ACCRA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BTECH PROGRAMME – BTECH 4

2021/2022 ACADEMIC YEAR

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT WORK III

DESIGN OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT IN THE GREATER ACCRA

REGION

BY

NAME: GAGBE SEMANU KWAME

INDEX NUMBER: 01211587B

SUPERVISOR: Ing. BRIGHT AFORLA

MAY 2022
CIVIL ENGINEERING RESEARCH WORK 3
GROUP 1
PART 1
An urban 4-lane divided highway is to be constructed in the Greater Accra Region in the year
2024. The pavement type is flexible and traffic studies result indicates that the design traffic
per day is 4,625 ESAL. The subgrade CBR values obtained along the road are as follows:

STATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
CBR 5 3 7 2 9 10 4 6 8 10 9 5 5 7 4
VALUES
(%)

Elastic modulus of Bituminous layer = 350,000psi

Elastic modulus of Granular base = 38,000psi
Elastic modulus of Granular subbase = 18,000psi

Assuming a truck growth rate of 5% and a design life requirement of 15 years, design the
required pavement.

If the alignment is located in a flat terrain with high pedestrian traffic, draw the cross-section
indicating the appropriate dimensions.
State clearly any assumptions which you need to make.

PART 2
The following results shown in the table below were obtained from the Marshall Mix Design
for the construction of the surfacing. Determine the optimum bitumen content for design.

Bitumen Density of Marshall Air Voids Voids Filled Flow

Content (%) Mix Stability (N) (%) with Bitumen (0.25mm)
(Kg/m3) (%)
3.5 2.59 8,696 6.6 55.7 9.00
4.0 2.55 9,061 5.5 63.3 9.00
4.5 2.54 9,230 4.5 70.4 10.00
5.0 2.52 8,380 3.9 75.3 12.00
5.5 2.56 6,645 3.6 78.3 14.00

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

The primary factor in building a road is the pavement design. Pavement design should be
carefully thought out because it accounts for roughly one-third or half of the overall
construction cost. paving materials:

Pavement types include flexible, rigid, and semi-rigid.

Flexible pavements or roads are segments of asphalt that "bend" or "deflect" as a result of
traffic loads, reducing their susceptibility to damage and necessitating less frequent
maintenance. Multiple layers of various materials make up a flexible pavement structure,
which together allow the road to accommodate this flexing. Layers are typically arranged in
descending load bearing capacity order to maximize the use of this property, with the highest
load bearing capacity material—and most expensive—on top and the lowest load bearing
capacity material—and least expensive—on the bottom (Paul, 2014).

A bituminous material surface course and underlying base and subbase courses make up
flexible pavement. Asphalt is more frequently the bituminous substance because of its
viscous character, which permits extensive plastic deformation. Although some 'full depth'
asphalt surfaces are constructed directly on the subgrade, the majority of asphalt surfaces are
constructed on a gravel base. Asphalt can be classified as hot mix asphalt (HMA), warm mix
asphalt, or cold mix asphalt depending on the temperature at which it is applied. The name
"flexible pavement" refers to a type of pavement in which the traffic load acting upon it
causes the pavement surface to reflect the total deflection of all succeeding layers.

The flexible pavement design transmits load to the subgrade through a variety of layers and is
based on the load-distribution properties of a layered system. A substantially smaller area of
the subgrade beneath flexible pavement receives the load distribution. A flexible pavement's
initial installation cost is quite low, which is why this kind of pavement is more frequently
seen all over the world. The flexible pavement, however, needs regular maintenance and
repairs every few years. As a result of inadequate drainage and high vehicular traffic, flexible
pavement also degrades quickly, cracking, and developing potholes (Haseeb Jamal, n.d.).

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Infrastructure, particularly the network system of transportation that consists of roads, trains,
tunnels, aerodromes, etc., is the foundation of a nation's development. For people to move
easily and smoothly both inside and outside of the country, a developing nation like Ghana
needs a solid road network.

Because of the aforementioned factors, it is necessary to create a flexible pavement in the

nation's capital city in order to complement the existing road network in the greater Accra
area and to support people's economic, social, and educational activities and, ultimately, to
contribute to the development of the region and of Ghana.

AIMS OF THE PROJECT

The primary objective of this project is to create a flexible pavement with the highest
serviceability index so that the road can fulfill its intended function.

OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

In order to achieve the above aim of the project, the following objective must be met:

 Selection of the appropriate materials that will meet the standard of design.
 Quality and well detailed design of the road.
 Adequate engineering and supervision on site to make sure the specifications are met.

SCOPE OF THE PRIJECT

Chapter one gives a brief background about pavement types, aims and objectives of the
project.

Chapter two provide a shallow literature about pavement design.

Chapter three highlight the methodology that was use for the design.

Chapter four gives an outline of the design processes.

Chapter five consist of conclusion and recommendation.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The main purpose of a highway pavement is to disperse the applied vehicle loads to the sub-
grade. A highway pavement is a structure made up of layers of processed materials overlaid
above the natural soil sub-grade. The pavement construction should be able to offer a surface
with a good riding experience, sufficient skid resistance, good light-reflecting qualities, and
low noise pollution. The ultimate goal is to make sure that transmitted stresses caused by
wheel load are sufficiently decreased so that they won't surpass the subgrade's bearing
capability. In general, hard pavements and flexible pavements are both acknowledged as
providing this function. The varieties of pavement, their layers, their purposes, and pavement
failures are all described in this chapter. Pavements that are improperly designed degrade
quickly, which negatively affects the riding experience.

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,

 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,

 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,

 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,

 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,

 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and

 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

According to how well they support structural loads, pavements can be divided into two
categories: flexible pavements and rigid pavements. Wheel loads are transferred on flexible
pavements by the aggregate coming into touch with other grains of the granular structure.
With less flexural strength than a rigid surface, flexible pavement behaves more like a
flexible sheet (such as a bituminous road). On the other hand, in rigid pavements (such as
cement concrete highways), the flexural strength of the pavement transfers wheel stresses to
the sub-grade soil and the pavement behaves like a rigid plate. These are available in addition
to composite pavements. The best pavement has the most desirable qualities when it is a thin
layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement. However, because they are expensive and
require extensive analysis, these pavements are rarely used in new construction.

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress
decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of this stress distribution characteristic, flexible
pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the
concept of layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number
of layers and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in
addition to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low
quality material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials.
These can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments
generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on
high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the
deformation of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-
grade then it will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the
design is based on overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced
should be kept well below the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement

Typical layers of a conventional flexible pavement includes seal coat, surface course, tack
coat, binder course, prime coat, base course, sub-base course, compacted sub-grade, and
natural sub-grade (Figure 2).

Seal Coat:

Seal coat is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to provide skid
resistance.

Tack Coat:
Tack coat is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion diluted with water. It
provides proper bonding between two layer of binder course and must be thin, uniformly
cover the entire surface, and set very fast.

Prime Coat:

Prime coat is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent surface like
granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding between two layers.
Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer below, plugs the voids, and forms a
water tight surface.

Surface course

Surface course is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally contains
superior quality materials. They are usually constructed with dense graded asphalt
concrete(AC). The functions and requirements of this layer are:

 It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, drainage, etc. Also it will

prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the underlying base,
sub-base and sub-grade,

 It must be tough to resist the distortion under traffic and provide a smooth and skid-
resistant riding surface,

 It must be water proof to protect the entire base and sub-grade from the weakening
effect of water.

Binder course

This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute
load to the base course The binder course generally consists of aggregates having less asphalt
and doesn't require quality as high as the surface course, so replacing a part of the surface
course by the binder course results in more economical design.

Base course

The base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of binder course and
it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the sub-surface drainage It may be
composed of crushed stone, crushed slag, and other untreated or stabilized materials.

Sub-Base course
The sub-base course is the layer of material beneath the base course and the primary
functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and reduce the intrusion of
fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure If the base course is open graded, then the
sub-base course with more fines can serve as a filler between sub-grade and the base course
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a
high quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base
course. In such situations, sub-base course may not be provided.

Sub-grade

The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses from the
layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed. It should be
compacted to the desirable density, near the optimum moisture content.

Failure of flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The
fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the
asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile
strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete
specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation
or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design methods have been used to control rutting:
one to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to
a tolerable amount (12 mm normally). Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature
cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

DESIGN PROCEDURE

1 Basis of Design.

The prime factor influencing the structural design of a pavement is the load-carrying capacity
required. The thickness of pavement necessary to provide the desired load-carrying capacity
is a function of the following five principal variables:

 Vehicle wheel load or axle load.

 Configuration of vehicle wheels or tracks.

 Volume of traffic during the design life of pavement.

 Soil strength.

 Modulus of rupture (flexural strength) for concrete pavements.

The procedure presented here for design of flexible pavements is generally referred to as the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) design procedure. This procedure requires that each layer be
thick enough to distribute the stresses induced by traffic so that when they reach the
underlying layer they will not overstress and produce excessive shear deformation in the
underlying layer. Each layer must also be compacted adequately so that traffic does not
produce an intolerable amount of added compaction. Use ASTM D 1557 compaction effort
procedures to design against consolidation under traffic.

The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) Road Test at Ottawa,
Illinois provided the basis for calculating the required pavement thickness. Models were
developed that related pavement performance, vehicle loadings, strength of roadbed soils, and
the pavement structure.

The purpose of the AASHTO model in the pavement thickness design process is to calculate
the Required Structural Number (SN). The SN is calculated using the AASHTO equation or
by using the nomograph and after that the thickness of the layer is calculated. This is the
strength of the pavement that must be constructed to carry the mixed vehicle loads over the
roadbed soil, while providing satisfactory serviceability during the design period. Knowing
the SN, the pavement layer thickness or overlay thickness can be calculated. Vehicle loads
are expressed in 18-kip Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESAL’s).

AASHTO DESIGN EQUATION FOR FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

This design method is empirical and is based on the AASHTO Road Test conducted in the
United States in the late fifties. The design equation used as follows:

PSI
𝑙𝑜𝑔10
4.2−1.5
log 10W18 = ZR x So +9.36xlog 10(SN+1)- 0.20 + 1094 + 2.32xlog10(MR)-8.07
0.40+
(𝑺𝑵+𝟏)𝟓𝟏𝟗

Where;

• W18 = design number of 18,000lb (8.2tons) or standard axles (ESALs)

• ZR = standard normal deviate associated with a given reliability

• SO = standard error of the traffic prediction and performance prediction

• SN =structural number

• ∆PSI = difference between the initial design serviceability index and the design
terminal serviceability index/loss

• MR = sub – grade resilient modulus

This equation is not the only empirical equation available but it does give a good sense of
what an empirical equation looks like, what factors it considers and how empirical
observations are incorporated into an empirical equation. The rest of this section will discuss
the specific assumptions, inputs and outputs associated with the 1993
AASHTO Guide flexible pavement empirical design equation. The following subsections
discuss:

 Assumptions

 Inputs

 Outputs

Assumptions
From the AASHO Road Test, equations were developed which related loss in serviceability,
traffic, and pavement thickness. Because they were developed for the specific conditions of
the AASHO Road Test, these equations have some significant limitations:

 The equations were developed based on the specific pavement materials and roadbed
soil present at the AASHO Road Test.

 The equations were developed based on the environment at the AASHO Road Test
only.

 The equations are based on an accelerated two-year testing period rather than a
longer, more typical 20+ year pavement life. Therefore, environmental factors were
difficult if not impossible to extrapolate out to a longer period.

 The loads used to develop the equations were operating vehicles with identical axle
loads and configurations, as opposed to mixed traffic.

In order to apply the equations developed as a result of the AASHO Road Test, some basic
assumptions are needed:

 The characterization of subgrade support may be extended to other subgrade soils by

an abstract soil support scale.

 Loading can be applied to mixed traffic by use of ESALs.

 Material characterizations may be applied to other surfaces, bases, and subbases by

assigning appropriate layer coefficients.

 The accelerated testing done at the AASHO Road Test (2-year period) can be
extended to a longer design period.

When using the 1993 AASHTO Guide empirical equation or any other empirical equation, it
is extremely important to know the equation’s limitations and basic assumptions. Otherwise,
it is quite easy to use an equation with conditions and materials for which it was never
intended. This can lead to invalid results at the least and incorrect results at the worst.

Inputs

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation requires a number of inputs related to loads, pavement
structure and subgrade support. These inputs are:
  The predicted loading. The predicted loading is simply the predicted number of 80
kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs that the pavement will experience over its design lifetime.

 Reliability. The reliability of the pavement design-performance process is the

probability that a pavement section designed using the process will perform
satisfactorily over the traffic and environmental conditions for the design period
(AASHTO, 1993[1]). In other words, there must be some assurance that a pavement
will perform as intended given variability in such things as construction, environment
and materials. The ZR and So variables account for reliability.

 Pavement structure. The pavement structure is characterized by the Structural

Number (SN). The Structural Number is an abstract number expressing the structural
strength of a pavement required for given combinations of soil support (MR), total
traffic expressed in ESALs, terminal serviceability and environment. The Structural
Number is converted to actual layer thicknesses (e.g., 150 mm (6 inches) of HMA)
using a layer coefficient (a) that represents the relative strength of the construction
materials in that layer. Additionally, all layers below the HMA layer are assigned a
drainage coefficient (m) that represents the relative loss of strength in a layer due to
its drainage characteristics and the total time it is exposed to near-saturation moisture
conditions. Generally, quick-draining layers that almost never become saturated can
have coefficients as high as 1.4 while slow-draining layers that are often saturated can
have drainage coefficients as low as 0.40. Keep in mind that a drainage coefficient is
basically a way of making a specific layer thicker. If a fundamental drainage problem
is suspected, thicker layers may only be of marginal benefit – a better solution is to
address the actual drainage problem by using very dense layers (to minimize water
infiltration) or designing a drainage system. Because of the peril associated with its
use, often times the drainage coefficient is neglected (i.e., set as m = 1.0).

 Serviceable life. The difference in present serviceability index (PSI) between

construction and end-of-life is the serviceability life. The equation compares this to
default values of 4.2 for the immediately-after-construction value and 1.5 for end-of-
life (terminal serviceability). Typical values used now are:

Post-construction: 4.0 – 5.0 depending upon construction quality, smoothness, etc.

End-of-life (called “terminal serviceability”): 1.5 – 3.0 depending upon road use (e.g.,
regional highway, urban arterial, residential)
  Subgrade support. Subgrade support is characterized by the subgrade’s resilient
modulus (MR). Intuitively, the amount of structural support offered by the subgrade
should be a large factor in determining the required pavement structure.

Outputs

The 1993 AASHTO Guide equation can be solved for any one of the variables as long as all
the others are supplied. Typically, the output is either total ESALs or the required Structural
Number (or the associated pavement layer depths). To be most accurate, the flexible
pavement equation described in this chapter should be solved simultaneously with the
flexible pavement ESAL equation. This solution method is an iterative process that solves
for ESALs in both equations by varying the Structural Number. It is iterative because the
Structural Number (SN) has two key influences:

1. The Structural Number determines the total number of ESALs that a particular
pavement can support. This is evident in the flexible pavement design equation
presented in this section.

2. The Structural Number also determines what the 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESAL is for a
given load.

Therefore, the Structural Number is required to determine the number of ESALs to design for
before the pavement is ever designed. The iterative design process usually proceeds as
follows:

1. Determine and gather flexible pavement design inputs (ZR, So, ΔPSI and MR).

2. Determine and gather flexible pavement ESAL equation inputs (Lx, L2x, G).

3. Use the Namo graph to determine the Structural Number (SN).

4. Determine the equivalency factor for each load type by solving the ESAL equation
using the assumed SN for each load type.

5. Estimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement
and multiply it by the calculated ESAL to obtain the total number of ESALs expected
over the design life of the pavement.
 6. Insert the assumed SN into the design equation and calculate the total number of
ESALs that the pavement will support over its design life.

7. Compare the ESAL values in #5 and #6. If they are reasonably close (say within 5
percent) use the assumed SN. If they are not reasonably close, assume a different SN,
go to step #4 and repeat the process.

In practice, the flexible pavement design equation is usually solved independently of the
ESAL equation by using an ESAL value that is assumed independent of structural
number. Although this assumption is not true, pavement structure depths calculated using it
are reasonably accurate. This design process usually proceeds as follows:

1. Assume a structural number (SN) for ESAL calculations. Although often not overtly
stated, a structural number must be assumed in order to calculate ESALs.

2. Determine the load equivalency factor (LEF) for each load type by solving the ESAL
equation using the assumed SN for each load type. Typically, a standard set of load
types is used (e.g., single unit trucks, tractor-trailer trucks and buses).

3. Estimate the traffic count for each load type for the entire design life of the pavement
and multiply it by the calculated LEF to obtain the total number of ESALs expected
over the design life of the pavement.

4. Determine and gather flexible pavement design inputs (ZR, So, ΔPSI and MR).

5. Solve the design equation for SN.

6. Check to see that the computed SN value is reasonably close to that assumed for
ESAL calculations. This step of often neglected.

DESIGN PARAMETERS

These are factors affect the design and determine the thickness of the pavement require for
supporting the traffic loading without unacceptable deterioration in structural strength,
surface and riding quality overt the design period. These major design parameters are;

 Traffic

 Sub-grade strength

 Pavement material properties

 CHAPTER FOUR

Solution

Part 1

Data

ESALO = 4,625

E1 = 350,000psi

E2 = 38,000psi

E3 = 18,000psi

r = 5%

n = 15 years

Assumptions made

D (Directional distribution factor) = 0.6

LF (Lane distribution factor) = 0.8

Reliability = 95%

So (Standard deviation) = 0.45

Pi = 4.2

Pt = 2.3

.∆𝑃𝑆𝐼 = 4.2 − 2.3 = 1.9 ≈ 2

Drainage coefficients values, m2 = m3 = 0.8 for “Fair” category and “greater than 25%”
category.

Layer Coefficient (ai) for surface course, base course and subbase course are 0.44, 0.12 and
0.11 respectively.

(1+𝑟)𝑛 −1 (1+0.05)15 −1
Traffic Growth Rate (G) = = = 21.6
𝑟 0.05

ESALcum = 365 × 𝐺 × 𝐷 × 𝐿𝐹 × 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿𝑂

 𝐸𝑆𝐴𝐿𝑐𝑢𝑚 = 365 × 21.6 × 0.6 × 0.8 × 4625 = 17502480 = 17.5 × 106

The traffic is described as heavy according to the limits given in the table below.

Traffic Level ESAL Traffic Description

104 or less Light
104 or 106 Medium
106 or more Heavy

Ranking of CBR Values

Ranked Frequency Number of CBR % of CBR Value

CBR (f) Value > ranked value ranked value %
𝑛
Values (x) ∑ 𝑓 − (𝐶𝐵𝑅 < = ∑ 𝑓 × 100
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2 1 15 100
3 1 14 93
4 2 13 87
5 3 11 73
6 1 8 53
7 2 7 47
8 1 5 33
9 2 4 27
10 2 2 13
∑ 𝑓 = 15
 120

100
100 93
87

80 73

60 53
47

40 33
27

20 13

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Percentile for design Sub-grade CBR

Traffic Level (ESAL) Traffic Description Design Percentage %

104 or less Light 60
104 or 106 Medium 75
106 or more Heavy 87.5

87.5% design percentile value.

CBR value = 3.9%.

Sub-grade Resilient Modulus (MR)

MR = 1500 × CBRpsi

.𝑀𝑅 = 1500 × 3.9 = 5850𝑝𝑠𝑖

 E1 = 350,000psi a1 = 0.44

E2 = 38,000psi a2 = 0.12 m2 = 0.80

E3 = 18,000psi a3 = 0.11 m3 = 0.80

ESAL = 17.5 × 106

R = 95%

So = 0.45

∆𝑃𝑆𝐼 = 2

MR = 5850psi

Determination of layer thickness

From the Nomograph,

SN1 = 4.25

SN2 = 5.3

SN3 = 8.0

𝑆𝑁1 4.25
𝐷1 = = = 9.7𝑖𝑛 ≈ 10𝑖𝑛
𝑎1 0.44

𝑆𝑁2 − 𝑎1 × 𝐷1 5.3 − 0.44 × 9.7

𝐷2 = = = 10.80𝑖𝑛 ≈ 11𝑖𝑛
𝑎 2 × 𝑚2 0.12 × 0.80

𝑆𝑁3 − 𝑎1 × 𝐷1 − 𝑎2 × 𝐷2 × 𝑚2 8 − 0.44 × 9.7 − 0.12 × 10.25 × 0.80

𝐷3 = = = 31.6𝑖𝑛
𝑎 3 × 𝑚3 0.11 × 0.80
≈ 32𝑖𝑛
 Surface course

Base course

Subbase course

D1 the thickness of the Base course = 10in

D2 the thickness of Subbase course = 11in

D3 the thickness of Subgrade = 32in

50mm Surface course (Asphalt concrete)

250 mm Base course (crushed rock base)

300mm granular subbase

800mm Subgrade

Part 2
Determining of optimum bitumen content for design.

Maximum Stability = 4.5%

Maximum Density = 3.5%

Bitumen Content at 6.6% Air Voids = 4.5%

4.5+3.5+4.5 12.5
Average = = = 4.17%
3 3

MARSHAL DESIGN GRAPHS

Bitumen against Marshal(N)

Bitumen Content (%) Marshall Stability (N)

3.5 8,696
4 9,061
4.5 9,230
5 8,380
5.5 6,645

9,400

9,200 9,230
9095
9,061
MARSHALL STABILITY (N)

9,000

8,800
8,696
8,600

8,400 8,380

8,200

8,000
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
BITUMEN (%)
Bitumen Against Mix Density(Kg/m)

Bitumen Content (%) Density of Mix (Kg/m3)

3.5 2.59
4 2.55
4.5 2.54
5 2.52
5.5 2.56

2.6

2.59 2.59
2.58

2.57

2.56 2.56
2.55 2.55 Density

2.54 2.54 Density of Mix (Kg/m3)

2.53

2.52 2.52
2.51

2.5
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Bitumen against Air voids(%) graph c

Bitumen Content (%) Air Voids (%)

3.5 6.6
4 5.5
4.5 4.5
5 3.9
5.5 3.6
 7

6.6
6.5

6
Air void (%)

5.5 5.5
5.28
5

4.5 4.5

4
3.9
3.6
3.5 Bitmen content (%)
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Bitumen against V.F.B(%) graph d

Bitumen Content (%) Voids filled with Bitumen (%)

3.5 55.7
4 63.3
4.5 70.4
5 75.3
5.5 78.3

80

78 78.3

76
75.3
74

72
Voids filled with
70 70.4 Bitumen (%)

68 VFB

66

64
63.3
62

60
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Bitumen against flow (0.25mm) graph e

Bitumen Content (%) Flow (0.25mm)

3.5 9
4 9
4.5 10
5 12
5.5 14

15

14 14

13

12 12
Flow (0.25mm)
11 Flow

10 10

9 9 9

8
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6

Determining the properties at this bitumen content in the graphs above.

Marshall Stability = 9.1𝑘𝑁 (graph a)

Density of Mix = 2.55𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 (graph b)

Air Voids = 5.28% (graph c)

V.M.A = 64.7% (graph d)

Flow = 9.2 (graph e)

Marshall Mix Design Criteria. TABLE 2

Criteria Minimum Maximum

Stability 6,672 -
Flow, (0.25mm) 8 16
Percent Air Voids 2 4
V.F.B 14 16

Comparing the values of the above parameters obtained from the graph with the specification value in
Table 2 indicates that values obtained meet the specifications. The mix formulation is accepted and
can be designed.
Voids filled with Asphalt (%) value = 64.7% meet specification of Table 4 of the GHA marshal mix
design specification.
NOTE: The section of the road below has a 1% cant on both side of the road.
PART 3

Station at A (stn BVC ) = 1+100

Elevation at A (Ebvc) = 218m

Station of stream = 19+00

Station of existing road = 11+50

g1 = -1%

g2 = -1.5%

for an urban road with a flat/level terrain type,

standard for maximum grade = 10%

from table 4.3.3

for a maximum combined gradient of 10%,

design speed(V) = 120km/h

and from table 4.3.4

for a design speed of 120km/h

recommended K value = 111

finding the length(Lm) of the vertical curve.

Assuming S≤ L,

Lm = KA

= 111 x (-1-(-1.5)

= 55.5m≈ 56m

L = 56m
Station of VIP (S stn VIP) = Stn BVC + 3+00

= 1+00 + 2+80

= 3 +80
𝑔1𝐿
Elevation of VIP /EVIP = EBVC + 2

= 218 + (-0.01 X56/2)

= 217.7m

Below is a diagram depicting the profile of the road.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the following are the parameters results in from the design of the four lane

D1 the thickness of the Base course = 10in

D2 the thickness of Subbase course = 11in

D3 the thickness of Subgrade = 32in

50mm Surface course (Asphalt concrete)

250 mm Base course (crushed rock base)

300mm granular subbase

800mm Subgrade

Comparing the values of the above parameters obtained from the graph with the specification value in
Table 2 indicates that values obtained meet the specifications. The mix formulation is accepted and
can be designed.
Voids filled with Asphalt (%) value = 64.7% meet specification of Table 4 of the GHA marshal mix
design specification.
The section of the road below has a 1% can’t on both side of the road.
The length of the vertical curve is 56m.

The station of the VIP is 3+80

The elevation of the VIP is 217.7m

REFERENCES

Highway Engineering lecture notes by Ing. Bright Aforla

Openai.com
DESIGN REPORT.

The above design was made with the following considerations and assumptions.

for an urban road with a flat/level terrain type,

standard for maximum grade = 10%

from table 4.3.3 of the highway handout;

for a maximum combined gradient of 10%,

design speed(V) = 120km/h

and from table 4.2.10 ;

for a design speed of 120km/h,

stopping sight distance (S) = 212.2m

given that the diameter of the culvet is 1m,

a volume of water flowing across the road is given by

V = 3.143 x 1x h

but for a four lane width =15m

V = 3.143 x 1x 15

= 47.13m3

As shown in the work above, there wasn’t any vertical curve needed since the L was less than 0m.

The driver criteria was used as the length to calculate the elevation and station of the VIP.