another
preprocessor directive used to define constant values in the program
• C program contains one or more functions where a function is defined as a group of statements
that are executed together.
• The statements in a C program are written in a logical sequence to perform a specific task.
• The main() function is the most important function and execution of a C program starts from
main().
• All functions are divided into 2 sections: the declaration section and the statements section.
• The declaration section precedes the statements and is used to describe the data that will be used
in the function.
• Data declared within a function is called local declaration as it will be visible only within the
function
• Data declared outside all the functions is called global declaration and are visible throughout the
program.

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NOTE: All sections, except the main function section may be absent when they are not
required.

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3.3 EXECUTING A ‘C’ PROGRAM

Executing a program written in C involves a series of steps which is illustrated in figure 1.10.
The steps are
1. Creating the program: Create the ‘C’ program by following the structure of ‘C’ program and
type using standard editors like gedit or vim or vi or nano etc.., and it is called source program
(example sum.c)
2. Compiling the program: compile the created source program with the compiler like gcc or
cc. The output of this step is called object code. Example: cc sum.c
3. Linking the program with functions that are needed from the C library: If you have used
math.h library or any external library functions in your program then link them to your
program object code during compilation itself. Example: cc sum.c -lm
4. Executing the program: Finally execute the program to generate desired output.
Example: ./a.out

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WRITING THE FIRST C PROGRAM

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3.4 FILES USED IN A C PROGRAM

1. Source code file: contains the source code of the program. The file extension is ‘.c’.
2. Header files: Some of the predefined functions and user defined functions are kept in header
files to reuse the functions without duplication. The file extension is ‘.h’

a. Standard header files: Functions provided by C compilers are included in standard

header files.
3. Object files: they are generated by the compiler as a result of processing the source code file.
They contain compact binary code of the function definitions. Linker uses this object file to
produce and executable file (.exe) by combining the object files together. Object files have
‘.o’ or ‘.obj’ extension.
4. Binary executable file: is generated by the linker by linking various object files to produce
a binary file that can be executed directly. Extension ‘.exe’

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3.5 COMPILING AND EXECUTING C PROGRAMS

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USING COMMENTS

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3.6 BASIC DATA TYPES IN C

The data type defines the type of data stored in a memory-location and allocates memory for the data.
The number of bytes allocated is based on architecture of the machine.
C supports three classes of data types:
1. Primary data type
Example: int, float, char, double, void
2. Derived data types Example: array
3. User-defined data types Example: structure

C supports five types of primary data types as illustrated in the figure 2.4.

int (integer)
• An int is a keyword which is used to define integers.
• Using int keyword, the programmer can inform the compiler that the data associated with
this keyword should be treated as integer.
• Integer is used to store whole number with the range of values supported by a particular
machine.
• Generally integer occupies one word of storage of machine which generally varies, (i.e. 16
or 32). In this notes 32 bit machine is considered.
• Integer will come up with signed and unsigned version.
• In signed integers out of allocated bits one bit i.e. MSB bit acts as sign bit and remaining
bits are used store value.
• In unsigned integers all allocated bits are used to store value.

C supports three different sizes of integer.

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1. short int (2 bytes)

2. int (4 bytes)
3. long int (8 bytes)

float (floating point single precision)

• A float is a keyword which is used to define floating point numbers.
• It allocates 4 bytes of memory Out of which 6 digit precision is provided, double (floating
point double precision)
• A double is a keyword used to define long floating point numbers.
• It allocates 8 bytes of memory Out of which 14 digit precision is provided.
• The long double allocates 16 bytes in which it has 80 bits precision.
• The floating point supports both types of values storage i.e. fractional values and scientific
value.

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3.7 VARIABLES
• A variable is a data name that may be used to store a data value and which can be changed
during the execution of program.
• A variable may take different values at different times during execution.
• A variable name can be chosen by the programmer in a meaningful way so as to reflect its
function or nature in the program.

Example: Average, sum. Total, Answer, number etc.

The following are the rules for variable naming
1. They must begin with a letter. Some system permits underscore as first character.
2. ANSI standard recognizes a length of 31 characters. However, length should not be normally
more than eight characters, since only the first eight characters are treated as significant by
many compilers.
3. Uppercase and lowercase are significant. That is Total is not the same as total or TOTAL.
4. It should not be a keyword.
5. White space is not allowed.

• Numeric Variables

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• Character variables
• Declaring variables
• Initialising variables

Declaring variables
The declaration does two things
• It tells the compiler what is the name of the variable used
• It specifies what type of data the variable will hold.
The syntax is
|data type variablenamel, variablename2, variablename3;

Where:
data type is any data-type which is supported by C language.
variablenamel, variablename2,... , variablenameN are variable-names which are taken by following
the rules.

Example:
int sum, total, number; float marks, average, area;

Initialising variables
• The variables are not initialized when they are declared. Hence, variables normally contain
garbage values and hence they have to be initialized with valid data.
• To assign a value to variable assignment operator (=) is used.
• The value can be assigned in two ways
• When a variable is declared, such assignment is called initialization.

Syntax:
data type var_name = value;

• After some times of declaration called as variable assignment.

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3.8 C TOKENS
C tokens are the basic buildings blocks in C language which are constructed together to write a C
program. Each and every smallest individual units in a C program are known as C tokens.
C tokens are of six types. They are,
1. Keywords (eg: int, while),
2. Identifiers (eg: main, total),
3. Constants (eg: 10, 20),
4. Strings (eg: “total”, “hello”),
5. Special symbols (eg: (), {}),
6. Operators (eg: +, /,-,*)

1. KEYWORDS
Keywords are reserve words which has predefined meaning in complier and which are used for their
intended purpose only.
There are 32 keywords in ANSI C and they are listed in following table

Rules for using keywords

• Keywords cannot be used as a variable or function.
• All keywords should be written in lower letters.

2. IDENTIFIERS
As the name indicates, identifier is used to identify various entities of program such as variables,
constants, functions etc.
Identifiers are user defined names and consists of sequence of letters and digits.
Rules for identifiers

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1. First character must be an alphabet (or underscore).

2. Must consist of only letters, Digits or underscore.
3. Only first 31 characters are significant
4. Cannot use a keyword.
5. Must not contain a white space.
Example: sum, answer, area, number 10, hello.

3. CONSTANTS

A constant is an identifier whose value remains fixed throughout the execution of the program.
C supports several types of constants.

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1. Integer constant
In integer there are three types of constants
a. Decimal: Consists of set of numbers between 0 and 9 and sign ‘-’ or ‘+’ are optional.
Example: 112, -150, +652 etc.
b. Hexadecimal: A sequence of digits preceded by Ox or OX is referred as hexadecimal constants.
Example: 0x6, 0X55, OXabe
Octal: It consist of any combination of digits between) through 7, with a leading 0.
Example: 037, 045, 0123

Real Constants
The quantities that represented by numbers containing fractional parts like 3.142, such numbers are
called real (or floating point) constants.
Example: 3.142, -4.124, +444.0 etc.
A real number can also be expressed in exponential (or scientific) notation.
Example: 215.65 can also be written as 2.1565e2
Where e2 means multiply by 102 The general form is
mantissa e exponent
Where
• mantissa is either a real number expressed in decimal notation or an integer.
• exponent is an integer number with an optional plus or minus sign.
• e separates the mantissa and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.

Example: 0.65e4 or 0.65E4

Single character constants

A single character constant (or character constant) contains a single character enclosed with in a pair
of single quotes.
Example: ‘5’, ‘a’, etc.

String Constants

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A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes.

Example: “Hello”, “546”, “;!>” etc.

Backslash character constant

A list of backslash character constants is given in following table.

These are also called escape sequences.

DEFINING A SYMBOLIC CONSTANT

• A symbolic constant is name that substitute for a sequence of character that cannot be
changed.
• The character may represent a numeric constant, a character constant, or a string.
• When the program is compiled, each occurrence of a symbolic constant is replaced by its
corresponding character sequence.
• They are usually defined at the beginning of the program.

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• The symbolic constants may then appear later in the program in place of the numeric
constants, character constants, etc., that the symbolic constants represent.

#define symbolic_name value_of_constant

Where:
• #define is a pre-processor directive.
• symbolic name is the name taken by following the rules of identifiers.
• value of constant is the value which a symbolic name should hold.
Example:

Symbolic and Symbolic names are sometimes called constant identifiers.

Since the symbolic names are constants they do not appear in declarations.
The following rules apply to #define statement which defines a symbolic constant:
1. Symbolic names have the same form as variable names. (Symbolic names are written in
CAPITALS to visually distinguish them from the normal variable names, which are written
in lowercase letters. This is only a convention, not a rule.)
2. No blank space between the pound sign and the word define is permitted.
3. must be the first character in the line.
4. A blank space is required between ^define and symbolic name and between the symbolic
name and the constant.
5. #define statements must not end with a semicolon.
6. After definition, the symbolic name should not be assigned any other value within the
program by using an assignment statement. For example, STRENGTH = 200; is illegal
constant.
7. Symbolic names are NOT declared for data types. Its data type depends on the type of
8. #define statements may appear anywhere in the program but before it is referenced in the
program (the usual practice is to place them in the beginning of the program).

DECLARING A VARIABLE AS CONSTANT

The constant can also be defined by declaring the variable with the qualifier const at the time or
initialization.
Example:

const int class size = 40;

• const is a new data type qualifier.
• This tells the compiler that the value int variable class size must not be modified by the
program.

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• However, it can be used on the right side of an assignment statement like any other variable.
• This type of constant is also called as Memory constant.

4. STRINGS
Strings are nothing but an array of characters ended with a null character ('\0'). This null character
indicates the end of the string. Strings are always enclosed in double quotes.
char string[20] = {‘h’, ’e’, ‘l’, ‘l’, ‘o’, ‘ ’, ‘w’, ‘o’, ‘r’, ’l’, ‘d’, ‘\0’};
char string[20] = “hello world”;
char string [] = “hello world”;

5. SPECIAL SYMBOLS
{,},[,],?,+,-,*,/,%,!,;,

6. OPERATORS
Operators are symbols that represent operations to be performed on one or more operands. C provides
a wide range of operators, which can be classified into different categories based on their
functionality. Operators are used for performing operations on variables and values.

Types of Operators: Arithmetic Operators, Relational Operators, Logical Operators,

Bitwise Operators, Conditional Operators, Assignment Operator, Increment/Decrement Operators

3.9 INPUT/OUTPUT STATEMENTS IN C

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FORMATTING INPUT/OUTPUT
C language supports two formatting functions printf and scanf.
printf is used to convert data stored in the program into a text stream for output to the
monitor(Standard output device)
scanf is used to convert the text stream coming from the keyboard(Standard input device) to data
values and stores them in program variables.
A program that uses standard I/O functions must contain the statement
#include< stdio.h>

printf()- Print formatting

The printf function is used to display information required by the user and also to print the values of
the variables

Flags Specify output justification such as decimal point, numerical sign, trailing zeros or octal,
decimal or hexadecimal prefixes.

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Width specifies the minimum number of characters to print after being padded with zeros or blank
spaces, that is it specifies the minimum number of positions in the output

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Printf examples

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scanf()- scan formatting

Reading Data from Keyboard:
The scanf function is used to read Formatted data from the keyboard. This function takes the text
stream from the keyboard Extracts and formats data from the stream According to a format control
string and then stores the data in specified program variables.

Width is an optional argument that specifies the maximum number of characters to be read.
Modifier is an optional argument that can be h, l or L for the data pointed by the corresponding
additional arguments.
Type specifies the type of data that has to be read

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Example:

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Examples of printf/scanf

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3.8 ERRORS IN PROGRAMMING

Errors in programming refer to issues or defects that arise within the program, resulting in
abnormal behavior. Even experienced developers can make these mistakes, which are also
referred to as bugs or faults. The process of eliminating these errors is called debugging. These

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errors in Programming can be identified during the program’s compilation or execution, and it’s
crucial to remove them to ensure the program runs smoothly. Here we will discuss the various
types of errors in programming and some of the common causes behind them. So, let’s dive
straight into the topic of Types of Errors in Programming.

What are the Different Types of Errors in Programming?

As mentioned above errors refers to issues that occur in a program that results in unwanted behavior
of the program. Some common Types of Errors in Programming are listed below.

Syntax Error
Run-Time Error
Linker Error
Logical Error
Semantic Error

Let us discuss each of these types of errors in programming in detail.

1. Syntax Error
A syntax error is the most common type of error in programming. It occurs when the programmer
writes code that is not in accordance with the syntax of the programming language. Syntax errors
are detected by the compiler, and the compiler reports an error message to the programmer.

Common examples of syntax errors include,

Forgetting to add a semicolon,

Spelling a keyword incorrectly
Missing a closing brace.
Example of Syntax Error
Here is an example code having a syntax error.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf( "Hello, world!")
return 0;
}
Output:

prog.c: In function ‘int main()’:

prog.c:6:26: error: expected ‘;’ before ‘return’
printf( "Hello, world!")
^

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;
return 0;
~~~~~~
Explanation:
In the above example, the programmer forgot to add a semicolon after the cout statement, resulting
in a syntax error as shown in the output.

2. Run-time Error
A run-time error occurs during the execution of a program. These errors occur when a program tries
to perform an illegal operation, such as dividing by zero or attempting to access an invalid
memory address. The program compiles without errors, but when it runs, it encounters an error
that causes it to terminate abnormally. Run-time errors are often difficult to detect because they
do not show up until the program is executed.

Example of Run-Time Error

Let us see a C++ code that throws a runtime error.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 0;
int c = a / b;
printf("The result is %d ", c);
return 0;
}
Output:

Runtime error #stdin #stdout

Explanation:
In the above example, the program tries to divide a by b, which is zero. Since division by zero is
undefined, the program will stop abruptly and we don’t get any output on the screen as this results
in the runtime error.

3. Linker Error
A linker error occurs when a program references a function or variable that is not defined in the
program or the libraries it is linked against. Linker errors typically occur when a program is
compiled and linked. The linker will report an error if it cannot find the necessary files or libraries
to link the program.

Example of Linker Error

Here is the code that will show the linker error.

#include <stdio.h>

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int main()
{
printf( "Hello, world!");
myFunction();
return 0;
}
Output:

prog.cpp: In function ‘int main()’:

prog.cpp:7:3: error: ‘myFunction’ was not declared in this scope
myFunction();
^~~~~~~~~~
Explanation:
In the above code, we call the function named as myFunction(), but the function is not defined in the
program or any of its libraries. As soon as we compile the program, the linker reports the error
“myFunction() is undefined” on the output screen.

4. Logical Error
A logical error occurs when the program compiles and runs without any syntax, run-time, or linker
errors, but the output is incorrect. These errors occur when the program's logic or algorithms are
incorrect. Logical errors are challenging to detect because the program does not generate any
error messages.

Example of Logical Error

Let us understand this error with the help of an example.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a = 5, b = 7;

if (a > b) {
printf( "a is less than b");
} else {
printf( "b is less than a");
}
return 0;
}
Output:

b is less than a
Explanation:

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In the above example, the program intends to check if a is less than b. However, the program checks
if a is greater than b, resulting in incorrect output. The logic for checking the smaller number is
wrong because of the usage of the ‘>’ sign instead of ‘<’.

5. Semantic Error
Semantic errors are errors that occur when the code written by the programmer makes no sense to
the compiler, even though it is syntactically correct. They are different from syntax errors, which
indicate errors in the structure of the program, as semantic errors are related to the meaning and
implementation of the program.

For example,

Using a string instead of an integer or accessing an array index that is out of bounds can cause
semantic errors.
Uninitialized variables and type incompatibility are other common types of semantic errors.
Example of Semantic Error
Here is the code for a better understanding of Semantic Errors in Programming.

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, c;

a * b = c;
// This will generate a semantic error

return 0;
}
Output:

prog.c: In function ‘int main()’:

prog.c:6:13: error: lvalue required as left operand of assignment
a * b = c;
^
Explanation:
Here in this example, we get a semantic error because when an expression is placed on the left side
of an assignment operator (=), it can cause a semantic error even if the code is written correctly
according to syntax rules. This is because the compiler cannot interpret the code correctly, leading
to errors in program execution.

Conclusion

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In conclusion, programming is a complex task that requires a high level of attention to detail. Errors
can occur at various stages of the programming process. There are different types of errors in
programming including syntax errors, run-time errors, linker errors, logical errors, and semantic
errors. Syntax errors are the most common type of error, while run-time errors are often the most
challenging to detect. Linker errors occur during the compilation and linking process, while
logical errors and semantic errors occur when the program's algorithms or requirements are
misunderstood.

3.9 ALGORITHMS, PSEUDOCODES AND FLOWCHARTS

A typical programming task can be divided into two phases:

Problem solving phase
Produce an ordered sequence of steps that describe solution of problem. This sequence of steps
is called an algorithm
Implementation phase
Implement the program in some programming language

Steps in Problem Solving

1. First produce a general algorithm (one can use pseudocode)
2. Refine the algorithm successively to get step by step detailed algorithm that is very close to
a computer language.
Algorithm: Systematic logical approach which is a well-defined, step-by-step procedure that allows
a computer to solve a problem.
Pseudocode: It is a simpler version of a programming code in plain English that uses short phrases
to write code for a program before it is implemented in a specific programming language.

Example 1 for Algorithm and Pseudocode

Aim: To write a C Program for addition of two numbers

Algorithm:
STEP 1: Start the program.
STEP 2: Read the values of ‘a’&’b’.
STEP 3: Compute the sum of the entered numbers ‘a’,’b’ as c=a+b.
STEP 4: Print the value of ‘c’.
STEP 5: Stop the program.

Pseudo code:
BEGIN
READ ‘a’&’b’
COMPUTE c=a+b
WRITE ‘c’
END

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Flowchart: A graphical representation of the sequence of operations in an information system or

program. Information system flowcharts show how data flows from source documents through
the computer to final distribution to users. Program flowcharts show the sequence of instructions
in a single program or subroutine. Different symbols are used to draw each type of flowchart.
A Flowchart
shows the logic of an algorithm
emphasizes individual steps and their interconnections
e.g. control flow from one action to the next

FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

---Loop --Used to represent for loops

Flowchart for adding two numbers

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Example 2: To determine a student’s final grade and indicate whether it is passing or failing. The
final grade is calculated as the average of four marks.

Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input a set of 4 marks
Step 3: Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
Step 4: if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
Step 5: Stop

Pseudocode:
BEGIN
Input M1,M2,M3,M4
GRADE (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
endif
END
Flowchart:

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3.10 APPLICATIONS OF C LANGUAGE

• C is a low-level programming language- easy to learn
• It is known for its efficiency, speed, and ability to interact directly with the hardware
• C is often used in operating systems, embedded systems, and other low-level applications
• For coding microcontrollers in Assembly language.
• To develop projects using microcontrollers, like say an Arduino.
• IDEs use embedded C for programming a controller.
• It is primarily used for system programming. The portability, efficiency, the ability to
access specific hardware addresses, and low runtime demand on system resources makes it
a good choice for implementing operating systems and embedded system applications
• Compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other programming languages are often
implemented in C
• C is sometimes used as an intermediate language for the implementation of other languages
• Widely used to Implement end-user applications

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