CLIMATOLOGY

● AIR PRESSURE, PLANETARY WINDS

● GEOSTROPHIC WINDS, JET STREAMS

AIR PRESSURE, PRESSURE BELTS & WIND CIRCULATION

● Air Pressure is defined as total weight of a mass of column of

air above per unit area at sea level. The Air Pressure is
maximum at sea level. This pressure is not felt by us because
the air inside human body exerts equal amount of outward
pressure which balances the inward atmospheric pressure.
Horizontal Distribution of Air Pressure & Pressure Belts

It is studied on the basis of Isobars (The lines joining the places of

equal pressures). Air Pressure is divided into two types:
● High Pressure aka ʻHIGHʼ or ʻAnticycloneʼ e.g. Azores High
● Low Pressure aka ʻLOWʼ or ʻCycloneʼ or ʻDepressionʼ e.g.
Equatorial Low
 How LP and HP are developed?

● When the air gets heated it expands, becomes light and

rises vertically. As air rises, the pressure it exerts on
the Earthʼs surface is reduced, causing a low pressure
area. On the other hand, cool air is dense and heavy. As
a result, it sinks vertically. It results in additional
weight and pressure which cause a high pressure to on
the ground.
Horizontal Distribution of Air Pressure & Pressure Belts

● NOTE: These pressure belts should be Homogenous & Regular

in nature but because of uneven distribution of Land & Ocean
on the globe, the regularity of these pressure belts is
disturbed. Pressure belts are more discontinued in Northern
Hemisphere but the pressure belts are found more or less in
regular pattern in the southern hemisphere.
Horizontal Distribution of Air Pressure & Pressure Belts

● In total there are seven pressure belts on the globe. On

the basis of mode of genesis pressure belts are divided
into two broad categories e.g.
1. Thermally induced pressure belts (e.g. Equatorial
Low pressure belt and Polar High pressure belt)
2. Dynamically induced pressure belts (e.g.
Sub-Tropical High pressure belt & Sub Polar Low
Pressure Belt)
 SHIFTING OF PRESSURE BELTS

● The pressure belts exist because the planet has been tilted on its axis.

The warmth of the continents, oceans, and pressure conditions vary

dramatically between January and July because of this tilt. In the
Northern Hemisphere, January denotes winter, and July denotes
summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite is true. The
pressure belts shift 5° northward when the sun shines vertically
overhead on the Tropic of Cancer (21 June), and 5° southward when the
sun shines vertically overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (22
December) from their initial position.
 SHIFTING OF PRESSURE BELTS

● Seasonal climate fluctuations are caused by the movement of the

pressure belts, especially between the latitudes of 30° and 40°

(Mediterranean Climate) in both hemispheres. During winter,
Westerlies prevail, resulting in rain. During the summer, dry Trade
Winds blow offshore, preventing rain from falling in certain areas. The
pressure belts in both hemispheres stay balanced when the sun shines
vertically over the Equator on March 21st and September 23rd (the
Equinoxes).
 Factors affecting Velocity & Direction of Wind

● Pressure Gradient Force: The pressure difference between any two

places is called Pressure Gradient. Steep pressure gradient is
represented by closely spaced isobars while widely spaced ones show
less pressure gradient. The direction of pressure gradient is considered
from High pressure to Low Pressure. Air movement follows Barometric
Slope.
 Factors affecting Velocity & Direction of Wind

● Coriolis Force: Direction of Surface winds is generally controlled by

Pressure Gradient and Rotation of the Earth. Because of the rotation of
the Earth on its Axis the Winds are deflected, the force responsible for
deflection of winds is called Coriolis Force.

● NOTE: All the winds in the Northern Hemisphere are deflected towards
their right and in the Southern Hemisphere they are deflected towards
their left.
 The characteristics of Coriolis force may be
summarised in following points

● Coriolis force is an apparent force because of the rotation of

the Earth on its axis.
● Coriolis force becomes effective on any object which is in
motion.
● Coriolis force affects wind direction and not wind speed as
its deflects the wind from expected path.
 The characteristics of Coriolis force may be
summarised in following points

● The magnitude of Coriolis force is determined by wind speed. The

higher the Wind speed, the greater the deflection would be due to
greater deflective Coriolis force.
● Coriolis force is Maximum at the poles due to minimum rotational
speed of the Earth while it becomes zero at the Equator.
● Coriolis force always acts right angle to the horizontally moving air
and other moving objects.
 The characterstics of Coriolis force may be
summarised in following points

● Frictional Force: Frictional Force not only retards but also deflects
these winds. The Frictional force is effective upto a height of a few
thousand meters. The hillslope facing the winds is called Windward
slope while the opposite slope is called Leeward slope.
 PLANETARY WINDS

● They are also called Primary Winds or Permanent Winds

because of their presence throughout the Year and found
everywhere in the Globe. They involve large areas in the globe
thatʼs why they are also called Prevailing Winds. (e.g. Tropical
Easterlies, Westerlies in Temperate region).
 PLANETARY WINDS

● Tropical Easterlies
● Sub-Tropical Westerlies
● Polar Easterlies
PLANETARY WINDS
 MONSOON

● Winds with seasonal changes in their directions are called Seasonal

Winds (e.g. Monsoonal Winds). Winds blowing in a particular locality are
called Local Winds (e.g. Chinook, Sirocco, Harmattan, Loo etc.)

● India is situated in the tropical and subtropical region, About half area of
country extends to north of Tropic of Cancer. Northern part of the country
experience not only sub-tropical but even some temperate weather
phenomena, especially during winter.
 MONSOON

● In terms of overall climatic conditions, however, India is more of a

tropical land as tropical weather conditions cover most of the country
in almost all seasons. Climate conditions in India are affected the most
by tropical monsoon. It is only during the winter season and that too
in only in northern parts that sub-tropical or temperate climatic
phenomenon and their influences are experienced. Due to
overwhelming influence of tropical monsoon on Indian climate, India
is called a tropical country.
 Factors responsible for onsetting of Monsoon

(i) The role of the position of the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau as
mechanical barrier or as high- level heat source.
(ii) The existence of upper air circum-polar whirls over north and south
poles in the troposphere.
(iii) The circulation of upper air jet streams in the troposphere.
(iv) Differential heating and cooling of huge landmass of Asia and Indian
Ocean.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIAN MONSOON

● Indian Monsoon impacts the overall economy of India as it is an Agrarian

economy which is rain dependent, Monsoon becomes extremely important
for India. Agriculture sector employs around 47% of the Indian Population
of total workforce and has a share about 16% in GDP.
● Those engaged in trade and commerce are also affected by the success or
failure of Monsoon. Agriculture provides raw material for multiple
industries, production is also affected by Monsoon. Good crop also
determines the purchasing power of a large population and the inflation
trends.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS FOR INDIAʼS
CLIMATE
● The Himalaya is one of the most influencing factor (other than Monsoon) on
Indian climate. Blessed with the high altitude, length and location, they
effectively intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal cause precipitation in the form of rain and snow. Besides,
they prevent the cold continental air masses of Central Asia from entering
into India.
● In the absence of the Himalayas, the whole India would have been a desert
devoid of the rain and its winters would have been severe under the
influence of cold air masses coming from Central Asia.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS FOR INDIAʼS
CLIMATE

● The Himalayas are responsible for the splitting of the jet stream into
two branches and these in turn play a significant role to bring the
Monsoon in India. Himalayas are also responsible for winter rainfall
(Western Disturbance) in the Northern Plains and Snowfall in the
northward mountains.
 Challenges faced by Government

UP, Bihar and West Bengal are three of five states that have shown a
significant decreasing trend in the southwest monsoon.
55% of Indiaʼs arable land dependent on precipitation, the amount of rainfall
during the current monsoon season could sway economic activity in the
agriculture
 JET STREAM

● The strong & rapidly moving circumpolar westerly air circulation in

a narrow belt of a few hundred kilometres width in the upper limit
of Troposphere is called Jet Stream. Jet streams are characterised
by wind motions that generate strong vertical shearing action,
which is thought to be largely responsible for Air Turbulence. The
circulation of Jet Stream is confined between poles and 20 Degree
latitudes in both the hemisphere at the height of 7.5 to 14 km.
 JET STREAM

● The Genesis of Jet Stream is

related to temperature
gradient from Equator
towards the poles, surface
high pressure at the poles and
tropospheric low pressure.
The Wavy Jet Stream is called
ʻRossby Wavesʼ.
 Types Of Jet Streams

On the basis of locational aspect, jet streams are divided into 5 types but
Major Jet streams are mentioned here:

● (1) Polar front jet streams are formed above the convergence zone
(40-60 lats.) of the surface polar cold air mass and tropical warm air
mass. The thermal gradient is steepened because of convergence of
two contrasting air masses. These move in easterly direction but are
irregular.
 Types Of Jet Streams

● (2) Subtropical westerly jet streams move in the upper troposphere to the
north of subtropical surface high pressure belt (at the poleward limit of
the Hadley cell in both the hemispheres) i.e. above 30°-35° latitudes.
Their circulation is from west to east in more regular manner than the
polar front jet streams.
● (3) Tropical easterly jet streams develop in the upper troposphere above
surface easterly trade winds over India and Africa during summer season
due to intense heating of Tibetan plateau and play important role in the
mechanism of Indian monsoon.
 Types Of Jet Streams

● (4) Polar night jet streams also known as stratospheric subpolar jet
streams, develop in winter season due to steep temperature gradient in
the stratosphere around the poles at the height of 30 km. These jet
streams become very strong westerly circulation with high wind velocity
during winters but their velocity decreases during summers and the
direction becomes easterly.
 Significance of Jet Streams

● Jet streams transport weather systems across the world, controlling

temperature and precipitation. There is a close relationship between the
intensity of Mid Latitude cyclones and Jet Streams. E.g. they carry
temperate cyclones from eastern coast of USA to western coast of Europe.
● Jet Stream may transport Ozone depleting substances higher up in the
stratosphere. This vertical air circulation causes rapid rate of mixing of air
between Troposphere & Stratosphere.
● The Monsoon of South Asia is largely controlled & affected by Jet Streams.
 Jet Streams, Climate Change & Weather Patterns

● One potential effect of climate change on jet streams is the weakening

of their strength. As the Arctic region warms at a faster rate than the
rest of the planet, the temperature difference between the Arctic and
lower latitudes decreases. Since jet streams are driven by these
temperature contrasts, a weakened gradient can result in weaker and
more meandering jet streams. This can lead to prolonged periods of
weather patterns, such as heatwaves, droughts, or heavy rainfall.
● Additionally, the altered temperature gradients can cause shifts in the
position of jet streams. As they move closer to the poles or exhibit
more erratic paths, they can influence the tracks of storms and
weather systems. This can result in changes in precipitation patterns,
storm intensity, and the frequency of extreme weather events.
What is Bomb Cyclone?

When a cold air mass collides with warm air mass,

formation of rapidly strengthening weather
system takes place, it is known as Bomb Cyclone

It occurs when a mid latitudinal cyclone

intensifies rapidly within 24 hours and pressure
drops by 24 milibar.

Over the warmer ocean, heat and moisture are

abundant. But as cool continental air moves
overhead and creates a large difference in
temperature, the lower atmosphere becomes
unstable and buoyant.
 How is it different from hurricanes?

● It essentially amounts to a rapidly developing storm system, distinct from a

tropical hurricane because it occurs over midlatitudes where fronts of
warm and cold air meet and collide, rather than relying on the balmy ocean
waters of late summer as a catalyst.
● Bomb cyclones have cold air and fronts: Cold air rapidly weakens
hurricanes, while it is an essential ingredient for bomb cyclones.
● Bomb cyclones form during winter: Hurricanes form from late spring to early
fall, while bomb cyclones form from late fall to early spring.
● Bomb cyclones form at higher latitudes: Hurricanes form in tropical waters,
while bomb cyclones form over the northwestern Atlantic, northwestern Pacific
and sometimes the Mediterranean Sea.
 Mains Question Corner

● Examine the climatic significance of seasonal shifting of pressure

belts.
● Discuss the Tricellular Meridional Circulation model of
Atmospheric circulation.
● Explain the meridional circulation of the Atmosphere & its
importance in world climate.
El Nino Southern Oscillation
 El Nino Southern Oscillation

● The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon exerts a significant

influence on the monsoon systems across various regions of the world. The
monsoon, a seasonal wind pattern, plays a crucial role in determining the
climate, agriculture, and overall socio-economic conditions of many countries.
Understanding the impact of ENSO on monsoons is essential for predicting and
managing the associated climatic variations.
● ENSO, particularly the El Niño and La Niña phases, can disrupt the normal monsoon
patterns in different ways.
 El Nino Southern Oscillation

● Asian Monsoon: The Asian monsoon, one of the most prominent monsoon systems
globally, is greatly influenced by ENSO. During El Niño years, the central and eastern
equatorial Pacific experiences warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures. This
warming alters the atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to a weakened
monsoon circulation over the Indian subcontinent.
● Conversely, La Niña tends to enhance the Asian monsoon. Cooler sea surface
temperatures in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific strengthen the monsoon
circulation, leading to above-average rainfall in many parts of India, Southeast Asia,
and East Asia.
●
 El Nino Southern Oscillation

● Australian Monsoon: The Australian monsoon is also influenced by ENSO. During El

Niño events, the monsoon circulation weakens, resulting in reduced rainfall across
northern Australia. This can lead to drought conditions and increased risk of
bushfires.
● Conversely, La Niña typically enhances the Australian monsoon, leading to
increased rainfall in northern and eastern parts of the country. The increased
rainfall during La Niña events can contribute to flooding and impact agricultural
activities.
 Other important Atmospheric events:
El Nino Southern Oscillation

● African Monsoon: ENSO can influence the West African monsoon, which plays a vital role
in the precipitation patterns of countries like Senegal, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria. El Niño
tends to weaken the West African monsoon, resulting in reduced rainfall and
drought conditions in some regions. In contrast, La Niña can enhance the monsoon,
leading to increased rainfall.
 El Nino Southern Oscillation

● American Monsoon: The monsoon systems in North and South America are also
affected by ENSO. During El Niño, the South American monsoon, known as the
"Bolivia or Altiplano monsoon," weakens, resulting in reduced rainfall in parts
of the continent. Conversely, La Niña tends to enhance the monsoon, leading to
increased rainfall.
In North America, El Niño can influence the summer monsoon in the
southwestern United States. It tends to bring above-average rainfall to this
region, whereas La Niña can lead to drier conditions.
 INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

● The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is a climate phenomenon characterized by

the oscillation of sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean. It
plays a significant role in influencing the Indian monsoon, which is
crucial for India's agricultural sector and overall socio-economic
well-being. Understanding the impact of the IOD on the Indian
monsoon is vital for predicting and managing climate variability in
the region.
 INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

● The IOD is defined by the difference in sea surface temperatures between the
western and eastern parts of the Indian Ocean. It has two phases: positive and
negative. During a positive IOD, the western Indian Ocean experiences warmer sea
surface temperatures, while the eastern Indian Ocean is cooler. Conversely, during
a negative IOD, the temperature gradient reverses, with cooler waters in the
western Indian Ocean and warmer waters in the east.
 Influence of IOD on the Indian monsoon

● Rainfall Patterns: The IOD significantly affects rainfall patterns across the Indian
subcontinent. During a positive IOD, warmer waters in the western Indian Ocean
result in enhanced convection and cloud formation. This leads to increased rainfall
over the Arabian Sea and the western coast of India, including the states of Kerala,
Karnataka, and Maharashtra. Conversely, a negative IOD tends to suppress convection,
resulting in reduced rainfall over these regions.
 Influence of IOD on the Indian Monsoon

● Atmospheric Circulation: The IOD also influences the atmospheric circulation patterns
that drive the Indian monsoon. During a positive IOD, the enhanced convection over
the western Indian Ocean creates a low-pressure region, which draws
moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean towards the Indian subcontinent. This
strengthens the monsoon circulation and increases rainfall over central and northern
India. In contrast, a negative IOD weakens the monsoon circulation and can lead to
below-average rainfall in these regions.
MADDEN JULIAN OSCILLATION
 Madden Julian Oscillation

● The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO) is a significant climate phenomenon that

manifests as a large-scale atmospheric disturbance traveling eastward across the
tropical regions of the globe. It is characterized by a cyclical pattern of enhanced
and suppressed rainfall and cloudiness, spanning a period of approximately 30 to
60 days. The MJO plays a vital role in modulating weather patterns and influencing
weather extremes across different regions.
 Madden Julian Oscillation

● It originates in the Indian Ocean and moves eastward into the Pacific Ocean,
affecting various parts of the world along its path. During the active phase of the
MJO, enhanced convection leads to increased cloudiness and rainfall. This can
result in heavy precipitation, thunderstorms, and tropical cyclone formation in the
affected regions. Conversely, during the inactive phase, suppressed convection
leads to drier conditions.
 Madden Julian Oscillation

● Understanding and predicting the MJO is crucial for weather forecasting,

particularly in the medium range (weeks to a month). Scientists and
meteorologists employ various observation and modelling techniques to monitor
the behaviour of MJO, such as satellite imagery, atmospheric soundings, and
statistical analysis.
 Air Masses

“It is a large body of air whose physical properties like temperature, moisture
content & lapse rate are uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometres.”

An Air Mass may be so extensive that it may cover a large portion of continent
& it may be so thick in vertical dimension that it may vertically extend
through troposphere.
 Air Masses

“It is a large body of air whose physical properties like temperature, moisture
content & lapse rate are uniform horizontally for hundreds of kilometres.”

An Air Mass may be so extensive that it may cover a large portion of continent
& it may be so thick in vertical dimension that it may vertically extend
through troposphere.
 Air Masses

The boundary between two different Airmass is called Front. The physical properties of an air
mass is determined on the basis of the characteristic features of the surface through which it
travels, these surface areas are called Source Regions.
 Air Masses

An ideal source region of air mass must possess these following essential
conditions:

(i) There must be extensive and homogenous earthʼs surface so that it may possess
uniform temperature and moisture conditions.

(ii) There should not be convergence rather there should be divergence so that the
air may stay over the region for longer time.

(iii)Atmospheric conditions should be stable for longer period of time so that the air
may attain the characteristics of the surface.
 Air Masses

There are five major source regions:

1. Warm Tropical & Sub-Tropical oceans

2. Sub-Tropical hot deserts

3. Relatively cold high latitude oceans

4. The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes

5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic &

Antarctica
 Air Masses

There are five major source regions:

1. Warm Tropical & Sub-Tropical oceans

2. Sub-Tropical hot deserts

3. Relatively cold high latitude oceans

4. The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes

5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic &

Antarctica
 Air Masses

The climatic significance of air masses lies in their ability to transport

and distribute heat, moisture, and atmospheric stability across
different regions. Air masses control:

1. Temperature
2. Moisture
3. Precipitation
4. Stability
5. Regional Climate