INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Chapter outline

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of terms used in networking
1.3 Types of computer networks
1.4 Purpose and limitations of networking
1.5 Elements of networking
1.6 Network topologies
1.7 Network security
Definition of terms used in networking.
A computer network can be defined as a collection of computers linked together using
transmission media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing. The term
transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link between two or more
computers and in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Some of
the shared resources include programs, printers,storage devices, communication links
etc.
Data communication
Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one point to
another through the network. If all aspects related to data communication are taken into
consideration, computer networking is the most recent, efficient and reliable means of
transmitting data.

Terms used in data communication

Some of the terms used in data communication include: data signal, signal modulation
and demodulation, multiplexing, bandwidth, base band, broadband transmission and
attenuation.
Data signal: A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of
data. In data communication, data signals can either be analog or digital in nature.
Analog data is made up of continuous varying waveform while digital data is made up of
a non-continuous discrete waveform.
Signal modulation and demodulation: This is the process of converting data signals to a
form that is suitable or transmission over a transmission medium. For example, a modem
converts a digital signal to analog by superimposing it on an analog carrier signal which
can be transmitted over analog telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A
modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form, a process known
as demodulation.
Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same
medium e.g. a wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals either
simultaneously or at different times. Demultiplexing is the process of separating the
multiplexed signals at the receiving end. Imagine a situation where one hundred
computers in town A want to communicate with others of equal number in town B. If
multiplexing is not used, each of the computers in town A will need a direct cable linking
it to its partner in town B! However, with multiplexing, the computers can be made to

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share a single cable laid between the two towns hence save cost. The different
frequencies create what is called different logical channels in the medium. .
Bandwidth: A bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can
carry at anyone time. For example, a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps
(Mega bits per second).
Baseband signal: Baseband signal is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the
transmission medium directly without modulation. The signal takes the form of voltages
of different magnitudes applied to the medium. The baseband signal utilises the full
capacity of the transmission medium, hence at anyone time; only one signal can be sent.
However, multiple signals can be sent at different times if they are multiplexed.
Broadband transmission: In broadband transmission, an analog signal is sent over the
transmission medium using a particular frequency. This means that several data signals
can simultaneously be sent through the same medium but at different frequencies.
Frequency bands between these data signals prevent them from overlapping.
Attenuation: This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively
moves along a transmission medium. If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be .lost
along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is usually
corrected by placing signal amplifiers also called repeater stations along the medium at
appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it then
retransmit it.

Modes of data communication

There are three modes of data communication namely: simplex, half
Duplex and full duplex.
Simplex transmission refers to communication in only one direction. An example of
simplex communication is the normal radio or television broadcast. The listener or
viewer cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the
broadcaster.
Half duplex refers to communication in both directions but one direction at a time. A
sender must send the data before the recipient can reply. For example, if two police
officers are communicating using a 'walkie talkie' radio, one has to say "over" to mark the
end of every statement in order for the other to respond.
Full duplex communication occurs in both directions simultaneously. An example of full
duplex communication can be found in computers that are sending and receiving data on
a network.
Types of computer networks
Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common
classification is according to size. Currently, there are several types of networks but the
three most common are:
1. Local area network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)

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Local area network (LAN)
Local area network is a computer network that spans a relatively small geographical area
like in one building or a school. One local area network can be connected to other local
area network over any distance via data transmission lines or wireless media.
Most local area networks connect personal computers and server computers on a small
network. A server computer is a computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources
from other computers (workstations) on a network. Most local area networks are
configured such that each workstation has its own central processing unit with which it
executes programs, but it is also able to access data and devices anywhere on the local
area network. Local area networks enable many users- to share expensive devices, such
as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the local area network to
communicate with each other, by sending messages or engaging in chat sessions.
Local area networks are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster than
data transmitted over telephone lines. .

Metropolitan area networks (MAN)

A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town or
city. The metropolitan area network size typically covers a radius of between 5 to 50 km.
The metropolitan area network infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has
offices across a metropolitan area or by a service provider who provides network services
to subscribers in the area. In essence, a metropolitan area network is made up of many
local area networks in a metropolitan area.

Wide area networks (WAN)

A wide area net work is larger than a metropolitan area network and covers a large
geographical area such as a country, a continent or the whole world. It consists of many
local area networks and metropolitan area networks connected together to form one large
network such as the Internet.

Purpose and limitations of networking

Purpose of networking
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include: resource sharing, remote
communication, distributed processing facilities, cost effectiveness and reliability.

Resource sharing
A resource in the network environment means data/information, files, printers, modems,
communication links, storage devices, fax machines, application programs and any other
component that can' be attached to the network for access by users.

Take for example an office setup where a number of users in a small business require
access to. Common information. As long as all the computers are connected, they can
share their files, exchange mail, send,
Faxes, schedule meetings and print documents from any point on the network. Users do
not need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to a network

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printer. This centralised access to data and information leads to less waste of time and
hence greater productivity.

Imagine the benefits of a user being able to directly fax a document from the softcopy in
his/her word processor, rather than having to print it out, and then feed it into the fax
machine.

In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a network server.
The other computers on the network that send requests to the server are referred to as
clients or workstations. Network servers run a special program called the server software
which controls computers on the network and listens to client requests to service them
over the network. For example, a print server will give permission for a particular client
to print documents on the network printer. Figure 1.2 shows a simple diagram
representing a computer network that is controlled by a server.

Remote communications
In the present computing environment, computer engineers are faced with two basic
problems.
1. Roaming of officers who by virtue of their work keep on covering long distances away
from the workplace.
2. Access to the organization’s information resources so that they can have up-to-date
data or at least update the information servers with the status quo in the field.
Initially, the problem of roaming was addressed by the development of portable
computers like laptops. But problem of access to the network's information server
remained! However, both problems have been addressed by remote communication.
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between two
communication devices located at different geographical locations. A computer that tries
to access resources from another computer on the network is called a remote client while
the computer being accessed is called a remote host. Remote communication has been
made possible by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwave and
satellite as will be discussed in details later.

It is through remote communications that people can be able to share ideas and pass
messages over the Internet.
Therefore, remote communications give a lot of freedom to the network users which
translates to more productivity. Imagine continuing to work from home just as if you
were in your office.

Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on
different computers which are on the same network. However, users will not know that
the processing is distributed but will think that everything is taking place on computer.
The output can then be transmitted to another computer or the central computer on an
organisations network. Before the advent of distributed processing, many organisations
had centralised systems of management. This meant that all the data and information

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were sent from the dumb terminal (workstation with no processing power) for processing
and storage in a central computer. It therefore followed that processing of data, release of
information and decision making was centralised too.
However, with distributed processing, files reside on the user's computer rather than on a
central computer. Branch offices in a large organization have their own servers that store
data, information and other resources required for their daily operations. These servers
would then periodically update the central computer.
This model of data processing has a number of advantages. These include:
1. The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the other
terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.

Cost effectiveness
Networks are cost effective in the organization. Although the initial purchase and lying
down of network components may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value
added to service delivery make them a ready choice for enterprising managers.
One good thing about a network is that it greatly increases the efficient use of scarce
resources. Imagine a large organization that has stand alone computers only. In such a
case, the management has to buy a printer for each computer. However, with a network,
only one printer is sufficient. The same applies to other resources like fax machines,
optical drives, files and applications.
It should also be noted that computer networks have enhanced daily communication by
providing a paperless communication environment. Users can send electronic messages
and mail to each other instead of having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery
charges. On the same note, company executives may not need to travel across continents
to hold meetings. They can hold electronic video conferences instead and save the fare.

Reliability
A computer network is reliable in two ways especially when communicating or accessing
information:
1. Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to destination.
2. In case one computer breaks down, a user can still access data and information from
the other computers using another computer on the network.

Limitations of networking
Although networking has many advantages it also offers many challenges that are
associated with implementation and human factors. Some of the limitations and
disadvantages of networking include security issues, high initial installation cost, moral
and cultural effects, spread of terrorism and drug trafficking and over reliance on
networks among others.

Security issues
Data and information held on a network is prone to more illegal access threats than if the
computer was not on the network. For example, a stand alone computer may be accessed
by only a few people at home or in the office environment. However, once the computer
is connected to the network, especially the Internet, many people can access it not only

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physically but also virtually over the network. Apart from this, when information is sent
over the network from source to destination, it can be tapped or listened to by
unauthorized parties.
Organisations find it very challenging to guard information systems from constant threats
of illegal access. One of the common methods of data protection in a networked
environment is encryption. This is the scrambling of information into a complex
unintelligible form. Encrypted data cannot be understood by people who illegally access
it unless they have the decryption key.

High initial cost

The initial cost of buying network hardware and software is very high. In fact, most
institutions that have not set up their networks more often than not quote prohibitive cost
as a limiting factor.

Moral and cultural effects

Large networks like the Internet have chat rooms and messaging services that may enable
underage children to meet peers and adults on the net some of whom may have bad
intentions. Access to pornographic and other negative material has also made the fight
against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, drugs and substance
abuse more complicated.

Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

The Internet provides a rich recruitment ground for all types of illegal activities such as
terrorism and drug trafficking. The easy flow of information from one place to another
keeps even those who are on the wrong side of the law communicating easily. Terrorists
and drug traffickers use information networks for their business communications.
However, many countries have come up with methods of policing the Internet to try and
break such syndicates.

Over-reliance on networks
Modem organisations have phased out most manual operations this means that all
business processes and the society depend on computer networks. The disadvantage of
this over reliance is that if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then many
systems in the society can be brought to a halt! For instance, imagine the chaos if mobile
phone services were to be abruptly brought to a halt. However, proper systems and
network planning should be made to avoid such occurrences.

Elements of networking
A computer network is made up of several standard elements (components) which can be
classified into three major categories namely:
1. Data communication media.
2. Communication devices.
3. Networking software.

Data communication media

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A data signal cannot be sent from one place to another without a medium of
communication. A data communication medium is a pathway used for carrying data and
information from one point to another. The communication medium will more often than
not dictate the type of signal that will be used to transmit a message. In essence, data
communication media can be divided into two:
1. Communication using cable (bounded media)
2. Wireless communication (unbounded media)

Communication using cables (bounded media)

The main distinguishing characteristic of bounded media is that data signals are
transmitted from the source to the destination through a restricted pathway such as
through a cable. For example, if the cable is a copper conductor, the data signal which
may be in form of an electrical signal is propagated through the cable from the source to
the destination. Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.
There are several types of bounded transmission media but the most common ones are:
1. Two wire open lines cables.
2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fiber optic cables.

Two wire open lines cables

Two wire open lines cables are made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a
plastic insulator they are used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal e.g.
the line running from a subscriber’s house to the nearest telephone post.
Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line interference called crosstalk
their linear nature allows an electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data
transmission which may cause interference to the signal. The wires also capture
environmental frequencies e.g. radio waves hence causing noise in the transmission
channel. In data communications, the word noise refers to random unwanted signals
picked up by the channel.

Twisted pair cables

A twisted pair cable is made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each
other in a double helix manner the winding of the wires is meant to reduce the
development of an electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit data.
These cables are mostly used to transmit both voice and data signals. The two common
types of twisted pair cables are the unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted
pair (STP) Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables do not have a shield that prevents
electromagnetic interference (EMI) also called "electric noise" from the environment.
The cable is therefore susceptible to noise and signal interference. Noise may come from
lightening sparks, radio signal and even the radiations from spark plugs in motor
vehicles. Unshielded twisted pair is therefore not suitable for environments that are
electrically "noisy”.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is similar to unshielded twisted pair except that a braided
shield is wrapped around the wires to shield or protect them from noise.

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Twisted pair cables are categorised into five groups according to the type of data
transmitted and maximum rate of transmission, as shown below.

Table 1.1

Suitable for Speed (max. limit)

Category transmitting
1 Voice Less than 1Mbps
2 Data 1 Mbps
3 Data 16 Mbps
4 Data 20 Mbps
5 Data 100 Mbps

1. Mbps means Megabits per second.

2. Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.
Most organisations today use category 5 twisted pair cables to set up their local area
networks. Although twisted pair cables can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to
100 Mbps, they suffer from attenuation. For every cable length of 90 m, a device for
restoring the signal called a "repeater" is needed to amplify the signal.
The advantages of twisted pair cabling include:
1. Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most buildings. This means that it is
easier to set up network media because connection is readily available.
2. Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
3. It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.
The disadvantages of twisted pair cabling include:
1. It suffers high attenuation.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables
A coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna to a
television set. This cable has a central copper core which may be of solid or stranded
wires surrounded by a dielectric material (insulator). The dielectric material is then
surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor which is covered by a shield making the cable
more resistant to electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cable.
The braid (or mesh conductor) is made of copper or aluminium and serves as the ground
for the carrier wire. Together with the insulation and any foil shield, the braid shield
protects the carrier wire from radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI). However, although the cable has better protection against electrical
interference than the twisted pair cables, it has a moderate protection against magnetic
interference. The diameter of the centre core or conductor determines the attenuation rate.
The thinner the core, the higher the attenuation rate. Data is carried on the cable using
direct current (dc).

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 Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second). Hence, they are
installed in a network to form the network backbone (a link that connects two or more
separate local area networks). A good example where this cables are used is connecting
different networks between buildings and routing trunk calls in telecommunication
companies. There are two types of coaxial cables:
1. Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet). It has one dielectric insulator
2. Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet). It has two dielectric insulators around the core and is
thicker than the thinnet
The advantages of coaxial cables include:
1. They are very stable even under high loads.
2. They have a large bandwidth (up to I Gbps) compared to twisted pair.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than twisted pair
cables.
The disadvantages of coaxial cables include:
1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.
2. Coaxial cables are relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted
pair.
Fiber optic cables
This is one of the latest types of bounded transmission media to be developed. Instead of
carrying or transmitting data signals using electronic signals, the fiber optic cable utilises
light to transmit data from one point to another on the network. The electrical signals
from the source are converted to light signals, and then propagated along the fiber optic
cable. To convert an electric signal to light, you need a Light Emitting Diode (LED) at
the transmitter. At the receiving end, a photosensitive device can be used to convert the
light signals back to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.

The fiber optic cable is made up of the core, cladding, buffer, strength members and the
jacket. .
The core: The core is the central part of the cable and is made of a hollow transparent
plastic or glass.
Cladding: This is a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has some light bending
characteristics in that, when the light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is
redirected back to the core. This is why even if a fiber optic cable is bent into coils and a
light signal is inserted at one end it will still be seen coming out from the other end.
Buffer: The buffer surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.
The jacket: It is the outer covering of the cable.
Fiber optic cables are of two types namely:
1. Single mode fiber.
2. Multimode fiber.
The single mode fiber cable has a very narrow centre core the light in the cable can
therefore take only one path through it. Because of this, it has a very low attenuation rate
and is preferred for long distance transmission. It has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is
higher than that of the twisted pair's 100 Mbps. Single mode fiber is very expensive and
requires very careful handling during installation.

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A multimode fiber has a thicker core than the single mode it allows several light rays to
be fed in the cable at an angle. Because of multiple light signals navigating the cable at
the same time, distortion of the signal is possible. Multimode cables have a high
attenuation rate and are usually used for shorter distances than single mode.
The light signal travels through the core, through a process referred to as total internal
reflection. The process that causes total internal reflection is called refraction. Refraction
is the bending of light when it crosses the boundary of two mediums that have different
density. When light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the core to the
cladding. The light is bent back into the core hence propagates along the length of the
cable
The advantages of fiber optic cabling include:
1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping.
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. Large distance can be covered because it has low attenuation.
4. Can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because they do not generate
electrical signal.
5. It is smaller and lighter than copper cable hence ideal for space limited situations.
The disadvantages of fiber optic cabling include:
1. Connectivity devices and the media are expensive.
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair.
Wireless communication (unbounded media)
Wireless or unbounded media, is a type of media that is used to transmit data from one
point to another without using physical connections. In this case transmitting antenna and
receiver aerial facilitate the communication. Examples of wireless transmission media
include microwaves, radio waves, and infrared transmission all use different frequencies
of the electromagnetic spectrum. All these waves travel at the speed of light.
Microwave transmission
Microwave frequencies range from about 3GHz to 40GHz on the electromagnetic
spectrum. Due to their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in water as heat
hence they are also used in making microwave ovens used as domestic kitchen
appliances. However, in networking, microwaves are very suitable for point to point
transmissions. This means that a signal is directed through a focused beam from
transmitter to the receiver station.
Satellite communication
A satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have parabolic
dishes with an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the
satellite in space. A satellite transmission system has three main components:
1. Transmitter earth station that would set up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit
data. The uplink will have a unique frequency.
2. A satellite that is somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits the
signal to a receiving earth station via a downlink frequency that is different from that of
the uplink so as to avoid interference with the uplink signal.
3. Receiving earth station that would receive the sent signal on the other side of the
globe.

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A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36 000 km above the
earth in such a manner that its speed will be relatively equal to the rotation speed of the
earth. An observer on earth will therefore, see as if the satellite is stationary in space.
These types of satellites are called geostationary satellites. They are convenient because
the need to keep on moving the parabolic dish in a bid to track the line of sight is
eliminated. A geostationary satellite offers a large constant line of sight to earth stations.
The area on earth where the line of sight can easily be located is called the satellites
footprint. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations to form a point
to multipoint transmission. In multipoint transmission the transmitted signal spreads out
in all directions forming a cell of access radius.
The new trends in microwave transmission have seen the use of very small aperture
terminal (VSAT) technology. This very small aperture terminal refers to a very small
satellite dish used both in data, radio and TV communication. Many businesses are
adopting this new technology because it enables direct access to satellite communication
instead of having to go through the state owned or licensed satellite gateways.
The satellite produces strong signals that can be received by a satellite dish antenna of
only about 2 metres in diameter. The signals are decoded using a decoder that is plugged
directly to a television set or a computer.
Radio communication
Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e. they are omnidirectional. This
means that they start from a central point and spread outwards in all directions. As they
travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the covered area. The waves are
radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at constant velocity. Radio
waves are not visible to the human eye. Radio waves are used in radio and television
broadcasts. Data can also be transmitted over radio waves communication channels. For
example, instead of laying telephone cables between two towns that are geographically
separated, radiowave transmission can be used to connect the two towns. Radio waves
can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-high frequency.
The high frequency (HF) radio waves signal is propagated by directing it to the
ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere will reflect it back to the earth's surface and the
receiver will pick the signal. Before the advent of satellite communication, high
frequency radio was the only way of communication beyond the horizon such as
communicating to a ship that is on the high seas or communication between continents.
The biggest challenge of high frequency communication is the danger of signal
interception by unauthorised parties.
Very high frequency (VHF) radio waves are transmitted along the earth's surface. Due to
the curvature of the earth, the signal will most likely attenuate at the horizon. This means
that repeater stations have to be placed strategically to maintain a line of sight in order to
receive, amplify and propagate the signal from one area to another. This technology is
popular for the hand held radio devices like "walkie-talkie" radios. The range of very
high frequency is limited but it is preferred to high frequency where no major
obstructions are encountered on the landscape. This is because with very high frequency,
it is possible to make the wave to follow a narrower and more direct path to the receiver.
To overcome the obstructions on the earth surface like mountains and buildings, repeater
stations are built on raised areas.

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Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio waves are like very high frequency when it comes to
the line of sight principle. This means that there should be no barrier between the sending
and the receiving aerial. However, they require smaller aerials. Notice that the television
aerial for very high frequency is bigger than the one for ultra high frequency radio waves.
This is because; ultra high frequency radio waves can be made to follow an even
narrower and direct path to the receiver than very high frequency radio waves. Therefore
ultra high frequency is popular for horizon limited broadcasts.
One of the latest radio transmission technologies is called Bluetooth technology.
Bluetooth is a worldwide and short-range radio technology that enables people to use
hand held communication devices such as cell phones and personal digital assistants to
access the Internet. The main idea behind Bluetooth communication is to try and define
one standard that will allow all personal communication devices regardless of their
differences or size to be able to communicate with each other and through wireless
technology. The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio
transceiver, small enough to be inserted in small devices. A network of bluetooth-enabled
devices is called a wireless personal area network (WPAN) or piconet. This is because
bluetooth networks are best suited for personal or hand held devices. This has made radio
transmission to become very popular in mobile communication and Internet connectivity.
Infrared transmission
Infrared waves fall just below the visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum. Just like
the radio waves, infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. Communication
through this medium is achieved by having infrared transmitters and receivers
(transceivers). Transceivers of infrared signals must be within a line of sight in the same
room. This is because unlike radio signals, infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like
walls. However, the signal can be reflected off surfaces like walls and ceiling until they
reach their destination.

An example of an infrared device is the infrared transceiver on most mobile phones.

Once activated, two people in the same room can send messages to each other using
infrared technology on their mobiles without going through the mobile service provider
hence avoid being charged.
In computer networking environment, the technology can be used to connect devices in
the same room to each other without need for cables e.g. a computer to a printer. The
computers infrared transceiver must maintain a line of sight with the one for the printer.

Advantages and disadvantages of wireless communications

Wireless communication offers numerous advantages that justify the cost of laying down
the network. Some of the advantages are:
1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to bounded media i.e. devices
can be moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote areas that do
not have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone lines.
Some of the disadvantages of wireless communications include:
1. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.
2. The initial cost is very high.

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Communication devices
Computers and transmission media require communication devices for the network to be
fully operational. These devices are more or less used as interfaces or junctions between
the terminal devices. Terminal equipments are devices at both ends of the communication
link such as a computer. Some examples of data communication devices include network
interface cards (NIC), modems and codec’s, hubs, bridges, repeaters, routers, gateways,
switches and access points.
Network interface cards (NIC)
Network interface cards (NIC) create a physical link between the computer and the
transmission media. A network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on
the motherboard. However, most computer motherboards today come ready with an
onboard network interface controller. The network interface cards have ports at the back
in which the terminated end of a network cable can be plugged.
Modems and codecs
A modem is an important device in the world of communication. It converts a signal from
digital to analog form for the purpose of transmission over the analog media, while a
codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital medium. A
modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.
Hubs
A hub also called a concentrator is a component that connects computers on a network
and is able to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network. A hub
will usually connect networks that have a common architecture i.e. one that has the same
set of communication software usually called protocols. Protocols are a set of rules that
govern the communication between devices on a network. A hub transmits signals by
broadcasting them to all the computers on the network. After the signal is broadcasted,
the computer whose address is on the message picks the message from the network that is
part of the broadcast domain. Some hubs called intelligent hubs are able to monitor the
way computers are communicating on the network and keep the information in a small
database of their own called a management information base (MIB). The network server
can then use this information to fine-tune the network. Intelligent hubs can be able to
manage a network by isolating computers that are not functioning properly. Several hubs
can be connected together one after another to expand a network. However, this increases
the broadcast range which may lead to broadcast storms on the network. The term
broadcast storm refers to a condition where a network is overwhelmed with message
broadcasts due to malfunctioning of network interface cards or hub related problems.
Bridges
This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate network segment for
which a message is meant for delivery through address filtering. Hence a bridge can
divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic. The purpose of using a
bridge therefore is to:
1. Extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.
2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the destination segment of
the network.

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A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are not
broadcast in that segment.
Repeaters
A repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boosts it and then sends it to another segment. Repeaters are the simplest way
to expand a network because they broadcast the same message to other network
segments. However, this is advisable due to broadcast storms that can develop. The
repeater enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

Routers
The router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from
source to destination. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a unique
identifier or address called the network address. Network addressing is enabled because
of the use of a special internetworking protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP). Hence,
the network address is usually called the IP address. All the computers on the same
network have the same network address but different host numbers. The router receives a
packet from another router on the internet work and checks the destinations network
address. If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the data
packet to the destination host by reading the host address otherwise the packet will be
routed to the next network address. Some modem routing devices combine the
functionality of a bridge and router. Such a device is called a brouter.
Gateways
A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks
or Internet. One such device is the router. Because of this reason most people confuse a
gateway and a router. However a gateway may not be necessarily a router, it may be a
computer configured to provide access the Internet. Figure 1.21 shows a logical diagram
of a local area network connected to a wide area network via gateways.
Switches
A switch, unlike a hub forwards a packet directly to the address node without
broadcasting. A node refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or computer
on the network. The switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they
were linked by a direct cable between them. This reduces the broadcast problems on the
networks. It is important to note that some hubs also incorporate the switching
mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a switching hub.
Typically, switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that one switch may be
used as a bridge to connect several hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by
broadcasts.
Wireless communication devices
For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission media like
cables. However, as the cost of wireless technology goes down and the quality of service
increases, it is becoming cost effective for companies and individuals to extend the
capability of wired networks by integrating wireless segments into their communications.
Some of the most common devices used in wireless communication include access points
and the antenna.
Access points (AP)

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The access point is one of the most common wireless network components As its name
suggests, it is an entry point into a bounded network for people who have wireless
devices such as personal digital assistants (PDA's), laptops and computers with wireless
links.
Wireless antennae
The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the surrounding. The
waves may be radio waves, microwave or infrared waves in nature. In most cases, access
points will have two antennas so that the one that receives the best signal at any particular
time can be used.

Personal computer memory card international association (PCMCIA) cards

A personal computer memory card international association is an add-on card inserted
into a device such as personal digital assistants or a laptop in order to enable wireless
communication between the devices and a wired network server.
Network software
Computer networks have evolved from the simple linking of computers on a common
transmission media to highly managed and optimised data and information transfer
systems. This means that apart from data communications, the focus is now squarely on
how best to utilise network resources. The issues of network security inter operatability
and reliability have taken centre stage. Any network manager will be faced with the
question of network load balancing and adopting best routing procedures.

All these tasks would be impossible if network software was not available. These
software can be classified into two main groups namely:
1. Network operating systems.
2. Network protocols.

Network operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to optimise the networked computers
ability to respond to service requests. Servers run on a network operating system. In
addition to the functions of a normal operating system, this software performs the
following network related functions:
1. Provides access to network resources e.g. printers and folders.
2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently.
3. Supports interprocess communication i.e. enables the various processes on the network
to communicate with one another.
4. Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supporting network services like network card drivers and protocols.
6. Implementing network security features.
In most cases, network operating systems are designed as multi-user operating systems
that run the network server program. Once installed on the right hardware platform and
configured as a server, the operating system will provide network management tools to
network administrators. The administrator can use the tools to do the following:
1. Secure the network against unauthorised access.
2. Track network usage and keep a log of all the people who have used the network.
3. Ensure inter-operatability between various systems on the network.

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4. Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the network.
Examples of network operating systems are Windows NT/2000/2003, UNIX, Linux and
Novell Netware.

NB: Internetworking devices like routers also have operating systems of their own and
hence they can be managed and configured for optimum performance. Note that routers
are special purpose computers.

Protocols
Protocols are set rules and procedures that govern communication between two different
devices or people. For example, a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set
of rules and procedures of communication when representing his country in the host
country.
In computer networking, protocols are the rules and technical procedures that govern
communication between different computers.

How protocols work

The data transmission process over the network has to be broken down into discrete
systematic steps. At each step, a certain action takes place. Each step has its own rules
and procedures as defined by the network protocols. The work of these protocols must be
co-ordinated so that there are no conflicts or incomplete operations. This co-ordination is
achieved through protocol layering. Network protocols are designed after the open
systems interconnection (OSI) model. The open systems interconnection model is not a
protocol as such but is meant to help designers to come up with high quality layered
protocols. It has seven layers, each performing distinct functions as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

Layer Function
User applications run here and generate
7. Application layer requests for data transmission or open received
Information.
Adds formatting, display and encryption
6. Presentation layer
Information to the data being sent.
Sets up data transmission sessions between two
5. Session layer
Communicating devices.
Manages data transfer over the network to
4. Transport layer ensure
Reliability.
Address information is added to the data packet
3. Network layer
And routed to destination.

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 Adds error checking information and prepares
2. Data link layer
Data for going onto the physical connection.
The data packets are finally transmitted via the
1. Physical layer network card through the transmission media in
form of bits

Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI model. They provide services
to application programs. An example of an application program is an e-mail editor
program that enables composing or reading of e-mail messages. Examples of protocols at
the application layer include:
1. Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) - An Internet protocol for transferring e-mails.
2. File transfer protocol (FTP) - An Internet protocol for file transfer.
3. Apple talk and apple share - Apple computers networking protocol suit.

Transport protocols ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably. Some
examples include:
1. Transmission control protocol (TCP): This is responsible for delivery of sequenced
data over the network.
2. Sequential packet exchange (SPX): This part of the Novell's internet work packet
exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
3. NetBEUI: A local area network protocol for Microsoft and 1MB networks that
establishes communication sessions between computers.
4. Apple transaction protocol (ATP): Apple computer's communication session and data
transport protocol.
Network protocols provide link services. They handle addressing and routing
information, error checking and retransmission of requests. Some examples of network
layer protocols include:
1. Internet protocol (IP): It does packet forwarding and routing.
2. Internetwork packets exchange: Netware’s protocol for packet forwarding and routing.

Network topologies
The term network topology refers to the way in which computers and other devices have
been arranged or how data is passed from one computer to another in the network.
Therefore network topology can be viewed in two ways namely logical and physical
topology.

Logical topology
Logical topology also called signal topology deals with the way data passes from one
device to the next on the network. Examples of logical topologies are Ethernet and token
ring. This means that two networks with different physical layout may have the same
logical topology.

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Ethernet topology
In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media and can only send data
when none of the others is sending.

Token ring topology

In token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around the network
and only the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the
token to read the data then release the token. The token can then be captured by another
computer which needs to transmit data.

Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the
network. Examples of physical topologies include star, bus, ring, mesh and
tree/hierarchical topology.

Star topology
In star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub. Nodes communicate across
the network by passing data through the hub. When the hub receives data from a
transmitting computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on the network.
Until recently, the star topology was found mostly in minicomputer and mainframe
environments. The topology consists typically of a system of terminals or personal
computers, each connected to a central server.
The advantages of star topology include:
1. It allows centralisation of key networking resources like concentrators and servers.
2. It gives the network administrator a focal point for network management. When
something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can troubleshoot it from one
place, usually a wiring closet, but possibly from a remote management terminal.
3. Star networks are easy to configure.

The disadvantages of star topology include:

1. The star-based network is costly because it requires one complete cable per computer.
Each workstation is connected to the central concentrator by its own dedicated line. In
some star-based network technologies this line is coaxial cable that runs from an active
hub to a workstation.
2. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be down.
3. Installing is time consuming because each node forms a segment of its own.

Bus topology
All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or
backbone as shown in Figure 1.26. The sharing of the transmission media (or bus) has
several problems. Most importantly, it means that the cable can carry only one message at
a time and each workstation on the network must be capable of knowing when it can and
cannot transmit using this shared medium.

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A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from bouncing back and
forth on the cable causing signal distortion. As the data passes along the cable, each
station checks whether the data is addressed to it. If the address matches the machines
address, it receives the data otherwise it rejects it. The network addresses of computers on
a network are called the medium access control (MAC) address.

The advantages of the bus topology are:

1. It is easy to install.
2. It is less costly. Does not require a complete cable length per computer.
The disadvantages of bus topology are:
1. A cable break in any section brings down the whole networks.
2. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult because the fault could be anywhere on the
cable.
3. The bus topology limits the number of computers that can be connected to the cable
because each computer is listening to the cable in order to transmit. This means that an
increase in the number of computers results in an increased collision as machines
compete for transmission.

Ring topology
In a ring topology, all devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop
each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting signals around the network
to its neighbour. A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token
can be viewed as an envelop or a bag where data is placed for transmission and carried
around the network.
The advantages of ring topology are:
1. They use a short length cable.
2. Ring topology is simple to install.
The disadvantages of ring topology are:
1. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device can disrupt the
entire network.
2. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
3. One device or media breakdown may affect the entire network.
However, this is not the case with IBM token ring where a device called Multi Station
Access Unit (MSA U) is used for station bypass in the event a station fails.

Mesh topology
This is the most common type of topology used in wide area network where there are
many paths between different locations. Devices are connected with many redundant
interconnections between the nodes. In a true mesh topology every node has a connection
to every other node in the network. This is a hybrid topology. Groups of star-configured
networks are connected to a linear bus backbone

Practical exercise

Setting up a peer-to-peer local area network

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This practical activity is a step by step guide on how to set up a simple local area
network. The following are some of the requirements you need.

Hardware requirements
1. A computer running on any version of Microsoft Windows especially Windows 9x /
2000 / ME / Windows XP.
2. Network Interface card. Some computers may have it already installed onboard so that
you do not have to purchase one.
3. A hub or a switch.
4. Transmission media preferably unshielded twisted pair category 5. 5. RJ45 connectors.

Tools
1. Crimping tool
2. Cable tester
3. Screw drivers.
Installing a network card
The network interface card acts as the physical interface or connection between the
computer and a properly terminated transmission cable. As mentioned earlier, some
motherboards come with on-board network interface cards hence you may not need to
plug in a separate add-on card.
To physically install an add-on card:
1. Disconnect the computer from the power source.
2. Open the system unit and identify an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.
3. Insert the card and screw it into place. Some little force may be needed to push the card
into place squarely. Make sure that all the conductor points of the card sink into the
expansion slot. Avoid touching the golden conductor points and chips on the card with
your bare hands.
NB: Some cards are slotted into Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) slots while others
are designed for Peripheral Components Interconnect (PCI) slots. Make sure you install
in the right slot and then screw into place.
4. Replace the casing then connect the computer to the power supply and boot it up. If
you are using Microsoft Windows 9x and above, the computer will detect the new
hardware because of the plug and play feature found in the operating system. It may
install the protocols and device software needed for the proper operation of the network
interface card automatically! If there is a problem of the card being detected, you may
have to configure the card manually using software on a disk that comes with the card.

Installing the drivers manually

I. Click tart, Settings then, ControlPane1. In the Control Panel window double click the
Network /Network Connections icon. A dialog box will be displayed. (In some Windows
versions you may have to double click the Network and Dial-up Connections icon found
in the control panel then double-click the local area connection icon.)
2. Click the configure button.
3. Click adapter/drivers and then click ADD. Follow the on screen instructions.

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Adding protocols
1. Make sure the Network dialog box is open.
2. Click ADD then protocol
3. Click Microsoft, select TCP/IP and NetBEUI from the protocol list then ok
4. Click Apply

Identifying your computer in a workgroup

A workgroup is a collection of computers that are on the same network. To specify your
computer and the name of the workgroup:
1. If you are using Windows 9x, click the identification tab from the Network dialog box.
If you are using Windows Me, 2000 or XP. Identification (Computer Name) tab is located
in system properties dialog box. Right click My computer, click Properties then click the
computer name tab.
2. Type your computer name and the workgroup name. The computer name you give
must be unique.

Configuring transport control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP)

In order to communicate with other computers, you need to install and configure a
protocol. In our case let us use TCP/IP. To configure TCP/IP,
1. Select the TCP/IP Ethernet adapter from the list titled The following network
components are installed/ This connection uses the following items.
2. Click the properties button then the Specify the IP address option,
3. Type in the IP address box an address such as 192.168.00.001. Each computer should
have a unique IP address. Figure 1.32 shows a TCPI IP properties dialog box in
Microsoft Windows XP.
4. Specify the subnet mask. Subnet masks are values that allow the router to distinguish
the network ID from host ID portions of the IP address. If the IP address is examined by
the subnet mask and found to be identical, the message is destined to a host on the same
network otherwise it is routed to another network. Typically, subnet masks use the format
255 .x.x.x. In our case let us use a subnet mask such as 255.255.255.0.
5. Click APPLY then Ok The computer will prompt you to restart in order for the
changes to be effected.
6. Restart the computer

Media preparation and connection

In this practical, we are going to use twisted pair cabling technique because it has become
almost the default method. This type of media uses a connector known as RJ45 to
terminate the cable. RJ45 is attached to a UTP cable using crimping tool. To attach an
RJ45 connector to a UTP cable, proceed as follows:
1. Cut a piece of cable of suitable length approximately 3 metres.
2. Strip off approximately a dimension centimeter of the cable sheath on both ends to
expose the inner pairs.
3. Untwist the pairs.

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4. Using the wiring diagram, place the wires in the correct order and trim the edges to
make them even.
Key
1. Green striped 2. Green
3. Orange striped 4. Blue
5. Blue striped 6. Orange
7. Brown striped 8. Brown

5. Insert the wires into the RJ45 connector; plug it in their correct order and then push it
into the crimping tool.
6. Squeeze the handles of the tool to make sure the wires are pierced and held tightly in
the connector.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 at the other end of the cable. Your cable should now be
terminated on both ends
8. You can then test the media for continuity and correct termination using the cable
tester.

Connecting the computers to the hub/switch

It is now time to connect the computers together through the hub. To connect the
computers:
1. Connect one end of the cable to the RJ45 port of the network card and the other end to
one port in the hub. If the hub is powered, a LED will indicate the connection. Repeat all
this process for all other computers that you wish to connect on the network.
2. To see if the networking is successful, right click the Network Neighborhood/ My
Network Places on the desktop. If all the connected computers in the same workgroup
can "see" one another then you have succeeded setting up a peer-to-peer network.
3. if not, you may decide to test the connection using the PING command. For example if
you have two computers with the IP addresses 192.168.001.001 and 192.168.001. 028.
To test the connection between the two, proceed as follows:
(a) From the START, menu of the computer with IP address
192.168.001. 001, choose the RUN menu and type the command
PING 192.168.001. 028.
(b) Click, 0K.A connection failure will be displayed on the screen
Sharing network resources
If you have successfully installed the network, you can then start enjoying the benefits of
networking by enabling resource sharing. For example if you are using Windows XP, you
can share resources by enabling sharing and security as follows:
1. Open Windows Explorer.
2. From the explorer window, right click the drive folder or file you wish to share with
others on the network then select sharing and security.
3. Click the Sharing tab then enable "share this folder".
4. Type in the share name and set other options as required.
5. Click 0.K.
Network security
Network security is like the security measures we implement in our homes. You do the
best you can to protect yourself from intruders. Likewise in networking you should try to

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protect your data and information from intruders. In networking there are several ways of
enforcing security one of them is share level and the other is the user level security.

Share level security

Share level security is a sample network security used in peer to peer networks. The user
can decide which resources to give for sharing. Most desktop operating system such as
Window 9X provide such kind of security.

User-level security
User level security model is used on server based networks. A network administrator
assigns accounts to users. This means that each user is provided with a unique name and
password which he or she can use to access network resources. For more on user level
security, read documentations on operating system such as Microsoft Windows NT
4.0/2000/2003, UNIX, Novell Netware, Linux Fedora etc.

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APPLICATION AREAS OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

Chapter outline

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Application areas of information and communication technology
2.3 Field work report

Introduction
Computers play an important role in every aspect of our society today. Hardly does a day
pass without one coming across a computer system that is used in offering services that
were initially done manually.
In this chapter, we shall look at how computers have been applied in the contemporary
society to add value to the information systems of various organizations. An information
system is a collection of specific human and machine efforts required to support the
decision making process, data processing, information output and presentation.

Application areas of information and communication technology

Information and communication technology (lCT) has been applied in various areas such
as in the development of financial systems, retail systems, reservation systems,
educational systems, communication systems, industrial systems, scientific and research
systems, library systems, entertainment systems, transportation systems, home use, office
expert systems, marketing, virtual reality systems and law enforcement systems.

Financial systems
Financial systems enable organisations to manage their finances. They include:
1. Payroll systems.
2. Accounting systems.
3. Banking systems.

Payroll systems
The primary purpose of this system is to process the accurate information of employees
including gross pay, deductions and the net pay. Because money spent on human
resource is one of the largest operating expenses of a business, a payroll system is also
designed to produce several analysis reports e.g. a breakdown of payroll expenses against
production/income of the company.

Accounting systems
Accounting systems are popular in business management. There are six key business
accounting activities/subsystems:
1. Customer order entry and billing
2. Inventory management
3. General ledger accounting
4. Accounts receivable
5. Accounts payable

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Customer orders entry and billing
Customer orders entry and billing subsystem records incoming customer orders,
authorises delivery of items or services ordered and produces invoices for customers who
do not pay in advance or on cash basis.

Inventory management
Inventory management is used to keep track of the items in stock and help the
management determine which items to reorder. This helps the management to have
enough stock at all times to meet the needs of the customers.

General ledger accounting

General ledger accounting is used to keep track of how much a business makes and its
worthiness by summarising the financial transactions. It produces reports on income,
sources of income, expenses, and the net profit or loss earned. A summary report of these
transactions is called a balance sheet and is usually generated at the end of an accounting
period.

Accounts receivable
Accounts receivable system keeps track or records of the amount owed by each customer.
This helps the management to make a follow-up by billing the customers for overdue
payments.

Accounts payable
Accounts payable system keeps track of the amount the business owes others e.g.
suppliers, tax organisations, transport e.t.c. Hence, it helps the management to produce
cheques for payment of these amounts.

Banking systems
The banking industry was one of the earliest consumers of information and
communication technology. The computerised banking services include:
1. Processing customer transactions.
2. Cheque clearing and processing.
3. Electronic funds transfer.
Processing customer transactions
Computers are used in banks to carry out financial transactions such as recording
deposits, withdrawals and calculating interests on savings and loans. Such systems also
generate reports on the current status of accounts. In most banks, these transactions are
entered via terminals, which are connected, to a central computer for centralised
processing. The tellers have revolutionised banking activity by offering 24 hour service
to customers and more flexibility in cash deposits and withdrawals.

Cheque clearing and processing

Computerised cheques clearing and processing is made possible due to the special
characters on cheques printed using ink containing magnetic particles. The characters
identify the bank in which the cheque is drawn, the customer account number, the cheque

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number and the amount of the cheque. Using a magnetic ink character reader, these
details are automatically entered into a computer for cheque processing. Manual
processing used to take lots of time but with computer systems, millions of cheques are
processed every day hence improving efficiency in service delivery to customers.

Electronic funds transfer (EFT)

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) is the movement of money using information and
communication technology. When a cash dispenser is used, the amount withdrawn by a
customer is deducted from his/her account. Another example is when paying for goods
and services using a credit card. Payment is transferred electronically from the customers
account to the recipients account.

Retail systems
Computers are becoming more and more popular in retail stores such as supermarkets,
distributor outlets etc. Computers are used in such stores for:
1. Stock control
2. Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals (EPOS)

Stock control
A computerised stock control system enables a user to manage his/her stock more
efficiently. This system is used to track what is in stock and what needs reordering so as
to reduce the risk of under stocking or overstocking. Overstocking ties up valuable space
and capital that could have been used for other valuable items. On the other hand under
stocking causes customer dissatisfaction.

Transactions handling at the electronic point of sale terminals

An electronic point- of -sale (EPOS) is a computer terminal used in retail stores to input
and output data at the point where sales are transacted e.g. at the supermarket checkout
counter. An EPOS terminal has all facilities of a normal cash register, but with additional
direct data capture devices, e.g. bar code reader, card reader, a monitor and a receipt
printer. In such retail stores, goods are identified by means of bar codes. For each item, a
record is stored in secondary storage medium containing: the item number, item name or
description, quantity in stock and the price.
Transactions at the point of sale terminal may involve the following steps:
1. The bar code reader (wand) is passed over the items bar code. The bar code is
automatically converted to the item number, e.g. 2160, which is read to the computer.
2. Using this number, the computer searches for the item with a corresponding number in
the products database.
3. Once the record is found, its description and price lookup file is used for processing the
sale.
The advantages of electronic point of sales terminal systems are:
1. Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
2. Faster since the attendant does not have to enter details manually.

Reservation systems

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Reservation systems are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make
bookings in areas such as airlines, hotels, car-rental, theatres etc. Bookings are made
from a remote terminal connected to a centralised computer database. To access the
database, a customer makes enquiries via the remote terminal connected to the central
computer.
For example to make airline booking enquiries such as finding out the seats reservation a
customer uses a remote terminal in the nearest booking office. The response is
immediately available to the customer within a few seconds.
Such a computerised reservation system is referred to as online enquiry since an
individual directly requests for information through a terminal from a central computer
and receives an immediate response.
Educational systems
Initially most educational institutions used computers for administrative tasks such as
compiling examinational reports, writing memos and accounting purposes. Computers
are playing an increasingly important role in educational institutions in the following
ways:
1. Computer aided instruction (CAI)
2. Computer aided learning (CAL)
3. Electronic learning (e-Learning)
4. Computer based simulation

Computer aided instruction (CAI)

Computer aided instruction refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice
particular educational principles. For example when learning a new concept in foreign
language such as Japanese, the learner is presented with the explanation of the concept.
The computer then presents questions from which the learner is to select the correct
answer.
Some CAI programs present learning content in form of educational games, which makes
learning more fun especially for young children. A good example is a typing tutor
program. Figure 2.3 below is an onscreen illustration of a sample typing tutor program
that teaches a person to learn typing skills.

Computer aided learning (CAL)

Another educational technique that uses computers is computer aided learning. Unlike
computer aided instruction, which is meant to drill the learner, computer aided learning
present’s educational materials the way a teacher does in a classroom. For example, the
program may pose a question and depending on the learner's performance, it may present
new content or revisit the topic.
In order to make learning effective, most computer aided learning programs have clear
graphical presentations such as video clips and voice for demonstrating or explaining
difficult concepts.
Electronic learning (e-Learning)
In e-Learning, lessons and lectures are presented from a central site and the presentation
is transmitted to remote conference terminals or displayed on TV screens. The learner can

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also access learning material on the internet, sit for online examinations and receive
results the same way. Learners therefore do not need to go physically to a college.
Computer based simulation
Computer based simulation refers to the science of representing the behavior of a real-life
situation by using computerised models. Simulation has become very popular in learning
and training institutions. For example, in distant or e-Learning, where a learner is not in
physical contact with a trainer, simulation software can be used to provide the learner
with clear illustrations about a certain concept or skill.
Simulation programs are mostly used in educational areas where practical skills have to
be learnt like training drivers, pilots, engineers etc. have to be instructed using a virtual
environment.

Communication systems
Communication refers to the distribution of information or data from one person or
location to another. Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of
high-speed electronic devices such as computers, cell-phones, radios and television. This
integration of computerised electronic devices and telecommunication infrastructure for
the purpose of communication is referred to as information and communication
technology (lCT). Therefore ICT not only refers to computers but also all other devices
that are used for effective and efficient communication. Examples of communication
systems are:
1. Facsmile (Fax).
2. Radio.
3. Television set.
4. Video conferencing.
5. Telecommuting.
6. Internet.
Facsmile (Fax)
A facsmile machine, in short a fax, is a telecommunication device used to send
documents via telephone lines. A document is placed in the machine, scanned and
converted into analog form then transmitted over the telephone line. The receiving fax
machine converts the analog data into the original softcopy and prints a hardcopy.
To send fax over the Internet, a special modem, called a fax modem is attached to the
sending and receiving computers. This eliminates the need for a stand alone fax machine.

Radio communication
Computers can be used in radio broadcasting stations to do the following:
1. Record and manage radio programmes meant for broadcasting.
2. Manage the radio transmission and track performance. Most transmissions equipment
are computerized for easy troubleshooting and operation.
3. Automate the running of the selected programmes.
4. Create slides, simulated objects and sound effects when preparing electronic and
printed media advertisements.
5. Download information from Internet that can be used in preparing programmes such as
international news.
Television sets

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Television sets (TV) have become increasingly important in information and
communication technology because they are much more available at homes and many
places than computers. Data or information is transmitted via a TV channel the same way
the channel is used to broadcast conversional TV programs. The most common types of
data transmitted via TV include: teletext (ceefax) and videotex (view data).

Teletext
Teletext refers to a computerised service whereby news and other information are
provided on television screens to subscribers. A TV is configured using a special add-on
card or adapter. The subscriber can browse for information using a remote controlled
device. However teletext is a one way communication (simplex) which means that the
subscriber cannot communicate back to the service provider.

Videotex (view data)

Unlike teletext, videotex also known as view data is a two way communication service
half duplex over a telephone line or cable television channel. A subscriber can interact
with the service provider database and the information is displayed on a home TV screen.
View data is used in reservation bookings, ordering for goods and services as well as
sending electronic mails.

Video conferencing
Video conferencing refers to the use of computers, a digital video camera, audio
capturing equipment and communication networks to enable people in different locations
to see and talk to one another.
Each participant's computer is attached with a video camera (camcorder), speakers and a
microphone. With such devices and appropriate communication software, a person can
participate in a virtual conference room. In such a room, all participants can see each
other on the computer screen as if they were seated in a real conference room.

Video conferencing communication is popular in TV broadcasting stations where a field

reporter interacts with newscasters. It is also popular in organisations where top managers
in different geographical locations hold meeting via the Internet or the organistions
intranet.
Telecommuting
Telecommuting is a term used to refer to a situation where an employee works usually at
home using a computer connected to the workplace network. Telecommuting takes
advantage of the growing communication networks to reduce unnecessary travel to the
place of work. This in turn translates to reduced travel expenses and less stress due to
commuting inconveniences such as traffic jams.
The Internet
The Internet has become one of the most popular means of information transfer and
efficient communication. Some of the services available on the Internet are:
1. World wide web (www).
2. Electronic mail (e-mail).

World wide web (www)

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World wide web refers to a collection of web pages, which may be made up of text,
images, animations, sounds and video held on web servers. One can access the
information using a computer or any other communication device such as a mobile
phone. However, for a mobile phone to be used to access the Internet, it must have the
wireless application protocol (WAP). A computer connected to the Internet or a WAP-
enabled mobile phone allows the user to access a wide range of information such as
news, entertainment, banking, reservations, business news, e-mails among others.

E-mail
This is a very fast and efficient means of sending and receiving messages, data, files or
graphics. Once you subscribe for Internet services through a service provider, you can
send or receive e-mails to or from anyone connected to the Internet using a computer or a
WAP-enabled cellular phone.

Industrial system
The application of computer technology in industrial or manufacturing processes has
become one of the most effective methods of automated production. This has resulted in
tremendous improvement in productivity.

Industrial plants such as motor vehicle manufacturers, chemical plants, refineries and
mining plants use computer systems in a number of ways. Some include:
1. Computer aided design and manufacturing.
2. Simulation.
3. Process control.

Computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing

Computer aided design Computer aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is an integrated
system that allows products that have been designed using design application Software,
to be transmitted into an automated manufacturing system for the product to be
manufactured as per the computer model. For example design of motor vehicle brake
pads involves designing the model using computer aided design software then feeding it
to an automated machine which engineers the required shape and dimensions as per the
specifications. One application of computer aided manufacturing is the use of robots to
carry out assembly line operations. A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates
a human being in carrying out operations that would otherwise be hazardous, repetitive
and boring to a human being. Such operations may include welding, lifting heavy objects;
spray painting of vehicle bodies, removing red-hot materials from furnaces etc.
Industrial simulation
Simulation allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and dangerous in
real life situation to be put under test. For example, a car or plane crash test simulation is
the use of a virtual model on the computer screen that attempts to represent the real
situation or object. This enables the manufacturers identify the weaknesses of the real
situation or object hence put the correct reinforcement to their designs. E.g. motor vehicle
seat belts can be tested for their effectiveness in case of a car crash using a computer
model. The general name of using computer models in such circumstances is known as
non destructive testing (NDT).

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Process control
Computerised process control refers to the use of a computer system to control an
ongoing physical process especially in manufacturing. Such process controls may include
regulating temperature, pressure, fluid flow etc. Computerised process control is mostly
used in petroleum refineries, chemical plants and other manufacturing companies to
manage machine intensive processes.

Scientific and research systems

Computers have a wide variety of applications in science, research and technology. Some
of which are:
1. Weather forecasting.
2. Medical research.
3. Military and space exploration science.
Weather forecasting
Modern weather forecasting techniques have been automated using computerised
systems; hence weather predictions are more accurate and reliable. Due to the large
volume of data collected from rainfall, air pressure, humidity, temperature, wind speed
and cloud cover, computers help in analysing, processing and predicting weather patterns
using such data.
Another application of computers in weather forecasting is the use of geographical
information system (GIS) and the geographical positioning system (GPS). This system
represents geographical data in graphical form by positioning and superimposing it on the
world map. Geographical information system is used to represent data on weather
patterns in a clearer and coherent manner on a world map. Similarly, the path of storms
can be accurately tracked and predicted. Such information is very important for the
aviation industry and many other sectors of the economy.

Medical research
In health sciences, health professionals use computer technology for diagnosis, keeping
patients' records, inventory control etc. Computers are now being used to control devices
that help to care for the handicapped such as the deaf, blind, bed ridden etc. In some
health institutions, a more specialised computer system referred to as an expert system
may be in use. An expert system is an interactive system that generates conclusions from
captured data by comparing it with a set of rules held in a database called a knowledge
base. The system emulates the reasoning of a human expert in a narrow field of
specialisation. Expert systems have been developed to help medical professionals
diagnose illnesses more accurately in the absence of human experts.

Military and space exploration science

The dynamic growth in military, space science and exploration would not be a reality
today were it not for computer technology. Space exploration and military research
bodies such as America's national aeronautics and space administration (NASA) make
extensive use of computer systems, for research, design, development and control of
unmanned spaceships, aeroplanes and missiles.

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Library systems
Libraries use computerised systems for a number of tasks. Examples are:
1. Lending system
2. Inventory control system.
3. Cataloguing system.

Lending system
The library lending system manages the issuance and return of borrowed reading
materials. Books, magazines, journals, reports etc. are given unique identification
numbers or codes. Once a member borrows a book, his/her details are recorded. When
the book is returned the borrower's record is updated to reflect the new status.

Inventory control
This involves use of computers to manage stock, which includes checking for books
currently in the shelves and those on high demand for the purpose of adding more.
Similarly, books that have become obsolete can be retired to the archives.

Cataloguing
A catalogue is a collection of cards with information about each book or reference
materials found in the library. These cards may be kept in a drawer sorted in alphabetic
order either by title or author name. To enhance service delivery and efficiency,
computerised cataloguing has replaced the manual cards catalogue. This electronic
catalogue is updated constantly when new reference materials are acquired.

Entertainment systems
The advancement in multimedia technology has produced computers that can be used in
recreational and entertainment. Some application areas of computers in recreation and
entertainment include:
1. Games
2. Music and video

Games
Games have come a long way from the simple solitaire to modem simulated 3D games.
Digital video disks (DVDs) and three-dimensional (3D) multimedia games are now
possible on personal computers. There are computer games that simulate sports such as
driving, war combat etc. such games gives the player maximum pleasure in a virtual
environment on the screen.

Although some games can be played using other accessories e.g. on the TV screen using
a game console, such games have been developed using computers.

Music and video

Video compact discs (VCD) and digital video discs (DVD) have become a common
feature in the entertainment industry.

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In music industry, computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing and adding
special effects to music.
In video industry, computers are used to produce highly simulated and animated movies,
generate scenes and actors. Some movies use a lot of computer generated images that
make the movie interesting.

Transportation systems
Computers play an increasingly important role in transportation industry in areas such as:
1. Automobile traffic control
2. Air traffic control

Automobile traffic control

In busy towns where there are round about and road junctions, you will mostly find
traffic control lights. These lights control both human and motor vehicle traffic using the
three lighting system i.e. green, red and amber. These lights are either controlled using a
small clock switch or a computer system. The clock switches the lights at regular
intervals. However, some clock controllers are intelligent enough to vary the frequency of
light change according to traffic direction and volume during rush hours. Computerised
traffic light systems have sensor pads laid underneath the road which detect the pattern of
the traffic flow. The collected data is sent to a computer system which detects and
analyses the traffic flow and builds up a simulated image of the actual scene. Control
signals can then be output to the traffic lights or motorists through their receiver devices
to vary the light timings or redirect traffic to less busy roads.

Air traffic control

Computers are used to monitor air traffic movement, take off and landing of crafts. This
has helped minimise human control errors and mistakes I that could result from human
controlled systems. The computer technology used to direct aircrafts to follow the
shortest path between two locations is known as geographical positioning system (GPS).

Shipping control
Computers are widely used to control and guide the paths taken by spaceships and water
vessels as they travel to distant lands. The geographical positioning system is also used in
shipping control.
Home use
Because microcomputers are nowadays affordable, most people are using computers at
home for preparing domestic budgets, entertainment, research and teaching children on
educational concepts.

Office expert systems

This is an information system usually developed and installed in the office of a human
expert or knowledge worker. A knowledge worker is a person in any field who is
formally trained to apply a specific set of knowledge in his work. Such as a system is
capable of simulating the decision making process and intelligent problem solution just
like a human expert. It also has a set of rules that help it to make conclusions when some
parameters are entered.

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Marketing
Without proper marketing, a business cannot survive in a competitive environment; hence
computers are being used in a number of ways to enhance marketing. These include:
1. Electronic commerce or e-business
2. Electronic presentations
3. Advertising

Electronic commerce/e-business
E-commerce is a new way of doing business where the transactions are carried out
electronically without physical interaction between the seller and buyer. For example a
customer may decide to buy an item through the Internet by visiting the supplier's web
site, selecting the item and placing it in a virtual shopping tray. The website tracks the
whole session as the customer chooses various items and calculates the total bill.
Payment is then made through a cheque, credit card or through electronic funds transfer.
Once the payment is made, the item is shipped to the customer.
This method of trade has enabled people to do business without much movement hence
saving money and time.

Electronic presentation
Using computers, marketing agents can create exciting presentations concerning the
products of a business and present them to the audience using presentation software.
Electronic presentation adds value to traditional marketing techniques because they are
attractive.

Advertising
Using simulation, presentation and animation software, it is possible to design catchy
advert materials and video clips. Such materials can then be displayed on billboards,
broadcasted over a television or placed on the Internet.

Virtual or artificial reality

The term virtual reality (VR) or artificial reality refers to a condition in which a person
becomes psychologically immersed in an artificial environment generated by a computer
system. Other terms used instead of virtual reality are cyberspace, virtual worlds and
virtual environment. To achieve this effect, the following interactive sensory equipment
are used:
1. Head mounted display/headgear
2. Gloves
3. Body suit
4. Virtual reality software

Head mounted display (HMD)/headgear

A headgear is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that channel
images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears thus presenting a stereo three
dimensional sound effect in the virtual world. The wearer of the headgear is able to look
around in the virtual environment.

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A boom is an alternative to the often-uncomfortable head gear. Screen, optical and sound
systems are housed in a box. The user looks into the box through the two screens to see
the virtual world.
Gloves
Gloves worn on the hands allow the user to navigate through the virtual world and
interact with virtual objects. The gloves have sensors that collect data about the
movement of the hands and relay the data into the system. They give the wearer a sense
of touch in the virtual world.
Body suit
A body suit, worn during virtual reality session is made up of conductor wires wound in a
rubber suit. The wires sense the body movement and relay the data into the virtual reality
system which in turn adjusts the position of the user in the virtual reality world.

Virtual reality software

Virtual reality software such as body electric gives the wearer of the sensory devices an
interactive virtual sensory experience that makes him/her feel as if he/she is in a real
world. The software is responsible for simulation of all the aspects of the virtual reality
world.

Application of virtual reality

Virtual reality is used to represent any three dimensional object or ideas that are either
real or abstract.

Real objects include buildings, landscapes, underwater shipwrecks, spacecrafts, human

anatomy, sculptures, crime scene reconstruction, solar system etc. For example, a house
can be simulated before the actual building is physically set up. A client can be allowed
to virtually move through the house, pull drawers and touch objects all in a computer
generated environment
Other applications of virtual reality include entertainment, training in areas such as
medicine, military, equipment operations, education, design evaluation, prototyping,
simulation and assembly of sequences, assistance to the handicapped etc.

Law enforcement systems

Today, crime has become very sophisticated hence very difficult to deal with. Since
immediate and accurate information is very crucial in crime detection, biometric analysis
using computers is becoming a preferred tool in this area. Biometric analysis refers to the
study, measurement and analysis of human biological characteristics. Biometric devices
attached to a computer are used to identify people by recognising one or more specific
attributes such as fingerprints, voice, lips, facial features like iris colour etc. Some of the
devices that can be used here are video cameras and biometric scanners.

Field work report

Visit one of the information and communication technology (ICT) application areas
discussed in this chapter and write a detailed report of about five pages on the use of
computers in the area. The report should include the following:
1. Title page

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2. Table of contents
3. Introduction
4. A detailed description of information and communication technology implementation
in the area of field work study
5. Conclusion

IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

ON SOCI ETY

Chapter outline

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Issues resulting from the use of information and communication technology
3.3 Evolution of computer systems

Introduction
This era of information and communication technology (ICT) continues to influence our
lifestyle both positively and negatively. This chapter seeks to explain some of the issues
that result from the use of ICT in the society.

Issues resulting from the use of ICT

The use of ICT offers a different set of opportunities and challenges in our society. Some
of the effects of ICT in our society are:
1. Effects on employment.
2. Effects on automated production.
3. Issues of workers' health.
4. Cultural effects.
5. Breakthroughs in ICT.

Effects on employment
The introductions of computers in the workplace have resulted in creation of new jobs,
replacement of computer illiterate workers and displacement of jobs that were formerly
manual.

Job creation
ICT has introduced new employment opportunities that never existed before. The use of
computers in financial institutions, reservation systems, educational institutions,
communications etc. has created new job titles such as computer operators, programmers,
network administrators, information technology or infof?1ation science managers,
database administrators, software developers, system analysts etc.

Job replacement
Since the introduction of ICT in workplaces, some clerical and repetitive tasks that
required a large number of employees have been made redundant. Computer illiterate
people have been replaced with those who have the desired computer skills. The question

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in the mind of workers and managers is whether computers will in future take over all the
work currently being done manually by human workers.

Displacement
Unlike in replacement where an employee may lose the job, in displacement an employee
is moved to another place or department where computer skills are not required. For
example, a clerk may end up being an office messenger if computers are introduced at the
workplace and such a person is not willing to acquire new skills of using the
computerised system.

However, to avoid losing competent employees, most employers organise in-service

training for their employees on regular basis in order to help them keep up with the rapid
changes in ICT.

Automated production
A number of manufacturing industries such as vehicle assembly plants, oil refineries and
food processing companies are using computers to automate their processes with an aim
of increasing production. Computer controlled robots and assembly lines are a common
feature in manufacturing industries.
The advantages of using automated production are:
1. Increased efficiency due to the balancing of workload and production capacity.
2. Improved customer service. Adequate and high quality goods are produced in time.
3. Efficient utilisation of resources such as raw materials, personnel and equipment
hence less operating expenses are incurred.
However, automated production has its disadvantages too. These are:
1. High initial cost of setting up 1an automated system. For example, the cost of buying
one industrial robot is high compared to employing human resource.
2. Automated production may lead to unemployment in some areas that are labour
intensive. For example, what would have been done by thirty people may be done by one
person using a machine.

Issues of workers' health

The use of information and communication technology (ICT) and computers has some
effect on our health. Some of the negative effects of ICT on our health include repetitive
strain injuries, eye strain and headaches, electromagnetic emissions and environmental
issues.

Repetitive strain injuries (RSI)

These are injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm and muscle strain, tendonitis and neck
strains due to forced repetitive movement e.g. when entering data using the keyboard.
The cure for repetitive strain injuries is resting, sitting in a relaxed position and changing
typing techniques.

Eye strain and headaches

Since computer users have their eyes at cross range with the monitor, there is danger of
developing what is called computer vision syndrome (CYS). The syndrome is

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characterised by eye strain, headaches, double vision and other problems caused by the
improper use of the monitors. The solution to this problem is to use monitors with good
resolution and fitted with an antiglare screen that filters excess light. A computer user at
all times must adjust the brightness of the screen to the intensity that is comfortable to the
eyes.

Electromagnetic emissions
Electromagnetic field emissions are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are
emitted by current carrying conductors. Computer users are advised to use low emission
devices in order to avoid exposing themselves to excess emissions.

Environment issues
Some of the environmental effects of information and communication technology include
energy consumption and radiation, pollution, paper consumption and disposal.

Energy consumption and radiation

Initially computers consumed a lot of energy thereby generating a lot of heat and emitting
electromagnetic radiations. However in recent years, the Environmental Protection
agency (EPA) launched energy star policy to encourage minimal use of power by
electronic devices. Electronic devices have to be energy star compliant to be recognised
under this policy. You can tell whether your computer complies to EPA if it displays the
star during boot up

Environmental pollution
Information technology has also contributed to environmental pollution. For example,
huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts, printers, ink toner cartridges, monitors and
other computer accessories are disposed in landfills hence causing environmental
pollution. There has been concern on the disposal of Nickel - Cadmium laptop batteries
that contain toxic cadmium which when buried in a landfill can leak into underground
water tables and catchments areas.

Cultural effects
The rapid growth of information technology does not only provide us with different ways
of working, playing and thinking but also presents challenges to our moral and cultural
values. It is the moral standards that help in guiding human behavior. Information and
communication technology has changed the way we talk, affected our privacy, human
rights and integrity. For example Internet users are exposed to a form of communication
called flaming. Flaming is writing on-line messages that use derogatory, obscene or of
dirty language. Also through the Internet, one can view pornographic materials that affect
moral values negatively. These free flows of immoral information have negatively
influenced the behaviour of both the young and old in the society.
Computer related crimes such as hacking, eavesdropping, piracy are on the increase.
This has been accelerated by the free for all Internets. Therefore, a lot has to be done to
improve on privacy and security of information.
To some extent, people with eroded integrity have used computers as a tool to
accomplish their vices. Take for example where a person would use a computer to forge

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certificates, passport and other documents. This means that the person is cheating and
therefore his/her moral integrity has been compromised.
However, ICT has its advantages too especially where it has been used as a campaign
platform against diseases like AIDS and drug abuse.

Breakthroughs in information and communication technology

As explained in the previous chapter, there has been a lot of breakthroughs in the fields of
health care, education, communication, research, commerce, art and design,
entertainment, transport since the inception of ICT . These breakthroughs have greatly
changed our lifestyles such that it is hard to imagine how life would be today if
information and communication technology is to be withdrawn.

Evolution of computer systems

The rapid evolution of computers and information technology has a lot of promise. It has
always been fashionable for scholars and technologists to look out into the future and to
try and predict the events of tomorrow. Future trends in information and communication
technology will be characterised by:
1. Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.
2. Artificial intelligence.
3. Expanded information superhighway.

Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software

Since the introduction of computers in the business world in the 1950s, a lot
of technological improvements have been made both in hardware and software. The
silicon revolution has seen rapid increase in microprocessor speeds and capabilities due
to advanced research in the semi-conductor industry. Future trends will see reduction in
size and cost of components but increase in capability. The capacity of computer memory
is becoming larger and larger with reduced physical size and cost. Microprocessors of a
thumb's size can now execute instructions in a trillionth of a second hence leading to
emergence of smaller but smart devices.
Artificial intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence can be defined as a branch of computer science that is concerned
with the development of machines that emulate humanlike qualities such as learning,
reasoning, communicating, seeing and hearing. The idea of artificial intelligence
developed from a need to develop computer programs that would even challenge human
beings in playing games such as chess and scrabble! Computer scientists and engineers
are still working hard and carrying out intensive research with the aim of coming up with
smarter computers which can almost simulate human thinking and learning, instead of
relying on static programmed instructions.
However artificial intelligence is still in its infancy stage and scientists are still working
hard to make it a reality in the near future.
There are four main application areas of artificial intelligence namely:
1. Expert systems.
2. Natural language processing.
3. Artificial neural networks.
4. Robotics/perception systems.

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Expert systems
This is software designed to make a computer operate at the level of a human expert in a
specific narrow area of specialisation. Such software simulates the reasoning process of
experts in certain well defined areas such as medical diagnosis, financial forecasting etc.
An expert system consists of three components namely:
Knowledge base: This is the expert system's database of knowledge about a particular
subject. It contains relevant facts, beliefs, assumptions and procedures for solving a
particular problem.
Inference engine: This is the software that controls the search for knowledge in the
knowledge base and produces conclusions. It takes the problem posed by the user and
seeks to analyse it in order to arrive at a conclusion.
User interface: This is the display screen that enables the user interact with the system.
An example of an expert system is MYCIN developed at Stanford University, USA.
MYCIN is used in diagnosis of blood and meningitis infections. Another application area
of expert systems is in predicting mineral deposits in a particular geographical area by
analysing composition of soil samples.
Natural language processing
Natural languages are ordinary human languages such as Kiswahili, English, French etc.
The problem of natural languages is that they are ambiguous and may be interpreted
differently by different people. For example the word 'sack' has two meanings i.e. "a type
of bag" and "the act of dismissing a worker from gainful employment". Computer
languages on the other hand are clearly defined.

Natural language processing is aimed at coming up with programming languages that

would make computers recognise and understand natural languages, whether spoken or
written. Currently there are voice recognition input devices and voice synthesisers are
available but are limited to just a few vocabularies. However, before using them, the
computer program must be trained to recognise the voice and the pronunciation of words
by the user.
Artificial neural networks
The artificial neural network is the use of electronic devices and software to emulate the
neurological structure of the human brain. The idea is to try and emulate the cognitive
learning process of the human brain and how it recognises patterns. The human brain
works by receiving signals from special sensory cells called neurons. When the neurons
receive information, they either excite the cell to send a signal to the brain or not.
Artificial neurodes in artificial networks work in similar manner by perceiving
environmental stimuli and hence deciding whether to pass it on to the system or not.
The essential attributes of artificial neural networks are:
1. The neurodes can be trained to distinguish between what constitutes a signal and what
does not.
2. They are capable of recognising patterns in large amount of data that are too complex
for the human brain. From these patterns, they can make predictions and point out
anomalies. For example, in banking the pattern of credit card usage can be tracked over
time to try and generalise spending patterns of individual card owners. In case of loss or
theft, the bank can notice the change of spending pattern and conclude that the card is in

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the wrong hands, hence take appropriate security measures even before loss of the card is
reported.
Robotics
A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human being in carrying out tasks
that would otherwise be dangerous and difficult. Although robots are being used in
workplaces research is going on in order to come up with robots that will incorporate
perception systems.
Perception systems are sensing devices that emulate the five common senses of a human
being i.e. sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Such devices would operate under the
control of a microprocessor. This development will give robots artificial senses. Such
artificial senses include feeling the shape of an object, listening to ultrasound; detecting
smell of a leaking gas or chemicals tasting food is quality and seeing using two miniature
video cameras
Expanded information superhighway
Expanded information superhighway involves the integration of cabled and wireless
technologies for the purpose of data and information transmission. In line with
advancement in the other areas of information and communication technology, there is
vast increase in throughput of various transmission media like fiber optic and wireless
technologies. Scientists have demonstrated a fiber optic cable whose diameter is the size
of a single strand of hair which is capable of carrying a trillion bit per second
Internet is growing tremendously causing what is generally referred to as a growth of the
information superhighway to digital explosion or hurricane.

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CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY

Chapter outline

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Description of career opportunities in information and communication technology
4.3 Further educational opportunities in information and communication technology

Introduction

The era of computers and automated information and communication technology has
brought both blessings and disappointments in the workplace. Some people have acquired
very well paying jobs while others have lost theirs. For example an ordinary typist has
been replaced by one who can create documents using a computer. Many new jobs have
been created in areas like banking, manufacturing, educational institutions,
communication and other service industries.

Description of career opportunities in the field of ICT

Information and communication technology (ICT) has created new job titles such as
computer operators, computer technicians, system analysts, computer programmers,
software engineers, computer engineers, information systems manager, data base
administrator, computer trainer, website administrators, computer graphics designers and
network administrators. This section explains some responsibilities of these professionals
who are generally called information technology workers.

Computer operator
Some of the responsibilities of a computer operator include:
1. Entering data into the computer for processing.
2. Keeping up-to-date records (log files) of all information processing activities.

Computer technician
Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as emergency
repairs, demand for computer technicians continues to grow as more and more people
computerise their workplaces and homes.
Some of the responsibilities of a computer technician are:
1. Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
2. Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
3. Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers, modems, storage media
and devices are in good working condition.
4. In developed countries, technicians help hardware engineers in designing and creating
some computer components such as storage devices, motherboards etc.
System analyst
This is a person who is responsible for analysing a company's needs or problems then
designs and develops a computer based information system. A good system analyst is one
who has at least the following attributes:

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1. Good problem solving skills and creativity i.e. must have wide experience in solving
problems.
2. Good communication skills: The analyst must be able to communicate clearly and
precisely both in writing and in speech. He/she must be able to talk to different groups of
people e.g. managers, operators, attendant and general public.
3. Must have business knowledge: The analyst must clearly understand the environment
for which the system is being developed.
4. Technical knowledge: A system analyst must be well trained in relevant areas of
computer science such as hardware, software and programming knowledge.
Some of the responsibilities of a system analyst include:
(a) Reviewing the current manual or redundant information system and making
recommendations on how to replace it with a more efficient one.
(b) Working with programmers to construct and test the system.
(c) Coordinating training for users of the new system.

Computer programmer
Large organisations such as insurance companies, banks, manufacturing firms and
government agencies hire programmers to work together with system analysts in order to:
1. Write in-house application programs or system programs.
2. Customise commercial application packages to suite the organisations needs.
3. Test, debug, install and maintain programs developed or customised for the
organization.
Software engineer
A software engineer is one who is skilled in software development and technical
operation of computer hardware. Some of the responsibilities of the software engineers
are:
1. Developing system and application software.
2. Developing user and technical documentations for the new software.
3. Maintaining and updating the software to meet day-to-day requirements while
overcoming challenges.

Computer engineer
Computer and electronic engineers are coming up with new and more efficient
technologies in information and communication technology almost daily. Since
computers are electronic devices, hardware designers must be good in electronic
engineering in order to be able to:
1. Design and develop computer components such as storage devices, motherboards and
other electronic components.
2. Determine the electrical power requirement of each computer component:
3. Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and efficiency.
4. Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer controlled devices such
as robots.

Information system manager

The information system manager controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all the
activities of the ICT department in the organization. Using computerised management

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information system (MIS), the manager can test the impact that an alternative course of
action might have on the business.
Other responsibilities of an information system manager include:
1. making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and on time in order
to support business planning, control and decision making processes.
2. Preparing budgets for the department.
3. Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date.
4. Managing the human resource within the department.
Database administrator (DBA)
The major purpose of computerising organisations or institutions is to store data in an
organised way for easy access, retrieval and update. The organization requires a person
who should be responsible for updating records in an information system database. For
this reason, a database administrator is responsible for:
1. Designing and developing database applications for the organization.
2. Setting up security measures needed to control access to data and information.
3. Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, modifying or deleting
unnecessary records.
Computer trainer
Due to the dynamic nature of computers and information technology, there is a high
demand for qualified ICT trainers. Some of the responsibilities of an ICT trainer are:
1. Training people on how to use a computer and various application programs.
2. Developing training reference materials.
3. Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out research.
4. Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad field of ICT.
5. Preparing learners for ICT examinations.

Web administrator/webmaster
Internet is one of the areas of information and communication technology that has drawn
the interest of most people. Thus people are able to exchange messages, search for
information and do business through the Internet.
Business organisations, educational institutions and individuals put information on the
Internet by developing websites. Most organisations hire the services of a web developer
who is given the role of the company's web administrator also referred to as a webmaster.
A web administrator is responsible for:
1. Developing and testing websites.
2. Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the web site to meet new
demands by the users.
3. Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing security measures.
4. Downloading information needed by an organization or institution from Internet
websites.

Computer graphics designers and typesetters

In publishing skilled graphics designers and typesetters are required in order to design
graphical objects and professional publications. Such people may get employed in
publishing houses to typeset books, newspapers and magazines.
Self-employment

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Self employment can be achieved by using computers or other ICT devices such as
mobile phones to start bureau services, Internet services, consultancy services and
computer hardware and software vendor business.
Network administrator
A network administrator is a specialist whose responsibilities are to:
1. Set-up a computer network.
2. Maintain and enforce security measures on the network.
3. Monitor the use of network resources.
4. Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems.
Computer sales representatives
Computer sales representative should have good knowledge in information and
communication technology. This would helps them to analyse customer needs and advice
them accordingly. A good computer salesman needs to be self confident, persuasive and
proficient in business communication.
Further educational opportunities in ICT
Most computer related educational opportunities offered at post-secondary level are
relatively new and dynamic in nature compared to other disciplines. It is therefore
difficult for most institutions that offer ICT courses to update their ICT curricula in order
to accommodate these rapid changes. These changes also make it difficult for aspiring
ICT professionals to identify the best career opportunities and training institutions. ICT
courses are offered in the following tertiary institutions:
1. Universities
2. Polytechnics
3. Colleges

Universities
A university is considered as the highest institution in formal education. In most
countries, universities are categorised into two major groups’ namely public and private
universities.
Public universities
Public universities are established by the state through the award of a charter and are run
by a state appointed management team. However, current trends in educational
management point to the fact that even state universities should be allowed to operate in
an autonomous manner. Admission to such a university is controlled by either the state or
a recognised body. However, most universities in developed countries do their own
independent admissions.

Private universities
Private universities are self-sponsored institutions set up by individuals, churches or any
other organization. Such universities are privately run and students' enrolment depends
on whether the student is capable of sponsoring himself/herself. However, for these
universities to operate they must be registered or accredited by the commission of higher
education or any other quality assurance body that is recognised worldwide.
Accreditation leads to public acceptance and confirmation evidenced by the grant of
charters by the state or accrediting bodies.

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Universities are authorised to offer approved diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate
programmes. Some of the ICT related degree programs offered at university level courses
include Bachelor of Science in computer science, Bachelor of Information
Technology/Systems, Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering etc.

Research institutions
Although for a long time universities have been considered as centers for research and
excellence, other specialised research institutions that concentrate on narrow fields of
study such as computer or ICT technology, agriculture and space science exist. There is a
lot of research being undertaken in the field of computing such as artificial intelligence. It
is possible to enroll in such institutions as a research trainee.
Polytechnics
These are institutions of higher learning that mostly offer diploma and certificate courses'
in technical fields such as ICT, mechanics, food production etc. A polytechnic may also
be accredited by a university or the state to offer degree programmes.
Some of the ICT courses offered at polytechnic level are diploma and certificate in
computer studies, computer repair and assembly, computer operator, management
information system etc.
Colleges
Just like the polytechnics, middle level colleges offer diploma, certificate and craft
courses in many disciplines such as technical, ICT, teacher training, business
management etc.
Most public and private colleges are now offering ICT related courses both at certificate
and diploma level.
The most important consideration to make before you join a college to pursue an ICT
course is:
1. Whether it offers ICT courses recognised both locally and internationally.
2. The cost of training with such an institution.

DEVELOPING A PROJECT USING MICROSOFT ACCESS DATABASE

Chapter outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Preamble
5.3 Identification and definition of the problem
5.4 Fact-finding
5.5 System design phase
5.6 Constructing Bukuma information system
5. 7 Database security and startup options
5.8 Testing and implementing the system
5.9 Sample user manual
5.10 Project appendix
5.11 Bibliography
5.1
Introduction
In this chapter, we undertake a case study entitled Bukuma information system. The
objective of this case study is to help the student apply the system development

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techniques learnt in Form 3. We shall address each step that is required in developing a
working information system.
5.2 . Preamble
Due to your expertise and experience in system development, you have been hired to be
the head of Information Technology (IT) at Bukuma Limited, a company that runs a
supermarket. Your first task is to develop a computer based information system that
would ensure that:
1. Stock control and monitoring is efficient and effective.
2. Customers' orders are processed accurately within the shortest time possible and
invoices sent in time.
3. Purchase orders are processed accurately in time t~ avoid delays in items delivery.
4. Data entry screens or forms are easy to use hence eliminating data entry errors.
5. On-demand reports by the management are generated within the shortest time possible.
6. Communication between the branches is efficient.
7. Company data and information is secure from unauthorised users and only certain
company employees can access certain reports.
8. The overall operating cost is reduced by at least 40%.
By the end of this case study, we shall have demonstrated how to:
I. Carry out the initial study.
2. Carry out fact finding.
3. Define system hardware and software requirements.
4. Design a system using system and program flowcharts.
5. Construct a system that would allow:
(a) Inputting of data through forms.
(b) Updating, modification, deletion of existing data.
(c) Carrying out of input validation and integrity checks.
(d) Search or filter specific records, query and retrieve specific records.
(e) Generate various transaction reports.
(f) Set up database security, menus and other startup options.
6. A sample user manual has been provided to help the student identify some components
of a good user manual.
Identification and definition of the problem
The problem at hand is to develop a computer based transaction processing system (TPS)
that would capture and process data about business transactions. The system should also
do data maintenance i.e.
provide for ability to update stored data. Some features of this system include:
I. Input data collected from transactions products, orders etc.
2. Output in the form of invoices, pay vouchers etc.
3. The system is also supposed to produce a variety of reports that are to be used for
managerial purposes. Such reports include inventory levels, sales reports, payroll,
expenses etc.
Reports produced by the system can be classified according to purpose. These are:
I. Summary reports - Shows totals and trends such as total sales by category.
2. Track stock levels and automatically alert the purchases department when restocking is
necessary.
3. Produce monthly product sales and purchases reports.

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In a nutshell, the following project charter outlines the objectives, preliminary
investigation report and other pertinent issues that will be considered before embarking
on system development:

Project charter for Bukuma information system

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS LTD.
lndustrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, NairobiKenya
Phone: 257- 020655147 Fax: 02065551418
Computerised transaction
Processing and stock control system
Project name: Bukuma computerised information system
Team leader: Jane Okindia, System analyst
Project objectives
The project development team will develop new computerised information system
tl1at will support the operations of the company in order to realise the strategic vision
for Bukuma products sales and delivery of customer services. It’s anticipated that the
new system will provide highly integrated processes and. services that will not only
reach out directly to customers and suppliers but also increase internal operational
efficiency.
Therefore, improvement to the current system can result in a number of benefits. These
include:
1. Improving corporate profits by 10% through reduction of bouncing orders.
2. Ensuring improved customer services by efficiently managing stock levels.
3. Improved employee’s morale due to better processing and operations management.
4. Improved internal decision support so that decisions are more reliable and made on
time.
5. Support the competitive strategy of the business.
Preliminary investigation
preliminary investigation and feasibility study of the current manual system and the
proposed was done through:
1. Studying the organisational chart.

2. Quantifying work output against performance criteria.

3. Observing the behaviour of the employees.
4. Listening to external feedback from vendors, customers and suppliers.
By going through the investigative process, the team discovered the following problems
with the current manual system.
1. The constantly changing products presented to the market have created numerous
internal inefficiencies and customer service problems.
2. Increased customer base and sales through aggressive advertising may overload the
current system's ability to process transactions.
3. Unpaid orders have increased from 4%, only two years ago, to 12%. The current credit
management system has to be improved.
4. Suppliers who have failed to deliver as per contracts have increased by 17% due to
poor procurement procedures.

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5. Competition from other companies threatens the survival of the company unless there
is a change in management strategies.
6. Many orders are bouncing due to poor stock control. The orders that bounce are not
given priority when new stock arrives.
7. The management is not exploiting the Internet as a marketing and service delivery
channel.
Scope of the system
The proposed computerised system will support the following internal business functions:
1. Sales and customer order transaction processing.
2. Inventory control and procurement processing.
Team vision
The strategic information management team has come up with the following
recommendations for the new system.
1. Adoption of automated data capture technology and methods e.g. using bar-coding as a
means of capturing product stock records and sales, which is an automatic identification
system currently being implemented in many modem business organisations.
2. Triple the order processing capacity of the unit by the end of fiscal year.
3. Reduce order response time by 50% by the end of fiscal year.
4. Rethink any underlying business processes, procedures and policies that have any
visible impact on member satisfaction and complaints.
5. Provide improved marketing and promotion programs.
6. Provide improved follow-up mechanisms for orders and backorders.
Feasibility of the proposed system
The feasibility analysis of the proposed system centered on the following:
Feasibility report
1. Schedule: The system would take 9 months to develop.
2. The technology required to develop the new system is readily available in the market.
.
3. The system users are happy with the proposal to develop the new system.
Cost benefit analysis
(a) Costs: The entire development and operational costs can be estimated as
follows:
(i) Development - Kshs 20 000 000
(ii) Monthly operational costs - Kshs 1 000000
(iii) Total lifetime of the new system - 5 years
Total lifetime costs = 20 000 000 + (12 x 1 000 000) x 5
= Kshs 80 000 000
(b) Benefits:
(i) Profit from increased sales per month - Kshs 100 000 000 (ii) Savings from
introduction of paperless mail
Kshs 1 000 000
(iii) Savings from reduced travelling costs - Kshs 20000000
Total monthly benefits. Kshs 121 000000
Total lifetime benefits = Kshs (121 000000 x 12 x 5) = Kshs 7 260 000 000
Conclusion

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The development of the new system is cost effective and beneficial to the company
because lifetime benefits greatly outweigh the costs.

Team resolutions
In order to develop the system within the shortest time possible, the team made the
following resolutions:
1. The team will hold weekly status meetings, chaired by the project manager (system
analyst). All project status meetings minutes and reports will be shared with
management and all IT directors.
2. Team members will be communicating through e-mails, dialogue and written memos
to keep in touch on project development.
Conclusion
This report is intended to help the management to make decisions about undertaking the
project.
Although the system seems expensive it will contribute positively towards corporate
objectives when implemented in the future. Its benefits will outdo the costs by billions of
shillings throughout its operational lifetime.
Thanks.
Jane Okindia System analyst.

Fact finding
The management has responded and given the system development team an okay to start
developing the information system. The next task now is
to discover user requirements of the new system through collection of facts. The
members have been given the responsibility to carry out a detailed fact finding activity
through the following:
1. Documentations study.
2. Interviews.
3. Observation.
4. Questionnaires.
Documentions study
A number of manual documents were analysed. These include products catalogue,
invoices, purchase orders, sales reports etc.
Interviews
Various interviews were conducted which involved the management, employees in the
company, customers and suppliers. For each of the interviewee an interview guide was
used. Figure 5.1 shows a sample interview guide used with one of the staff at Bukuma
distributors.
Interviewee.name.' Interviewer
Date:.
Time: .

Subject.;

Time Interviewer Interviewee

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Allocate Question or Response
d Objective
I to 2 Objective
min. Open the interview:
-introduce ourselves
.. Thank Mr.&&&for his valuable time
State the purpose of the interview- to
obtain an existing
credit..checking.policies.
5min Question. I
What conditions determine whether a
customer's order is approved for delivery?
Follow-up
5inin Question 2
What are the possible actions that might
be taken once
These conditions have been evaluated?
Follow-up'
3 min Question3
How are customers notified when stock is
unavailable
for their order?
Follow-1.Ip
Lmin Question 4
After a new order is received,
approximately how long
Does it take to process it and put the order
under shipment?

Question5
lmin
Who are the individuals that perform the
credit checks? Follow-up

1 -3min Question 6
May 1 please have permission to
interview all the people
who carry out credit checking?
Follow-up
If so When would be the best time to meet
with each of them?

1 min Objective
Conclude. The
interview:
Thank Mr. &&& for his cooperation and

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 assure him that
He will be receiving. a copy of what
transpired during the
interview.
21 min Time allotted for base questions and
objectives
.9min Time allotted for. follow-up questions and
redirection
30min Total time allocated for interview
(2.00 p.m,to 3:00 p,m)
Fig,5.1: Sample interview guideline

Questionnaires
In our preliminary investigation of the business operations we decided to prepare some
que.stionnaires that would help us seek some classified information without the
respondent feeling threatened. Below is an extract of one of the questionnaires used.

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS INFORMATION SYSTEM

Date .......... ,.......

.Introduction: The IT department is in the process of developing a new information

system. Please, take a few minutes to fill in this questionnaire and return it
to the IT office before date………..
.
Q I. How often do customer orders bounce due to lack of enough stock?
0 Very often 0 Often 0 Not often 0 Not at all
Q2. After receiving an order, how long does it take to process it from reception to date of
shipping?
0 .1 hour () Several hours () One day () Many days

Fact finding summary and recommendation report

As opposed to the preliminary investigation report which dwells on problems of the
existing system from the general point of view, this report gives a more detailed analysis
of the system and proposals for improving or overhauling it altogether. The following is a
layout outline of the report.

Detailed system analysis report for Bukuma distributors

Current system: Manual system
Proposed system: Computerised model
1. Executive summary (about 2 pages)
(a) Recommendations
(b) Summary of problems opportunities and alternatives
(c) Brief statement of objectives
2. Background (about 2 pages)
(a) Details of all the fact finding methods used e.g. interviews.

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 (b) Description analytical techniques used.
3. The current system (about 5 pages)
Models of the current system in terms of:
(a) Data entry techniques e.g. form.
(b) Files and data storage methods and media.
(c) Informatiol1processsingandmethods used.
4. Analysis Of the current system communication (about 5.10 pages)
(a) Performance, problems, causes and opportunities.
(b) Economic Problems, causes and opportunities
(c) Security and control problems, causes and opportunities
(d) Efficiency and service problems, causes and opportunities
5. Detailed recommendations (about 5-10 pages)
(a) Reason for the current system improvement.
(b) Limiting problems (recommendations).
(c) Proposed implementation plan for the new system:
(i) Scope and refinement.
(ii) Master plan.
(iii) Plan for the design phase.
6. Appendixes
(a) System models.
(b) Other appropriate documents.

System design phase

This is the most crucial system development phase. The design phase has been broken
into two:
1. Preliminary design
2. Detailed design
Preliminary design
Preliminary design describes the functional capabilities of the proposed information
system. There are many tools that can be used at this stage. However, the system
flowchart tool was selected to design the system.
System flowchart
The system flowchart shows an overview of the functionality of Computerised system.
Considering Bukuma distributors, the proper system required should achieve the
following:
1. Process customer orders which may be in form of electronic messaging, post or
personal visit.
2. Maintain the stock levels by automatically alerting the management when .the items go
below the reorder level.
3. Produce various transaction documents like dispatch notes pay vouchers, various
expenses and sales reports and invoices.
Figure 5.2 shows a system flowchart of the proposed system.
Detailed design
Once the general functionality of the system has been designed it is now possible to
design detailed designs for various system functionalities. These include:

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1. Output design.
2. Input design.
3. Files and data stores design.
4. Hardware and software requirements.
Output design
This design of both screen and printed output. The output requirements for Bukuma
distributors system include: Picking lists, invoices, payment vouchers, inventories, sales
reports. However in this design we shall only consider invoices, payment vouchers and
sales reports.
Invoices
The sample invoice below is one of the reports that the system is expected to produce
after delivery of goods to a customer. Notice that it is designed carefully to display all
details necessary to seal a transaction.
BUKUMADISTRIBUTORS LTD.
Industrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, Nairobi Kenya
Phone:257-020655147 Fax: 02065551418
Invoice
Bill To:
Company name……………. Contact name …………….
Destination city……………….. Postal code Sent via………………
Date due………………… Country……………….
Order Customer Order date Required Date shipped
number name date

Product name Quantity Unit price Discount Amount

Subtotal
Freight cost
Total

Payment voucher
This is almost similar to an invoice only that it is used to authorise payments to the
suppliers.
BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS Industrial area, Funzi Road Box 30307, Nairobi Kenya
Phone: 257-020655147 Fax: 02065551418
Voucher
Payment To:
Supplier name---------- Contact title------------
Postal address----- Region----------
City------------ Country-------
Sent via--------
Purchase ID Supplier Date ordered Date Date
name required received

Product ID Quality Purchase Purchase Amount

delivered price discount

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 Subtotal
Freight cost
Total
Sales report
Sales report gives a summary of sales made with a period of time such as weekly,
monthly or annually. Below is a sample sales report design.

BUKUMA DISTRIBUTORS
Product sales for the year Category name
Order ID Customer name Product Amount

Total sales

All other output reports were designed as per system requirements collected during the
fact finding stage.
Input design
The quality of system input determines the quality of output. Well designed forms or
screens should be effective, easy to use, attractive and consistent. The forms for data
entry for Bukuma system should be clearly captioned and easy to use. Some
examples of data entry forms
needed for this system are invoice processing form, products entry form, : customer entry
form etc. Likewise all other entry forms should be appropriately designed according to
the requirements collected.
Inventory and products entry form
Categories entry form is a compound form that should allow the user to enter or view
both category and products in that category. This means that the products details should
be a sub form in the categories main form. Below is the lay out of the categories and
products entry sub form.
Category Details
Category ID ……………….
Category Name ……………..
Description…………………..
Products details subform
Product ID Product name Quantity per Price Unit in stock
unit

Customer entry form

This is intended to be a columnar form with the following controls:
Customer ID Phone
Company Name Region
Contact Name City
Contact Title Country
Address

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Since the fields for the customers are too many for one columnar form, they can be
grouped into company information and personal information. The two categories will be
implemented using a tab control form.
Company info tab Personal info tab
Employee ID Address
Last Name City
First Name Country
Title Date of Birth
Hire Date Telephone
Invoice processing entry form
This form is intended to be a compound form used to enter customer details in the main
form and the items purchased in the products sub form.
Bill To:
Customer ID …………………
Order number…………………
Contact name………………..
Title …………………
Country………………
Destination name
Date ordered
Date required
Date dispatched
Freight cost
Product Unit price Quantity Discount Amount
name shipped

Pay voucher processing entry form

Like the invoice processing entry form, pay voucher processing is also intended to be a
compound form that allows the user to enter supplier's details in the main form and the
items delivered in the products sub form.
The controls in the supplier's main form are:
Company Name Purchase Number
Contact Title Freight charges
Phone Date Ordered
Country Date Received

Products supplied sub form

Product Unit price Quantity Discount Amount
name received

Suppliers entry form .

Supplier's details entry form may be a two tab form with company and contact
information tabs.
Company Info tab Supplier 1D

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Company Name Address City
Contact Name Region Postal Code
Contact Title Country Phone Fax
Contact tab
Transporter entry form
Entry form for companies offering transport services to Bukuma may have the following
controls:
Vehicle Number
Company Name
Postal Address
Phone
Files and data stores design
After designing the input and output, the last detailed design step is that of files or data
store. The files and data store are considered the heart of any information system.
There are two methods of data storage in a computer namely flat files and databases.
Flat files
In flat files, records are stored in separate files each with particular details. The use of
such separate files means that the same data is often stored in more than one place as
illustrated by the tables below.
File A
Product Product Name Quantity Price
Number

File B
Product Product Supplier ID Supplier
Number Name Name

Database systems
A database is a centrally controlled store of data. It allows different users who share the
database to have access to different data. This method of storage eliminates the validation
problems of the flat file system.
In Bukuma Distributors Information System, the database approach is used. This will
ensure that the following objectives are achieved:
1. Sharing of data among the users of the system.
2. Maintaining accurate and consistent data.
3. Availability of data required for current and future applications.
4. Giving users easy access to data.
Designing tables /tiles structures
The following points are considered before designing a file or a table structure:
1. The types of files to be constructed - is the file a master, transaction or report file?
2. Data access method in the file i.e. is it random, sequential or indexed sequential. .
3. The size of the files hence the storage media to be used.
Data structures allow the system analyst to produce a view of the elements that make up
the data structure. In our system, the basic data structure that will be used to store data
elements of the various entities is the record.

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The initial data structure design that shows only "what" the records will contain e.g.
Name, Address etc. is called the logical design. This design would then eventually be
converted to the physical design which specifies how the various data elements in the
record will be implemented such as

Product Name as string, Product _Number as integer etc.

Below is the logical view of some of the file structures that will be designed for the
Bukuma information system.
Table/file structure Elements
Inventory - Inventory number
- Inventory name
- Description
Products - Product number -Unit price
-Product name - Purchase price
- Quantity/unit - Quantity in stock
Customers -Customer number - Address
-Company name - City
-Contact name - Country
-Contact title

Supplier -Supplier number - Contact title

-Company name - Physical address
-Contact name

Purchase orders - Purchase number

- Product purchased
- Quantity purchased
Sales orders -Order number - Product ordered
-Customer name - Unit price
-Order date - Quantity
- Required date - Discount
Transporter -Transporter number -Physical address
-Company name - Postal address
- Address -Phone
NB: The bolded attributes will be considered as the primary keys in the database. '

Entity relationship diagram (E-R diagram)

Some of the entities that may be used in constructing Bukuma distributor’s information
database are categories, products, customers, employees, orders suppliers, transporters
and purchase orders. The first step is to construct the entity relationship diagram. Figure
5.3. below shows an example of E-R diagram for customers and the products ordered.
Customer Places Order Contains. Product

1 Many 1 Many
Fig. 5.3: Entity relationship diagram

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Interpretation
One customer may place several orders but each individual order can be placed by only
one customer (one-to-many relationship). Each order placed by customers may contain
many products. However, many products can be contained in one order.
. Hardware and software requirements
After studying the detailed system design specifications and recommendations, the
management of Bukuma decided to settle for a computer based system. This means that
the development team must start looking for all the required hardware and software
resources.
Hardware and software specialists in the team have already visited various suppliers in
major towns and brought quotations and price lists for most
Table 5.1
Hardware facility Example Estimated cost (Ksh)
1 Computer IBM desktop Documents
Computer collected from
2 Storage media Optical disks, various suppliers'
magnetic disks Quotations.
3 POS terminal Wand reader,
equipments magnetic card
reader, bar code
printer etc.
4 Printers Laser printer,
Matrix printer
5 Scanner
6 Others
of the required resources. Table 5.1 below gives a sample summary of the hardware
requirements recommendations for Bukuma Distributors information system.
Table 5.2 below gives a summary of the software requirements for Bukuma distributor’s
information system.
Table 5.2
Software Example initial cost
I GUI based MS- Windows 9x, 2000,
Operating System XP; Mac OS9, X etc.
2 Application MS-Office Suite, Lotus Documents
programs Suite, Corel Word collected from
perfect Suite various suppliers'
3 Antivirus software Norton, MacAfee, AVG. Quotations.
Constructing Bukuma information system
Since relational databases store data in a series of two-dimensional tables, the first step in
designing the information base is to design tables that are related to each other via
primary and foreign keys. Throughout this section the following shorthand’s will be
encountered:
1. PK - Primary key
2. FK- Foreign key
Customer Customer ID (PK), Customer name……….

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Sales order Sales ID (PK), Customer ID (FK), ......
Product Product ID (PK), Sales ID (FK), Inventory ID CFK) ......
Purchase order purchase ID (PK), Inventory ID (FK), Supplier ID (FK).......
Supplier Supplier ID (PK), Supplier name . . . . . .
Transporter Transporter ID (PK), Supplier ID(FK) ......
Inventory Inventory ID……….

These entities can be implemented in an entity relationship

Setting up integrity constraints
After setting up the database based on the entity relationship diagram, some integrity
constraints need to be set in the database to enhance accuracy. Examples of constrains are
lookup fields and data integrity constraints.
Creating a lookup field
A lookup field displays a list of acceptable values that may be entered into a field. This
avoids the problem of wrong data entry in a field. It is recommended that all foreign keys
be lookup fields.
To create a lookup field:
1. Display the table in design view.
2. Select lookup wizard in the data type column of the desired fields. 3. Complete the
prompts in the lookup wizard.
Figure 5.5 below shows how to set up a lookup for the category field in the Product table.

When the table is displayed in data entry mode (datasheet fonn), you simply select from
the list as shown in Figure 5.6 below.

Data integrity constraints

Data integrity constraints are rules that govern entering, changing and deletion of data
and records in a database. There are several types of integrity constraints. Some of them
are:
1. Entity integrity constraint.
2. Referential integrity.
3. Domain integrity.
Entity integrity
These are the rules that govern the composition of a primary key. A primary key cannot
contain a null value, it must be unique. Null values are empty spaces in a field that have
no data. Figure 5.7 below shows that the Customer ID field (which is the primary key)
does not allow duplicates.

Referential integrity

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Referential integrity governs the nature of records in a one-to-many relationships
between tables in the database. All foreign keys in the child table must have a matching
record in the parent table. Referential integrity is implemented in the following ways:
1. Restricted database- The system deletes or updates a parent record if there are no
matching child records. A parent record is the one that has the primary key of the
relationship while a child record is the one that has the foreign key of the relationship in
the second table.
2. Cascaded database- Cascaded database will delete or update all matching child
records when the parent record is deleted or updated. The cascade approach is better
when changing records. For example if the customer ID changes, all foreign keys in
the child records are updated as well. Figure 5.8 shows how to set up referential
integrity between customer and orders table in Bukuma database.

Fig. 5.8: Setting referential integrity

Domain integrity
In databases, the term domain is used to refer to the acceptable range of values an
attribute can have. This ensures that no field takes on a value outside the range of valid
values. For example in the Purchase Orders table, the date of items received is always
less than or equal to the current date <=Now() as shown in the validation rule property
box in Figure 5.9. Now() is a function that returns the current date.
Fig. 5.9: Setting domain values

Constructing data entry and user-interface forms

The main purpose of creating forms is to reduce data entry errors. The volume of data to
be entered should be minimised and validation and integrity checks such as data type,
domain and referential integrity are enforced.
This section examines creating graphical user interface (GDI) forms in Microsoft Access
using the appropriate controls, macros and Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) code.
Notice the code that is associated with each form and the objects on the form. In
Microsoft Access most of these codes are generated by the wizard associated to each
during the design. However, in some cases, general subroutines have to be written by the
programmer. For the purpose of clarity, these forms are grouped into two main categories
namely primary and advanced forms:
Primary forms
These are the forms primarily used to enter data into underlying tables. They include
customers, categories, employees, products, suppliers, transport and employees details
forms.
Advanced forms
These are more complex forms that are based on underlying queries and unbound
controls. The forms provide the user with easy access to and manipulation of data in the
underlying tables and other database objects.
Creating the primary forms

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The main factors to be considered in creating primary forms are:
1. The general form properties e.g. record source that is, the underlying table.
2. Control properties for each of the objects.
3. Command buttons and their underlying event procedures and codes.

Customers form
It was designed as a columnar form as shown in Figure 5.10.

Fig. 5.10: Customers form

The form draws its data from the customers table. Apart from bound controls, the form
has command buttons Add Customers, Search Close, and Delete. These buttons are
brought to life by their underlying event procedures. The codes are generated using the
command button wizard that automatically starts when you draw a command button on
the form. Below are the code listings for each command button's event procedure.

Option Compare Database

Private Sub CloseCustomers – Click()

On Error Go To Err Close Customers Click

DoCmd. Close

Exit CloseCustomers Click:

Exit Sub

Err Close Customers Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit CloseCustomers Click

End Sub
Private Sub deleterecord – Click()

On Error Go To Err deleterecord Click

-
DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 8,, acMenu Ver70
DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 6,, acMenuVer70

Exit deleterecord Click:

Exit Sub

Err deleterecord Click:

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 MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit deleterecord Click

End Sub
Private Sub addcustomer – Click()

On Error Go To Err addcustomer Click

DoCmd.GoToRecord" acNewRec

Exit addcustomer Click:

Exit Sub

Err addcustomer Click:

MsgBox Err.Description
Resume Exit addcustomer Click
End Sub
Private Sub SearchRecord - ClickO

On Error GoTo Err SearchRecord Click

Screen.PreviousControl.SetFocus
DoCmd.DoMenultem acFormBar, acEditMenu, 10,, acMenu Ver70

Exit SearchRecord Click:

Exit Sub

Err SearchRecord Click:

MsgBox Err.Description

Resume Exit SearchRecord Click

End Sub
Categories form
The categories table has many products. Hence, the fonn has the products list subfonn
which shows the items in each category as shown in Figure 5.11.

Fig. 5.11: Inventories form

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The main form is a columnar form. It is populated with data from the categories table. It
has command buttons New Category, Search, close and Delete. In this case, the
categories are the same as the inventory ID.
The subform is a data sheet form embedded in the categories form. It gets its data from
the products table.
Products form
This is a single columnar form as shown in Figure 5.12.

Fig. 5.12: Products form

The text box controls are populated with data from the products table. Suppliers and
Category are lookup controls that source data from Supplier and Categories tables
respectively. To operate the form, four command buttons used i.e. New Record, Close
and Delete.
Suppliers form
The suppliers form is designed using the tab tool from the toolbox. Figure 5.13 shows an
illustration of the form.

Fig. 5.13: Suppliers form

The form is populated with data from the suppliers table. However, apart from the
already discussed form operation buttons for adding a new record, closing a form,
searching and deleting records, there is an Open Products Form button, brought to life by
the OpenF orm wizard. The OpenForm event procedure code is as listed below:
Private Sub OpenProducts – Click()
On Error Go To Err - OpenProducts _Click
Dim stDocName As String
Dim stLinkCriteria As String
stDocName = "Products"
DoCmd.OpenForm stDocName,,, stLinkCriteria
Exit -OpenProducts _Click:
Exit Sub
Err-OpenProducts _Click:
MsgBox Err.Description
Resume Exit - OpenProducts _Click
End Sub
Transporter form
This is a single columnar form as shown in Figure 5.14.

Fig. 5.14: Transporters form

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The form is populated with data from the transporter table. The four command buttons
are Add New, Delete and Close.
Creating advanced forms
As stated earlier, these are the forms which draw data from underlying queries. This
section not only analyses the form properties but also gives illustrations of the underlying
queries in design view and any event procedure used to automate the forms and controls.
The advanced forms are further classified into groups namely:
1. Data entry and manipulation forms.
2. User interface forms.
Forms for data entry and manipulation
These are the forms used for entering and manipulating data in the underlying query.
These forms include the customers invoice and suppliers' pay voucher.
Customers invoice data entry form
This is a compound form that has the purchase orders subform contained within it as
shown in Figure 5.15.

Fig. 5.15: Customer invoice form

The main form is a columnar form whose record source is Customer Bills query made
from two tables, Customers and Orders as shown in Figure 5.16.

Fig. 5.16: Customer bills query

The customer details are automatically filled by selection from the lookup combo box of
the customer control.
The sub form gets its data from the order amount query. The order amount query is
designed using two tables, products and order details as shown in Figure 5.17.
Note that the query has a calculated field i.e. Amount that calculates the amount
for each product ordered based on the UnitPrice, Quality and

Fig. 5.17: Order amount query

Discount. The expression for this field is:
Amount: ccur([order details). [unit price]*[Quantity]* (1-[Discount]/ 100)* 100
The subform has an event procedure for trapping data entry errors. This is tied to the on
error event of the form properties. Since the user may forget to select a customer before
entering products details in the main form section, the on error event procedure ensures
that a customer is first selected before entering order details. A listing of on error event
procedure is shown below.
Private Sub Form_Error(DataErr As Integer, Response As Integer)
, Errors can occur if the user has not selected a customer for
, this order on the main form. If there is an error and Orders!BillTo is Null

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, inform the user and cancel the entry made in the subform.
If DataErr > 0 Then
If IsNull(Me.Parent!CustomerID) Then
MsgBox "Select a Customer to bill to before entering order details info. "
RunCommand acCmdUndo
Me.Parent!CustomerID.SetFocus
Response = acDataErrContinue
Else
Response = acDataErrDisplay
End If
End If
End Sub
The ProductID in the subform is a lookup control that enables the user to select an item
from the dropdown list. This control also has an event procedure used to automatically
fill the UnitPrice control from the products table once an item is selected. This minimises
errors that may result from erroneous unit price entry. The code listing for the UnitPrice
lookup event procedure as shown below.
Private Sub ProductID – AfterUpdate()
On Error GoTo Err _ProductID - AfterUpdate
Dim strFilter As String
, Evaluate filter before it's passed to DLookup function.
strFilter = "ProductID = "& Me!ProductID
, Look up product's unit price and assign it to UnitPrice control.
Me!UnitPrice = DLookup("UnitPrice", "Products", strFilter)
Exit _ProductID - AfterUpdate:
Exit Sub
Err _ProductID - AfterUpdate:
MsgBox Err.Description
Resume Exit _ProductID - AfterUpdate
End Sub
Command buttons that have been used include Print Preview invoices, Print and Close.
Their underlying event procedures are similar to those generated in the other forms
discussed earlier.
Suppliers voucher details entry form
This is almost similar in functionality to the customers' invoices entry form but it is
intended to process payment vouchers for goods supplied to Bukuma. Figure 5.18 shows
the voucher processing form.

Fig. 5.18: Payment voucher

The main form is a columnar form that derives its data from Suppliers Delivery Note
query. This is created from two tables, Suppliers and PurchaseOrders tables. The

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supplier details are automatically filled by selecting the supplier name from the lookup
combo box of the Supplier control. Figure 5.19 shows the source query in design view.

Fig. 5.19: Suppliers delivery note query

The subform draws its records from an underlying query, Products Purchased shown in
Figure 5.20.

Fig. 5.20: Purchase query

The Total Puchase is a calculated control with the expression:
Total Purchase: Ccur[purchase Details].[Purchase
Price]*{QuantityOrder]* ([Purchase Discountj)/l 00) * 100
Just like in the customers' products ordered sub form, the product ID in the products
purchased subform is a lookup control from which the user selects the product name.
Once a product/item is selected, the Purchase Price is automatically filled with the
purchase price from the products table using the lookup event procedure shown below:
Private Sub ProductID – AfterUpdate()
On Error Go To Err _ProductID _After Update
Dim strFi/ter As String
, Evaluate filter before it's passed to DLookup function.
strFi/ter = "ProductID = "& Me!ProductID
, Look up product's purchase price and assign it to PurchasePrice control.
Me!PurchasePrice = DLookup("PurchasePrice", "Products", strFilter)
Exit _ProductID - AfterUpdate:
Exit Sub
Err _ProductID _AfterUpdate:
MsgBox Err.Description
Resume Exit _ProductID - AfterUpdate
End Sub
Data validation and integrity checks have been enforced so that the pay voucher cannot
be processed for a null or a non-existent supplier. This is achieved using the on error
event shown in the listing below.
Private Sub Form - Error(DataErr As Integer, Response As Integer)
, Errors can occur if the user has not selected a supplier for
, this order on the main form. If there is an error and PurchaseOrders!PaylTo is
Null , inform the user and cancel the entry made in the subform.
If DataErr > 0 Then
If IsNull(Me.Parent!SupplierID) Then
MsgBox "Select a supplier to process the voucher for before entering pay details.”
RunCommand acCmdUndo
Me.Parent!SupplierID.SetFocus

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Response = acDataErrContinue
Else
Response = acDataErrDisplay
EndIf
EndIf
End Sub
The command buttons used to control the form are New Voucher, Print Voucher, and
Close.
User-interface forms
These are forms that enable the user to access, manipulate, display and print other forms
and reports. Two such forms used in Bukuma System are sales report dialog and the
main switchboard.
Sales report dialog form
As shown in Figure 5.21 this form is mainly designed using unbound controls such as
radio buttons, a text box and command buttons.
The three groups of controls are tied together using the code listing shown below.

Fig. 5.21 : Select report

Option Compare Database' Use database order for string comparisons.
Option Explicit' Requires variables to be declared before they are used.
Sub PrintReports(PrintMode As Integer)
On Error GoTo Err-Preview-Click
, This procedure used in Preview_Click and Print_Click Sub procedures.
, Preview or print report selected in the ReportToPrint option group.
, Then close the Print Sales Reports Dialog form.
Dim strWhereCategory As String
strWhereCategory = "CategoryName = Forms![Sales ReportsDialog]! SelectCategory"
Select Case Me!ReportToPrint
Case 1
DoCmd.OpenReport "Products stock level", PrintMode
Case 2
DoCmd.OpenReport "Summary sales by date", PrintMode
Case 3
DoCmd.OpenReport "Sales by category summary", PrintMode
Case 4
IfIsNull(Forms![Sales Reports Dialog]!SelectCategory) Then
DoCmd.OpenReport "Sales by Category", PrintMode
Else
DoCmd.OpenReport "Sales by Category", Print Mode, ,strWhereCategory
End If
End Select
DoCmd.Close acForm, "Sales Reports Dialog"
Exit_Preview _Click:
Exit Sub

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Err_Preview _Click:
Resume Exit_Preview _Click End Sub Private Sub Cancel- Click() ,
This code created by Command Button Wizard.
On Error Go To Err Cancel Click

, Close form.
DoCmd. Close
Exit Cancel Click:

Exit Sub
Err Cancel Click:

MsgBox Err.Description
Resume Exit - Cancel_Click
End Sub
Private Sub Preview – Click()
, Preview selected report. This procedure uses the PrintReports
, Sub procedure defined in (General) section of this module.
PrintReports acPreview
End Sub
Private Sub Print – Click()
, Print selected report. This procedure uses the PrintReports
, Sub procedure defined in (General) section of this module.
PrintReports acNormal
End Sub
Private Sub ReportToPrint – AfterUpdate()
, Enable SelectCategory combo box if user selected Sales by Category
, report.
Const conSalesByCategory = 4
If MefReportToPrint. Value = conSalesByCategory Then
MefSelectCategory.Enabled = True
Else
MefSelectCategory.Enabled = False
End If
End Sub
Main form (Switchboard)
The main form also referred to as the switchboard is the user-interface or main menu that
is loaded when an application is started. The form mainly contains command buttons that
enables the user to select the task to work on. Figure 5.22 shows the main form in design
view used in Bukuma information system.

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Fig. 5.22: Switchboard in design view
Creating reports
Reports present information to system users. These are the most visible components of a
working system.
This section focuses on some of the reports expected from Bukuma information system.
The main features to be highlighted in creation of reports are:
1. General report properties and data source.
2. Control properties, grouping and event procedures.
3. The report in design view.
4. Layout of report needed.
Sales by category
This is a comprehensive report that gives sales details for each product in each category
group shown in Figure 5.23.

Fig. 5.23: A sample sales report

The report draws its data from products sales query. Figure 5.24 shows the query in
design view.

Fig. 5.24: Product sales query in design view

The report has calculated controls for a number of items sold and total sales in each
category whose expressions are:
Record count:
= Summary for" & " “ & [CategoryName] & " (" & Count(*) & " " & IIf(Count(*)= 1,
"detail record", "detail records") & '')''
Total sales: Sum([ Amount])
Sales by category summary
This is a compound report that has a chart subreport in it. The report gives summary total
sales for each category both in tabular and graphical form as shown in Figure 5.25.

Fig. 5.25: Chart summarising sales by category

The graph shows that the most selling category is beverages followed by soaps. This
report is meant for the management to decide which category of products sells more than
the other.
The main report is populated with data from a select query, category sales summary
shown in Figure 5.26.

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Fig. 5.26: Category sales query design
Summary sales by date
On opening this report, the user is prompted to enter the beginning and ending date. Once
the valid dates are entered, the sales for the duration are displayed as shown in Figure

Fig. 5.27: Yearly sales report

The record source for the report is the products by years query. The query has a
compound criteria expression in the freight date field. The expression is:
Is Not Null And Between [Beginning Date] And [Ending Date]
Purchases by category summary
Just like the Sales summary, this is also a compound report that has a pie chart subreport
in it. This report gives a summary of money spent on purchases.
The main report is populated with data from a select query, products purchased shown in
design view in Figure 5.28.

Fig. 5.28: Purchases query

Products stock level
The stock report is meant to help the management make orders in good time. Figure 5.29
shows the items currently in stock and indicates those that need to be reordered.

Fig. 5.29: Stock report

The report draws its data from product sales query. The report is grouped by category and
the stock balance is obtained using a calculated control:
= ([units in stock] - (sum([Quantity])))
While the reorder remark Yes or No is obtained using an if function:
= Ilf(([UnitslnStock]-(Sum([ quantity])))<[ReorderLevel], "Yes", "No'')

Invoice to customers
This is a report sent to the customer showing detailed description of what is to be paid
for, the total payment and the due date. Figure 5.30 shows a sample invoice to one of the
customer’s ofBukuma Distributors.

Fig. 5.30: Invoice sample report

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The report draws its data from invoice to customers query. Figure 5.31 shows the source
query in design view.

Fig. 5.31: Invoice query design

Calculated controls have also been used, these are as shown below:

Subtotal: = Sum([amount])
Total:= sum([amount])+ [freight]
Payment voucher
This is similar in design to the invoice, only that it is meant for the processing of
payments for the suppliers of Bukuma Distributors. Figure 5.32 shows a sample pay
voucher report to one of the suppliers.

Fig. 5.32: Pay voucher report

The report draws its data from the products purchased voucher query. It also has an
unbound image of the company logo inserted using the image tool, from the toolbox.
Calculated controls have also been used as follows:
Subtotal: = Sum([Total Purchase])
Total: = sum([Total Purchase])+ [freightCost]
Products catalogue
This is a document available to the customers and other interested persons who may want
to know the items sold and the unit price of each. Figure
5.33 shows a page of a catalogue generated from Bukuma's information system.

Fig. 5.33: Products catalog

The report draws data from the products table.
NB: There are other reports that may be created in a real business environment but only a
few have been considered. It is the responsibility of the learner to visit a computerised
business organisation to learn more about the variety of reports used.

Database security and startup options

To protect the information system from unauthorised access, Microsoft Access database
management software, provides a number of options. These includes:
1. Password protection.
2. User and group permissions.
3. User-level security.
4. Data encryption.

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To set up any of these security options, click the Tools menu, point to security and then
select the type of security you want to setup.
Password protection
This is the simplest security set-up that can be implemented using any Microsoft
Windows operating system. A password to open or edit the database file is set for any
user who wishes to do this action.
User and group permissions
Some operating systems like Windows New Technology (NT) lets an administrator
assign permission to users on database objects such as queries, forms and reports. These
permissions include opening and running the object, modifying etc.
The user and group accounts dialog box is used to assign accounts to the database users.
However, this can only be done by a user who is a member of the Administrators group.
User-level security
This feature is used to assign permissions to users in order to limit user access to certain
database objects. For example, the order entry clerk may not have access to payroll
information. Figure 5.34 shows the log on dialog box used to log into Bukuma
information system.

Fig. 5.34: Loging into an application

For more on setting up User Groups, Accounts and Permissions, read the online help of
the Windows NT based operating systems.
Data encryption
If the database is to be used in a network or sent electronically, encryption secures the
data from unauthorised access. Only the intended receipient can use the decryption key to
read the message. .
Start up options
The last step in developing a customised application is to specify the startup options.
Figure 5.35 shows the startup settings for Bukuma information system.

Fig. 5.35: Setting up start up options

Testing and implementing the system

Testing
Individual system modules were tested using test data and found to work accurately and
properly. Sample test data and error messages that were encountered due to invalid data
entry are given in the appendix of this project report.
Implementation
This is the final stage in system development which involves putting the new system into
use. The tasks during the implementation stage are:
1. System management - This involves installation, resource and staff allocation.

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2. Staff training - This is done without interfering with the business operations.
3. Security control and contingency planning incase the system breaks down
4. Changing over from the old system to the new system using the most appropriate
method.
Once the system has been installed and is running, the programming team must ensure
that it is working as expected through a follow up evaluation. The evaluation report for
Bukuma information system shows that apart from a few minor issues concerning the
screen forms, the following issues have been addressed:
1. Out of stock problems have been addressed satisfactorily.
2. Stock transfer between warehouses is running smoothly.
3. Store managers, accounts clerks and order processing managers feel that they are in
full control of the system.
The programming team has promised to address the minor emergent problems
encountered during the system maintenance phase.

Recommendation and conclusion

The new system received recommendation from all sectors of the organisation after the
first month of operation.
Sample user manual
Below is a sample of user manual aimed at helping the users ofBukuma information
system.
Introduction
Bukuma information system is a computerised information system that enables users to
process business transactions more efficiently and accurately.
With this system, you can prepare most of the documents that take a lot of time to prepare
manually such as invoices, pay vouchers, sales reports, profit and loss accounts and many
others.
Loading the system To load the program:
1. Click the Start button, point to programs then click Bukuma System. A logon dialog
box shown in Figure 5.36 is displayed.

Fig. 5.36: Logon dialog box

2. Enter your user name and password and click OK. The system main menu such as the
one shown in Figure 5.37 below appears.

Fig. 5.37: Main menu ,

Menu descriptions
Within the main menu are submenus that help the user to choose on the specific task to
process. These submenus are grouped into two:
1. Details processing submenus.
2. Viewing transaction reports.

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 You activate a submenu by clicking on its button. Figure 5.38 shows the
customers submenu.

Fig. 5.38: Customers submenu

Description of submenu items
Customer’s submenu
Once you click the customer’s button, you will get the following items:
1. Customer entry and editing form.
2. Customer orders and invoice processing.
3. Preview and print invoices.
4. Preview and print a list Bukuma customers.
Categories and Products
Clicking this button displays categories submenu with the following options:
1. Entering and editing and categories and products details.
2. Preview products per category and invoices to customers.
Suppliers
This buttons displays the supplier’s submenu with the options
1. Entering new editing the supplier details and products supplied.
2. Processing purchase details for items below reorder level.
3. Preview and print supplier's payments.
4. Preview and print a list of Bukuma suppliers.

Viewing transaction reports submenus

In this category, you activate a submenu by clicking on its button.
Sales reports
Clicking this button displays the sales dialog box from which you can select the report to
preview or print.
Purchase reports
Click this button to preview purchases made for each purchase order.
Preview catalogue
This option is available to any authorised user who wants to preview or print the list of
products available for sale to any interested client.
Exiting from the program
To exit the program, simply click the Exit button located at the bottom of the main menu.
Troubleshooting data entry related errors
Invalid and erroneous data entry results to error messages being prompted on the screen.
Some of the error messages that you may encounter are:
Error message: The changes you requested to the table were not successful because they
would create duplicate values in the index, primary key or relationship.
Description: You are trying to enter the same item twice.
Solution: Avoid double entry.
Error message: The field OrderDetails.ProductID cannot contain a null

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value because the required property in the field is set to true. Description:You are trying
to proceed to another record or field yet you have not selected the product name of the
record in focus.
Solution: Select the product before proceeding to the next record. Error message: The
value you entered isn't valid for this field. Description: You are trying to enter an invalid
data type in the field. For example, you are entering text in a numeric field or an invalid
date such as 46/34/2005
Solution: Enter the correct data type.
Error message: Select a customer to bill to before entering order details info.
Description: You are trying to enter order details before selecting a customer.
Solution: Select or enter the customer before entering order or invoice details.
Incase you may experience other data entry related problems, please consult the system
administrator.
Project appendix
Below is a sample appendix of the project report.
Test data used in Bukumu information system
Although a variety of test data was used to test each operation of our system, we have
given only two test data tables to emphasize the need to provide test data in system
development. In real situation, you are expected to provide as many test data as possible
to prove the functionality of your system.
Inventory table
Table 5.3
Inventory Inventory Name Description
1 Beverages Soda
3 Washing Powders For Washing
4 Maize Flour For Ugali
5 Daily Products Milk, butte r, etc.
Order details query results
Table 5.4

Bibliography
Below is a sample bibliography of the project report.
The bibliography shows a list of books and reference materials used in
developing Bukuma information system.
1. Sarah E.H, Glen J. c.: Microsoft Access 2000 Complete Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2000.
2. Kendal E.K, Kendal J.E: System Analysis and Design, 5th Ed, Prentice-Hall (Now
Pearson Education inc), 2002.
3. Taylor G.: GCSE Computer Studies, Macmillan Press Limited, 1991.
4. Jeffrey L. W etel: System Analysis and Design Methods, McGraw Hill, 2000
5. Williams BK: Using Information Technology: A practical introduction to computers
and communications, IRWIN, 1995,
6. Saleemi N.A.: Systems Theory and Management Information systems, N.A. Saleemi
Publishers, 1997 & 2000,
7. Gareth W: Student Handbook. ICT, Pearsons Publishing, 2000.
8. Microsoft Access 2000: Northwind sample database, 1999.

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DEVELOPING A PROJECT USING VISUAL BASIC
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
Chapter outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Preamble
6.3 Problem recognition and definition
6.4 Developing algorithms
6.5 Developing the system in Visual Basic
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall undertake a case study entitled A school canteen management
system. The objective of this case study is to help the students to apply the programming
techniques learnt in Form 3
Preamble
A school canteen operator sells confectionaries and toiletries to the students. The canteen
operator requests you to develop a canteen management system that will accomplish the
following:
1. Allow storage of stock records in a file.
2. Enable searching of a file to retrieve a particular record for editing and adding new
stock.
3. Process sales transactions and calculate the total bill and change due to a customer.
4. Generate daily sales report showing all the items sold for a particular day.
Problem recognition and definition
A careful analysis of the above scenario reveals that the system will need the following
tasks:
1. Entering stock records and storing them in a file.
2. Searching for the stock file to retrieve records.
3. Processing of daily transactions.
4. Recording of any sale transactions in a transaction file.
5. Generating sales reports for a specified date.
Developing algorithms
Before coding, the programmer needs to develop algorithms for each task. These
algorithms will enable the programmer to develop the code for each of the processes.
Algorithm for entering new stock records
The new stock module should enable the user of the system to continually enter new
stock records in the file until he/she is through with the process. Therefore, the computer
should request the user to key in records until the last item is entered. The following
pseudocode extract can be used to represent the algorithm:
Output "Enter a new item?" Enter "yes" or "no"
Input reply

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 While Reply <> No
Output "Enter stock item details"
Write to stock file
Output "Are you through with entering the records Yes/No"
Input Reply
loop
End While
Algorithm for searching for a record
This process will enable the user to access the records in a stock file and retrieve a
particular record. The record search can be done as per the identification number of each
record i.e. record ID. The search algorithm can be represented as follows:
Begin
Enter the code of the record
Open stock file for reading
While Not end of file Begin
If code entered = record itemcode Then
Output record details
Else
Output 'Record not found'
End if loop End while Close file End
Algorithm for processing sales
Sales processing requires that the stock file be opened in order to read details of the items
bought. The sales module then calculates the amount of the sale and the change owed to
the customer. The module should also update the quantity of the items in stock. The
following algorithm will be used:
Begin
Retrieve item from stock file by record ID
Specify quantity to be sold
Compute bill and customer change
Save transaction in sales file
END
Saving a sales transaction
After selling an item, the sales details must be stored in the system for future reference. In
our case, the current transaction has to be stored in a file which we shall refer to as a sales
file.
Constructing the system in Visual Basic
Open Visual Basic and create a new project called Canteen.vbp. Create five forms in the
project window i.e. Form1, Form2….Form5. To create a form, simply Click Project then
Add Form command. Save the forms with the following names:

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Form Name
Form I UserInterface
Form2 AddNewStock
Form3 SellItem
Form4 SearchItem
Form5 SalesReport
Remember while saving that all Visual Basic forms have the extension .frm. After saving,
change the Name property for each form in the properties window to start withfrm e.g.
frmCanteenManagementSystem for Form 1. Change the captions for each form as you
proceed through the project. At the end of this activity, the forms in your project should
look as shown in Figure 6.1 in the Project Explorer window.
NB: Simply click the Project explorer icon to view this window. Alternatively, click View project
Explorer on the menu.
It is now time to start placing objects on the forms and entering the code associated to
each of the objects.
Creating the user-interface form
1. Double click UserInterface.frm in the project explorer window and design it as shown
in Figure 6.2.
NB: Change both the Name and caption properties of the command buttons as shown
below:

Control Property Setting

Command 1 Name cmdAddNewStock
Caption Add New Stock Record
Command 2 Name cmdSellItem
Caption Sell Item
Command 3 Name cmdGenerateReport
Caption Generate Sales Report
Command 4 Name cmdEnd
Caption End Program
2. The File menu on the form has only one command namely: Exit used to close
the program when clicked.
To add this menu clicks the Menu Editor icon on the toolbar. Alternatively click,
Tools then select: Menu Editor Command. Create the menu as shown in
Figure 6.3 of the menu editor window:
3. To place the command buttons on the form, simply double click their icons on
the toolbar.
Since this is the first form that the user will see when the project is run, the various
controls are meant to help the user access other forms in the project.

Adding code the "Canteen management system" form

This is the main form that has commands that enable the user to access other forms.

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1. Click the File menu then command Exit. Notice that the code window for the Exit
command opens on the screen. Type the word "End" in the body of the event procedure
as shown below:
Private Sub mnuExit – click()
End
End Sub
This means that when the Exit command is clicked, the program will stop executing.
Save and close this code window.
2. Double click the "Add New Stock Record" button and add the code below in the body
of the event procedure as shown:
Private Sub cmdAddNewStock- Click()
Load frmAddNewStock
frmAddNewStock Show
End Sub

This code loads frmAddNewStock form and display it on the screen when the user
clicks Add New Stock record command button.
3. Double click the "Sell Item" button and add the following code in the body of the event
procedure as shown:
Private Sub cmdSellltem – Click()
Load frmSellltem
frmSellltem.Show
End Sub
4. Double click the "Generate Sales Report" button and add the following code in the
body of the event procedure as shown:
Private Sub cmdGenerateReport – Click()
Load frmDailySaleReport
frmDailySalesReport.Show
End Sub
5. Double click the "End Program" button and add the following code in the body of the
event procedure as shown:
Private Sub cmdEnd – Click()
End
End Sub
Designing and adding code to the" Add New Stock to File" form
Design your AddNewStock form to look like Figure 6.4 below:

6. Double click the "Click Here to Add New Stock Item" button and add the following
code in the code window that appears. Ignore the line numbers.
1 Private Type Item
2 ID As Integer
3 ItemName As String * 20
4 Q As Integer
5 CostPrice As Integer
6 SellPrice As Integer
7 End Type

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 8 Private Sub cmdAddStock- ClickO
9 Dim ItemRecord As Item
10 Dim Old File As String
11 Dim Count As Integer
12 Dim Number As Integer, Reply As String
13 'CommonDialog 1. CancelError = True
14 'CommonDialog1.Filter = ''Data file (*.dat)l*.dat"
15 'CommonDialog 1.ShowOpen
16 'Old File = CommonDialog1.FileName
17 Open "c:\Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual
Studio I VB98 \ Old File. dat" For Random As #1 Len = Len (ItemRecord)
18 Reply = "No"
19 Do While Reply <> "Yes"
20 ItemRecord.ID = InputBox("Enter Record ID If”,"ItemRecord.ID '')
21 ItemRecord.ItemName = InputBox("Enter Record Name","ItemRecord.Name '')
22 ItemRecord.Q = InputBox("Enter Quantity","ItemRecord. Q'')
23 ItemRecord.CostPrice = InputBox("Enter the Cost Price","ItemRecord. CostPrice'')
24ItemRecord.SellPrice = InputBox("Enter the Selling Price","ItemRecord.SellPrice '')
25 Put # 1, , ItemRecord
26 Reply = InputBox("Are you through with record entry? Yes/ No", "Reply")
27 Loop
28 Close #1
29 EndSub

Explanations
Line 1: Declares a user defined data type called Item. The data type is a record.
Lines 2 - 6: Declares the fields in the record.
Line 7: Ends the type declaration.
Line 8: Declares an event procedure or subroutine which is executed on clicking a button
called AddNewStockltem. You double click this button in order to get the code window.
Lines 9 - 12: Variable declarations.
Lines 13 -16: Notice that they are commented off, hence the computer will not execute
them. However, if they are not commented, they would display the Open dialog box
when the button is clicked
Line 17: It opens a file called OldFile.dat stored on the disk. This is the file in which all
stock records are kept. Notice that the full path to the file has to be specified. This
eliminates the need for an Open dialog box. The whole statement should be on the same
line.
Lines 18 - 19: It sets a looping condition that will stop only when the variable Reply has a
value of "Yes". Each numbered statement should be on the same line.
Lines 20 - 24: Displays an input box on the screen which requests the user to input the
various data elements of the record such as the ID, Name etc. Note the syntax of display a
standard input box.
Line 25: It outputs a record to the file. The blank (, ,) ensures that the next record is
written after the last Put operation. However if you want the record to be written to a

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particular position in the file, then you can specify e.g. Put # 1 ,1, ItemRecord, which
means write the record at position 1 in the file.
Line 27: It encloses all the code that will be repeatedly executed in the loop.
Line 28: Closes the file after writing to it.
Line 29: Ends the event procedure.
7. Double click the "Click Here to Update Existing Record" button and add the following
code:
Private Sub cmdUpdateRecord – Click()
Load frm UpdateRecordDetails
frm UpdateRecordDetails, Show
End Sub
Save the code and exit from the code window.
Designing and adding code to sell Item form
In the Project Explorer window, double click frmSellItem and design it as shown in
Figure 6.5. Remember that this form is loaded by

Fig. 6.5: Sell item

clicking the "Sell Item" command button that you created in the user-interface form.
8. Design' a menu bar on the form with the following commands:
(a) File
.. .. Open
…..Exit
(b) Transaction
….Save Transaction
Enter the following code in the mnuOpen code window:
Private Type Item
ItemID As Integer
ItemName As String * 20
Q As Integer

CostPrice As Integer
SellPrice As Integer
End Type
Private Sub mnuOpen – Cliek()
Dim ItemReeord As Item, Quantity As String, Last As Integer
Dim Target As Integer, Current As Integer, First As Integer
CommonDialog 1. CaneelError = True
CommonDialog1.Filter = "Datafile (*.dat)/*.dat"
CommonDialog 1.ShowOpen
Old File = CommonDialog 1.FileName
Open "c: \Program Files \Microsoft Visual Studio \ VB98 \ Old File. dat"
For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)
First = 1

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Target = InputBox("Please Enter ItemID of Item to be sold", "Target”
Quantity = InputBox("How many units are you selling", "Quantity”)
Last = LOF(1)/ Len (ItemRecord)
Do While First < = Last
Get #1, First, ItemRecord
Current = ItemRecord.ItemID
If (Current = Target) Then
txtItemID. Text = ItemRecord.ItemID
txtItemName. Text = ItemRecord.ItemName
txtUnitPrice. Text = ItemRecord.SellPriee
txtQuantitySold. Text = Quantity
txtQuantityInStoek. Text = ItemRecord. Q - Quantity
ItemRecord. Q = Int(txtQuantityInStoek.Text)
End If
First = First + 1
Loop
Close #1
End Sub
Explanation
This code enables the user to open a file on the disk called OldFile.dat by selecting it in
the open dialog box. The use can then select a particular record from the file by entering
its identification number (ID).
To sell another item after the first, you need to search for it in the file again. You can add
the "Sell Next" button on the form having the same code as the one for the mnuOpen
command.
Add the following code to the mnuSave _Transaction command that enables the user to
save the details in the transaction file called SaleFile.dat
Private Type ItemSold
ItemID As Integer ItemName As String * 20
QSold As Integer
Sell Price As Integer DateSold As String * 9
Sale Value As Integer
End Type
Private Sub mnuSave - Transaction – Click()
Dim Sale As ItemSold
Dim First As Integer, Last As Integer
Open "c:\Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual
Studio \VB98 \SalesFile. dat" For Random As #2 Len = Len(Sale)
Last = LOF(2) / Len (Sale)
RecordNumber = Last + 1
Sale.ItemID = Int(txtItemID. Text)
Sale.ItemName = txtItemName. Text
Sale. QSold = Int(txtQuantitySold. Text)
Sale.SellPrice = Int(txtUnitPrice. Text)
Sale.DateSold = txtTodaysDate. Text
Sale. Sale Value = Val(txtBill. Text)

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 Put #2, RecordNumber, Sale
Close #2
End Sub
Double click the compute totals button and then add the code listing below in its event
procedure.
Private Sub cmdComputeTotals – Click()
Dim Cashgiven As Integer, ItemRecord As Item
txtBill. Text = txtQuantitySold * txtUnitPrice. Text
Cashgiven = InputBox("How much money has the customer given", "Cashgiven'')
IblChange. Caption = Cashgiven - txtBill. Text
Open "c: \Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual
Studio\VB98\0IdFile.dat"
For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)
ItemRecord.Q = Int(txtQuantityInStock.Text)
Close #1
End Sub
Finally double click the "Cancel" button and then add the code listing below in its click
event procedure
Private Sub cmdCancel- Click()
Unload frmSellItem
End Sub
Designing and adding code to controls on Search Item form
This form lets the user add or edit the fields of an existing record in the stock file. For
example, when you buy some more items, you enter the item quantity in the quantity
control. Design the form as shown in Figure 6.6.

Fig. 6.6: Edit records form

Double click the button labelled "Search" and add the following code to it:
Private Type Item
ItemID As Integer ItemName As String * 20
Q As Integer
CostPrice As Integer
SellPrice As Integer
End Type
Private Sub cmdSearch – Click()
Dim ItemRecord As Item
Dim Target As Integer, Current As Integer
Dim RecordNumber As Integer, Stock Value As String
Open "c: \Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio \VB98\OldFile. dat"
For Random As #1 Len = Len(ItemRecord)
First = 1
Target = Int(txtRecordId.Text)
Last = LOF(1) / Len (ItemRecord)
Do While First < = Last

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 Get #1, First, ItemRecord
Current = ItemRecord.1temID
If (Current = Target) Then
Label3.Caption = "Search successful: Now edit details and Click Save"
txtName. Text = ItemRecord.1temName
txtQuantity. Text = ItemRecord.Q
txtCostPrice. Text = ItemRecord.Cost Price
txtSellingPrice. Text = ItemRecord.SellPrice
Stock Value = txtCostPrice. Text * txtQuantity.Text
IblStockValue. Caption = Stock Value 'display total value of item in stock"
End if
First=First+1
Loop
Close #1
End Sub

Explanation
The code searches for a record whose ID is typed in the Record ID text box. After editing
the retrieved record, the changes can be saved by clicking the "Save" button. Below is the
code for save button:
Private Sub cmdSave – Click()
Dim ItemRecord As Item, Stock Value As String
Open "c: \Program FilesIMicrosoft Visual Studio \ VB98\OldFile.dat"
For Random As #1 Len = Len(ltemRecord)
Target = Int(txtRecordID.Text)
First = 1 'first record in file is at position 1
Last = LOF(1) / Len (ItemRecord) 'length of file equals record length
Do While First <= Last
Get #1, First, ItemRecord 'get the record that was edited
Current = ItemRecord.ID
If (Target = Current) Then 'search whole file for correct record
ItemRecord.ID = Int(txtRecordID. Text)
ItemRecord.ItemName = txtName. Text
ItemRecord. Q = Int(txtQuantity. Text)
ItemRecord. Cost Price = Int(txtCostPrice. Text) 'save fields as record
ItemRecord.SellPrice = Int(txtSellingPrice. Text)
Put #1, First, ItemRecord
Stock Value = txtCostPrice. Text * txtQuantity. Text
IblStockValue. Caption = Stock Value
End If
First = First + 1
Loop
Close #1
End Sub
Explanation

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The code takes the contents in the text boxes of the form and saves them as a record in
the file. Code for the cancel button is
Private Sub cmdCancel- Click()
Unload frmUpdateRecordDetails
End Sub
Designing and adding code to controls on Sales Report form
This form is used for displaying the daily transactions when the user specifies a particular
date in the fomart mm/dd/yyyy. Design the report interface as shown in Figure 6.7.

Code for the sale report

.Double click the “show report” button and add the following code that will search for all
the items sold on a particular day and display them on the form:
Private Type ItemSold
ItemID As Integer
ItemName As String * 20 QSold As Integer
SellPrice As Integer DateSold As String * 9
Sale Value As Integer
End Type

Private Sub cmdShowReport_Click(),

Dim Sale As ItemSold, Daysale As Integer
Open "c:\Program File&\Microsoft Visual
Studio\VB98\SalesFile.dat" For Random As #2 Len = Len(Sale)
First = 1
DaySale = 0
Last = LOF(2) / Len (Sale)
Target = txt Target Date. Text
Print ""

Do While First <= Last

Get #2, First, Sale
Current = Sale.DateSold
If (Current = Target) Then
DaySale = DaySale + Sale. Sale Value
Print ""
Print Sale.ItemID, Sale.ItemName, Sale. QSold, Sale.SellPrice* Sale. QSold
End If
First = First + 1
Loop
Print ""
Print "Total sales/or", Target, "Are: Ksh, DaySale" Close #2
End Sub
Running the project
To run the project click the Start button on the toolbar. Alternatively, click the Run then
Start command on the menu. The user-interface screen comes on the screen as shown in
Figure 6.8.

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Before doing anything else, we need to create two files on drive C and enter all the
records for the stock available. This program accesses the files in a folder called VB98
through the path:
c: \Program Files \Microsoft Visual Studio \ VB98
Open Microsoft Windows Notepad and save two blank files in the folder
VB98 having the names: OldFile.dat and SalesFile.dat
1. Click the “Add New StockRecord” button and add the following records to the file that
will hold all stock. This should be the OldFile.dat that you created on drive C. Enter the
following records:
ID Name Quantity Cost Price Selling Price
100 Bread 120 25 30
200 Milk 50 20 40
300 Jelly 200 40 50
400 Cake 300 15 30
500 Biscuit 1000 10 20
Figures 6.9 (a) to (f) shows sample input boxes for an item for sale. After entering all the
records, type Yes in the input box (f) to stop this process.

Opening the stock file to sell an item

Click the “sellitem”command to display the form in Figure 6.10.

Fig. 6.10: Click File - Open.

Click the open command. Open dialog box of figure 6.11 appears.
Locate for the file OldFile.dat and open it. Notice that you have to provide a record
number so that when the file opens, the record requested for is displayed on the form.
Click the compute totals button. You will be prompted to state how much money the
customer gives. This will compute the change due to the customer. Figure 6.12 shows a
form with the amount payable and change due to the customer. The units in stock for the
item sold also are updated automatically.
Save the transaction by clicking the "transaction” menu, then Save transaction command.
To sell another Item, click the "Sell Next" button

Viewing a sales report

Click the “generate Report” button. The Daily Sales Report appears. Enter the date of the
transactions you want to view then click the show report button. All items sold on the
particular date will be displayed as shown in Fig 6.13 below.

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