Institute of Advanced Engineering and Science

International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering (IJECE)Vol. 12, No. 2,

April2022, pp. 2079~2086ISSN: 2088-8708, DOI: 10.11591/ijece.v12i2.pp2079-
20862079Journal homepage: http://ijece.iaescore.comCrop leaf disease detection and
classification using machine learning and deep learning algorithms by visual
symptoms: a reviewPallepati Vasavi1,2, Arumugam Punitha1, T.Venkat Narayana
Rao21Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Annamalai University,
Chidambaram, Tamilnadu,India2Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, IndiaArticle
InfoABSTRACTArticle history:Received Apr21, 2021Revised Jul18, 2021Accepted Aug 10,
2021A quick and precise crop leaf disease detection is important to
increasing agricultural yield in a sustainable manner. We present a
comprehensive overview of recent research in the field of crop leaf disease
prediction using image processing (IP), machine learning(ML)and deep learning
(DL)techniques in this paper. Using these techniques, crop leaf disease prediction
made it possible to get notable accuracies. This article presents a
survey of research papers that presented the various methodologies,
analyzes them in terms of the dataset, number of images, number of classes,
algorithms used, convolutional neural networks (CNN)models employed, and
overall performance achieved. Then, suggestions are prepared on the
most appropriate algorithms to deploy in standard,mobile/embedded systems,
drones, robots and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). We discussed the
performance measures used and listed some of the limitations and future
works that requires to be focus on, to extend real time automated crop
leaf disease detection system.Keywords:Convolutional neural networksDeep
learningImage processingMachine learningPlant disease detectionVisual symptomsThis
is an open access article under the CC BY-SAlicense.Corresponding Author:Pallepati
VasaviDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering,Sreenidhi Institute of Science
and Technology Hyderabad, Telangana, IndiaEmail:
[email protected] is an agrarian economy, with
Arable land accounting for more than 54% of the total land area. India
ranks among the world's top producers of rice, wheat, cotton, fruits and
vegetables, and dairy products in terms of volume. The demand for agricultural
products is growing at an unprecedented rate as our population grows. Good
nutrition make sure that human body gets all of the nutrients, vitamins,
and minerals it needs to work optimally. Maintaining essential vitamins and
minerals is also essential for good health. Preventing and monitoring crop diseases
plays crucial role for providing nutrias food. Since they can damage crops,
decreasing food supply and chain while also raising food prices. Plant pests and
diseases can also reduce the palatability of foods, causing populations to
alter their conventional food preferences. In 1970, a disease in soya bean
crops, “Sudden Death Syndrome” rapidly increased across the United States(US)and
eventually reaching on the whole agricultural areas of the US. So, quick
and precise crop leaf disease recognition is dangerous to increasing
agricultural yield in a sustainable manner. The motto of Food and Agriculture
Organization of United Nations(FAO)is“let be bread”.Crop leaf diseases vary in
shape, size, and color. Certain diseases might have the identical color, but
dissimilar shapes; while some have dissimilar colors but identical shapes.
The model can be developed by capturing the diseased leaves and recognize
the patterns about the disease is helpful to get free of crop loss
ISSN:2088-8708Int J Elec & Comp Eng, Vol. 12, No. 2, April2022: 2079-20862080due
to disease spread or increase[1]. In this approach, the images are often sent to
a core crop leaf disease system for analysis; the system can recognize. The
system generates information about the crop leaf disease.In order to explore the
use of Image processing for classifying citrus leaf diseases, a research[2]on 2006,
was conducted. For this analysis, four distinct citrus leaf disease groups were
used, namely greasy spot, melanose, healthy, and scab. For feature extraction
and classification the proposed algorithms based on image-processing
techniques were developed. The process of extraction of features used the
technique of color co-occurrence, which usesan image's colorand texture to
achieve specific characteristics that reflect the image. On all data
models using intensity features, SAS discriminant analysis, hue and
saturation features, hyperspectral image (HSI)features presented the results above
81percent, and above 95.8 percent respectively.In 2007 Tellaeche et al.
[3]proposed two mechanisms: segmentation of images and decision making. To
divide cells from the image as low-level parts, image segmentation
incorporates simple image processing techniques. 2 area-basedattributes
computing the relationships between crop rows and weeds define each part.
A hybrid supervisory methodology decides, from these properties, whether
or not a cell must be sprayed. The decision is depends on the merger of two
well-known classifiers(SVMand FM) under the Bayesian system.To recognize cucumber
crop leaf disease based on IP and SVM was introduced in 2008[1]. To
reduce noise from the obtained cucumber disease leaves color images, thevector
median filter was initially used. The color picture of the cucumber disease
spot on the leaf was derived from the texture, shape and color
characteristics. The system used SVM and neural networks classifiers. Shape
feature gives more accuracy than the texture and color feature gives faster
results. The results showed that SVM performance is better than neural networks.
Linear kernel of SVM gives better results than polynomial, radial basic,
and sigmoid functions.In 2014,Gavhale et al[4]developed a system that
contains four-part image preprocessing model involving (red, green, blue) RGB
to different colorconversion, image enhancement techniques; segmenting the region
of interest (ROI)using K-means clustering for algebraic use to assess the defect
and acute areas of crop leaves, extraction and classification of features. Using
statistical GLCMand color function by means of mean values, texture feature
extraction. Finally, the classification obtained using SVM (polynomial
andRBF).The proposed model in 2015, Mokhtar etal.[5]uses theGLCM to detect,
whether safe or contaminated, and to classify tomato leaf status. For the
classification process, the SVM algorithm with popular kernel functions is
used. Datasets of 800 healthy and diseased tomato leaves in total. The
N-fold cross-validation technique was used to test the accuracy of the presented
method with 99.83 percent accuracy of classification using linear kernel
functionality.Mohanty et al.[6]proposed a system in 2016 to recognize plant leaf
diseases using DL. They built a deep CNNto classify 14 crop varieties and 26
diseases by a dataset of 54,306 images of PlantVillage dataset. They compared
various CNN architectures on transfer learning and scratch training. In
the case of the colored version of the dataset, the models work better.
The limitation is that the classification of single leaves, facing up, in a
homogeneous context, is currently limited.Rançonet al.[7]compared SIFTencoding and
DL feature extractors which are already pre trained, for the recognition of
Esca disease in Vineyards. 91 percent overall accuracy was obtained using
deep extracted features from the ImageNet database trained MobileNet network,
exhibiting the efficacy of transfer learning methods without the need to
build afeature extractor of ad-hoc specialized features. The next part was
aimed at the identification of diseases (using bounding boxes) inside complete
images of the plant. The deep learning core network has been incorporated
into a "one-step" detection network (RetinaNet) for this reason, enabling
us to execute recognition queries in near real time (approximately 6 frames
per second on GPU).This paper [8]proposesa deep neural network-based real
time detection system for pests and diseases of Cole. A bounding box generator
first determines to provide bounding boxes of size, location, and class by
training the input image with a region-based neural network. Then, for
verification, the presenting bounding boxes from each class are fed into the CNN
filter bank. The problem of false positives generated by bounding box generators
and class inequalities in data sets with incomplete data can be solved by proposed
method.Goncharov etal.[9]to provide the solution for the problem of tiny
image databases, the deep siamese convolutional network was created. The
identification of the 3 diseases namely Esca, Black rot, andChlorosis disease on
grape leaves had an accuracy of over 90%.Panigrahi et al.[10]the research focused
on traditional machine learning techniques for the recognition of maize
crop diseases, such as NB, DT, KNN, SVM, and RF. In order to choose the most apt
model with the highest precision for plant disease prediction, the aforementioned
classification techniques are analyzed and compared. The RF algorithm provides the
best
Int J Elec & Comp EngISSN:2088-8708Crop leaf disease detection and classification
using machine learning and deep... (Pallepati Vasavi)2081results, with 79.23%
accuracy.Sagar et al.[11]compared five different architectures:
ResNet50,VGG16,InceptionV3, Inception, ResNet, and DenseNet169.They discovered
that the best result on the test set was ResNet50 with 94% accuracy, it
uses skip connections using a residual layer archive. They computed
performance by precision, accuracy, recall and F1 score.2.RESEARCH METHOD To
detect crop leaf diseases and classification by visual symptoms, there are
5 steps existed in the crop leaf disease detection and classification
model architecture: image acquisition, image preprocessing, image
segmentation, feature extraction, classification. Table1 represents various
acronyms used in the crop leaf disease detection. Table 2 interprets the model of
crop leaf disease detection and classification.Table 1.
AcronymsAcronymAbbreviationAcronymAbbreviationMLMachine learningKNNK nearest
neighborsDLDeep learningRFRandom forestIPImage processingSURFSpeed up robust
featuresCNNConvolutional neural networksLRLogistic regressionUAVUnmanned aerial
vehiclesBPNNBack propagation neural networksFAOFood and agriculture
organizationANNArtificial neural networksSVMSupport vector machineR-FCNRegion-based
fully convolutional networkFMFuzzy K meansR-CNNRegionbased convolutional neural
networksGLCMGary level co-occurrence matrixLBPLocal binary patternsRBFRadial basis
functionSGDStochastic gradient descentHSVHue, saturation, and valueHOGHistogram of
an oriented gradientSIFT encodingScale invariant feature transformGPUGraphical
processing unitNBNaïve BayesDTDecision treeTable 2. List of the methods used for
the detection of crop leaf diseasesImage acquisitionImage PreprocessingImage
SegmentationFeature ExtractionClassificationCapturing the images from drones, smart
mobiles phones, digital cameras and UAVsImage augmentationK-means, Principal
component analysis ClusteringTexture, shape and color are the featuresMachine
LearningCollecting the images from public datasetsImage resizing, rotations,
Flipping, shift, shear, zoomThresholdingRGB feature extractionPNN, SVM, ANN, RBF,
KNN, BPNN, NN, DT, RF, NBPlantVillageImage AnnotationsColor segmentationcolor co-
occurrenceDeep LearningImage database of plant disease symptoms (PDDB)Image
EnhancementLearning based segmentationGLCM texture extractionCNN, Optimized
CNNBugwood image database systemRemoving noiseEdge detectionSIFTLSTMWheat Disease
Database 2017SmoothingModel based segmentationSURFTransfer LearningIPM
ImagesHistogram equalizationforeground/backgroundHOGVGG19, GoogLeNet, AlexNet,
ResNet50, Inception_V3, MobileNetKaggleMedian filteringOtsu thresholdingNASNetUCI
repositoryColor transformationsSobel edge detectionSqueezeNetcontrast Image
Enhancementsemantic segmentationDeep Siamese Neural Networksperspective, affine
image transformationscontours-based segmentationEnsemble ModelsClippingF-
RCNN,SSD,R-FCN2.1.Image acquisitionThis is the first step of crop leaf disease
detection and classification. The purpose of this stage is to collect and prepare
images dataset that will be used in the further process. This is done
by capturing the
ISSN:2088-8708Int J Elec & Comp Eng, Vol. 12, No. 2, April2022: 2079-
20862082images from mobile phone cameras, digital cameras, drones and UAV
either on real time (site) or in controlled conditions.2.2. Image
preprocessingImage preprocessing is very important to obtain the better
results. To remove the noise colortransformations were used.To reducethe size
of the image acquired by digital cameras resizing techniques were used. It also
helps to reduce memory size. The frequently used image preprocessingtechniques in
this literature includes cropping the leaves from the acquired
images, color transformations, rescaling, background removal, image
enhancement, flipping, rotating, Shear,and image smoothing.2.3. Image
segmentationImage segmentation plays anessential role in crop leaf disease
detection and classification. It splits the image into various parts or
zones. It explores the image data to extract helpful information for
feature extraction. Image segmentation can be done in 2 ways, one is based on
similarities and the other one is based on discontinuities.2.4. Feature
extractionExtracting the features of the substances of an image is called
as feature extraction. The most common features found in plant disease
detection and classifications are shape, color, and texture. The crop diseases may
differ in appearances of the image due to multiple classes. The crop
leaf disease system can easily recognize the diseases from the shape of
the crop leaf image. The second feature is color is an important. It
distinguishes the crop leaf diseases from each other. The last feature,
texture portrays thevarious patterns of the color are spotted in the
crop leaf images. The common texture features are energy, entropy,
contrast, correlation, sum of squares, sum entropy, cluster shade,
clusterprominence, homogeneity. 2.5. ClassificationTwo types of classification
methods were used to classify crop leaf diseases:ML andDL. The important
dissimilarity between traditional machine learning and deep learning
methods is by means of feature extraction. In traditional ML, the features are
not computed automatically whereas in DL the feature extraction automatically
takes place and it is considered as learning weights. So, in DL the
system itself learns the needed features by providing sufficient data.The most
common machine learning algorithms used for classification of plant diseases
are KNN, SVM, DT, RF, BPNN, NN, NB and ensemble learning. The frequently
used deep learning algorithms present in the literature were CNN, CNN
models which were Pre trained on ImageNet and used transfer learning.Chowdhuryet
al. [12]proposed a plant disease detection and classification system, it uses
transfer learning and deep feature extraction in. The authors were
compared the obtained results of VGG16, GoogLeNet, ResNet50 CNN
architectures with deep feature extraction by SVM and KNN. Experiment
results shown that classification with SVM and ResNet50 given best
results (98%) than the remaining combinations. The authors also compared the
results of traditional machine learning algorithms i.e.SVM and KNN, SVM shown
better accuracy (80.6%) than KNN(71.8%) but it is lesser than the
proposed.3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIt is observed from the Table 3 is the number of
images used for the detection of crop leaf diseases by machine learning techniques
are very less compared to deep learning techniques but generated remarkable
accuracies.”represents that the information is not mentioned in the paper.
By using modified CNNs, optimized deep learning models and transfer
learning models gives better results than the basic CNNs. Modified DL
techniques gives better performance than traditional ML techniques.
Modified CNN i.e. Multi-channelmodel gives highest accuracy[13]i.e., 99.5%
in DL and SVM with linear kernel gives accuracy of 99% in ML techniques.
Figure 1(a)and Figure 1(b)represents the performance of the crop disease
prediction system by using DL, ML techniques. The most used performance
measures mentioned in the survey are accuracy, precision, K-fold cross
validation technique for example k=10, recall, F1-score, sensitivity, specificity,
dice similarity coefficient (DSC), minimum square error (MSE), and
structural similarity index measurement (SSIM), categorical cross-entropy,
Matthew’s correlation coefficient (MCC) and leave one out cross validation
scheme. Table 3 interprets the details of the various researches on crop leaf
disease prediction and classification.
Int J Elec & Comp EngISSN:2088-8708Crop leaf disease detection and classification
using machine learning and deep... (Pallepati Vasavi)2083(a)(b)Figure 1. The
performance of the crop disease prediction system (a) performance of the DL
techniquesand(b) performance of the ML techniquesTable 3. Details of the surveyed
papers for the detection and classification of Crop leaf diseasesYearReference
NoCropNumber of imagesNumber of
ClassesAlgorithmAccuracy2018[14]____2SVM,KNN,RF,NB,LR582019[15]Multiple800SVM-Multi
class652018[16]Papaya160__RF,SVM,LR,LDA,NAÏVE
BAYES,KNN,CART702020[17]Multiple5430527Faster R-CNN with Inception Resnet
v270.532020[10]Maize34234Naïve Baye's77.462020[12]Grape622865Faster R-
CNN,Inception-v1-ResNet-v2,SE blocks and
RPN81.12019[18]Mulberry__3CNN822017[19]Cotton9007SVM(regression)832020[20]papaya100
003ResNet852018[21]Tomato14007CNN86.92018[22]Paddy__Alex
Net872018[23]Multiple__38CNN88.62019[9]Grape1304Deep Siamese convolution
network902019[24]Potato24652Faster R-
CNN902020[25]tomato4,6713MobileNet902020[26]Multiple148,77538Inception v3
transferred to target domain
SVM90.62020[27]Tomato1000010CNN91.22016[28]Cucumber3004global-local SVD(single
value decomposition)--SVM
classifier91.632019[29]Maize1004CNN92.852016[30]Alfalfa8994SVM94.72016[31]alfalfa89
94SVM,RF,KNN94.742013[32]Multiple50030SVM952019[33]Wheat81784ResNet50962018[34]Cass
ava7603GMLVQ972020[35]Multiple54,30538VGG1697.82020[36]Multiple54,30538VGG1697.8202
0[37]Maize68665Optimized VGG1697.92020[38]Maize68665Ensemble model of two pre-
trained
CNN97.92020[38]20,00019CNN982019[39]Multiple120,000ResidualNet982020[11]Multiple54,
30538Pre trained ResNet50,98.22020[40]Maize11523CNN model with optimized trainable
parameters98.42019[35]Tomato1792910CNN98.62020[41]__400CNN(ReLu,Tanh,Softsign,linea
r,sigmoid)98.82015[5]Tomato____SVM(linear
kernel)992017[42]Tomato602NN992019[43]Banana18,00018Faster
R-CNN/SSD+ResNet50992019[44]Apple11924Alex Net, Google Net and DenseNet201
Layer99.22018[45]Multiple8500058CNN99.52019[13]Multiple5400038Multichannel
CNN99.52018[46]Potato3003SVM__2018[47]Lentil3002LBP,HBBP (Brightness Bi-Histogram
Equalization)__2021[48]Multiple54,30538CNN__2016[49]Brinjal__4ANN__2018[50]Soyabean
162079CNN__5060708090100NNRandom ForestSVM(RBF)KNNGMLVQSVMSVM(Regression)Naïve
BayesSVM(Gaussian kernel)BPNNSVM(linear kernel)Accuracy5060708090100Deep
siamese...Small CNNMobileNet V2ResNet50CNNFaster R-...GoogLeNetMultichannel
CNNVGG16NASNetInception_V3Accuracy
ISSN:2088-8708Int J Elec & Comp Eng, Vol. 12, No. 2, April2022: 2079-
208620844.LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE WORKS The most common limitations of crop leaf
disease prediction system based on visual symptoms are Lack of sufficient
datasets mentioned in the papers since the PlantVillage is the only
public dataset that is generated under controlled conditions. Some of the
authors developed their own dataset but they are not giving the access to
others to compare the results and PlantVillagedataset could not provide the images
for the commercial crops like chiliwith abundant number of diseases. The second
most common limitation is the method of developing the dataset by image acquisition
and image preprocessing. The common problems are Un-even illumination, Clutter
field background and real cultivation condition and other parts of the
plant images were not used to detect the plant diseases. Thirdly, apply
the knowledge of ensemble algorithms, tuning of hyper parameters and
diversity of pooling operations [19]. Fourthly, the prediction system needs
enormous resources if the prediction was based on deep learning
methodologies [25]. So, there is a significance to develop squeeze models to
run the application in mobile phones, drones, UAVs and robots.The frequent future
works were, to develop real time enormous images and classes of plant diseases.
Crop disease dataset can be integrated to incorporate location, weather and soil
data of the diseased plant to examine crop and yield monitoring in support of smart
agriculture. The crop disease prediction system can be enhanced for detecting the
plant diseases in large scale horticultural fields.5.CONCLUSIONThe system for
identifying the crop leaf diseases can be developed in 5 steps. These
are including Image acquisition;image pre-processing, image segmentation,
feature extraction and classification. In this survey we analyzed various
methodologies versus accuracies, datasets, crops, requirements of number of
images and classes, also analyzed performance measures, limitations and future
works. The conclusion of the study enhances the importance of integrating
computer vision, machine learning, deep learning to the automated devices
like UAVs, smart mobiles in the era of agriculture. More investigations, datasets
have to be developed to detect the diseases at the instant time even if the yield
is large scale and containing multiple diseases also, with the squeezable
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10.1073/pnas.1716999115.BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS Pallepati Vasavireceived
Graduation (B. Tech) in 2012 from Computer Science and Engineering and Post
Graduation (M. Tech) in 2014 from Software Engineering at JNTUH, Hyderabad, and
Telangana. She is currently working as Assistant Professor in Sreenidhi
Institute of Science and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana. She is also pursuing Ph.
D from Annamalai University, Chidambaram, and Tamilnadu. Her research
interests include Machine Learning, Deep Learning and Image Processing. Email:
[email protected] Punitha, Associate Professor, Computer Science
and Engineering, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, and Tamilnadu. She
Pursued her Ph. D from Annamalai University in Computer Science and
Engineering, Annamalai University, Chidambaram, and Tamilnadu.Her research
interests include Image and video Processing. Email:
[email protected] Narayana Rao Professor of C.S.E, SNIST, is B.E
in Computer Science and Engineering from Nagpur University; he has
completed M.Tech (CSE) from SIT, JNTUH, Campus, and Hyderabad. He holds a
Ph.D from JNTUK, Kakinada. He has completed M.B.A with Systems and Marketing
as specialization.He has industry experience as a software engineer in HCL
Technologies Ltd, Bangalore and has worked in high-end projects such as
“Singapore Provident Fund” and “WISPA”. His total Experience spans 28 years.
His research interests include Image Processing, Information Security, Data
Mining and Software Enigeering. Email:[email protected].
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