Introduction to Instrumentation and Control measurement, control or any

Engineering combination of these.

INSTRUMENTATION
- branch of physics which deals with the
measuring, monitoring and controlling (a)Instrument Society of America
variables in a process industry. (b)Instrumentation, Systems &Automation
Society
INSTRUMENT (c)International Society for Automation
- device that measures, monitors and
control process variables. PICS-Philippine Instrumentation and Control
Society
Instrumentation based on industrial
application:
SAMA- Scientific Apparatus Manufacturers
“It is a collection of instruments, devices, Association
hardware or functions or their application
for the purpose of measuring, monitoring or Purpose of Instrumentation and Control
controlling an industrial process or machine,
● Quality Control
or any combination of these.”
● Conservation of Energy and Raw
● Materials
What is an instrument?
● Safety
● Savings in Installation
● Material Balance & Product
Accounting
● Coordination of Process Variables
● Research & Development
● Enterprise Management

Classification of Instruments
Critical
An instrument which, if not conforming
“It is device used for direct or indirect to specification, could potentially
measurement, monitoring, and/or control compromise product or process quality
of a variable including indicators, and safety.
controllers, and other devices such as
annunciators, switches and pushbuttons.” Non-critical
An instrument whose function is not
Instrumentation: critical to product or process quality,
A collection of Instruments or their but whose function is more of an
application for the purpose of observation, operational significance.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
 Control System Example:
Reference Only
An instrument whose function is not
critical to product quality, not
significant to equipment operation, and
not used for making quality decisions.

CONTROL
-in process industries it refers to the
regulation, command or direction of all
aspects of the process.

2 Types of Control:
1. Manual Control INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM
2. Automatic Control - an arrangement of two or more
instruments connected together to
perform a unified task.
PROCESS
- refers to the methods of changing or CONTROL LOOP
refining raw materials to create end - a process management system
products. designed to maintain a process
variable at a desired set point.

PROCESS CONTROL 2 Types of Control Loop

the regulation or manipulation of Closed Control Loop – exists when a
variables influencing the conduct of a process variable is measured,
process in such a way as to obtain a compared to a setpoint and action is
product of desired quality and quantity taken to correct any deviation from
in an efficient manner. setpoint.

SYSTEM Open Control Loop – exist when the

- an arrangement, set or collection of process variable is not compared, and
physical components connected or action is taken not in response to on the
related in such a manner as to form condition of the process variable.
and/or act as an entire unit.
Setpoint – a value for a process variable
CONTROL SYSTEM that is desired to be maintained.
- an arrangement of physical
components connected or related in
such a manner as to command, direct
or regulate itself or another system.
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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
HISTORY Process
1789 Any operations or sequence of operations
-Fly-ball governor involving a change of energy, state,
-by Boulton &Watt composition, dimension or other properties
that may be defined with respect to a
datum/data.

Process Variable- any variable property

of a process
Set point (SP)- any input variable that
seats the desired value of the measured
variable.
Controller Output – outputs signal
generated in response to a change of
Unknown Date
a process variable.
-Level Control System
Manipulated variable- a process
-by Greeks
variable linked to the controller output
that is used to influence the measured
Technological Development
variable.
1798-1920> Mechanical Technology
1920-1965> Pneumatics Technology MAJOR PROCESS VARIABLE
1930-1940> Electrical Technology PRESSURE
1950-present> Electronics Technology LEVEL
1970-present> Microprocessor FLOW
Technology TEMPERATURE
1980-present> Software Technology MINOR PROCESS VARIABLE
ANALYSIS
POSITION
ELEMENTS of the INSTRUMENT LOOP SPEED
VIBRATION
. . . . . . +many others

Instrumentation &Control Loop

Or Instrument Loop
-A combination of two or more
instruments or control functions
arranged so that signal pass from one
to another for the purpose of
*Process
measurement and/or control of a
*Measuring Element
process variables.
*Receiving Element
*Final Control Element
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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Process Control DEFINITIONS
The regulation or manipulation of
variables influencing the conduct of a
RANGE: The limit or extent of variation.
process in such a way as to obtain a
The lower limit is called LRV & the upper
product of desired quality and quantity
limit is called URV.
in an efficient manner.
0 to 400°C
Measurement VS Detection

SPAN ( of a range): The number of units

Measurement: The determination of the
between two limits, the LRV and URV.
magnitude of a variable (VALUE)
(Span = URV-LRV)
Detection: The determination of the Standard Instrumentation Signals
existence or the presence of a variable.

Basic Function of Analog Measuring

Standardized Signals

1. Analog Signal - a signal that has no

discrete positions or states and changes
value.
2. Digital Signal - a signal that generates
or uses binary digit signals to represent
continuous values or discrete states.

Devices Pneumatic or Air Pressure:

English = 3 to 15psi
Metric = 0.2 to 1.0 bars (or Kg/cm^2)
Basic Characteristics of a Measuring
Element Electrical or Electronic:
Current = 4 to 20 mA dc
1. Output represents the input faithfully. Voltage = 1 to 5 V dc
2. Linear input/output relationship.
3. No effect of Temperature & others. Computerized:
Smart Transmission
Fieldbus Transmission

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
TYPES OF MEASURING ELEMENTS The transducer can be primary
element, transmitter, relay, converter or
1. Sensor other device.
2. Transmitter
Because the term “Transducer” is not
3. Transducer
4.Process Switch specific, its use for specific applications is
not recommended.

1. SENSOR -a device that translates a mechanical

The part of Instrument loop or signal into an electrical signal.
instrument that first senses the value of a
process variable, and that assumes a
corresponding, predetermined, and
intelligible state or output. Transducers and transmitters are virtually
the same thing, the main difference being
Integral part of loop that first senses the the kind of electrical signal each sends.
value of a process variable that assumes a A transducer sends a signal in volts
corresponding predetermined state and
(V) or millivolt (mV) and a transmitter sends
generates an output signal indictive of or
proportional to the process variable. a signal in milliamps (mA).

TRANSMITTER
2. TRANSMITTER
1. Expensive
A device that senses a process
variable through the medium of a sensor 2. Very Accurate
and has an output whose steady-state 3. Very rugged
value varies only as a predetermined 4. Repairable
function of the process variable. 5. Adjustable range
6. Standard signal output
3. TRANSDUCER
A general form of a device that receives
information in the form of one or more TRANSDUCER
physical quantities, modifies the 1. Low cost, cheap
information and/or its form, if required, and 2. Not so accurate
produces a resultant output signal. 3. Not rugged
4. Not Repairable
5. Fixed Range
6. Different outputs by the manufacturer

Converter
-a device that converts one type of signal
into another type of signal. (current into
voltage, analog to digital)

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Transmitter
-a device that converts a reading from one Inferential Method
sensor or transducer into a standard and The level of liquid is measured based on
transmits that signal to a monitor or the hydrostatic pressure below the tank.
controller. Since pressure is directly proportional to the
height of the liquid, any change in level will
PROCESS MEASUREMENT also have the same proportionate change
in the readout pressure.

Methods of Measurement

Direct Method
-the process variable is directly measured
in units that represent the basic nature of
that variable.

Inferential Method
-is the measurement of a process variable
indirectly by using another variable.

Direct Method

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

Single Point Type

-the measurement depends on a fixed
value of the process variable.
-the reading is indicated either as high or
low

Continuous Type
-is the measurement of a process variable
indirectly by using another variable.
The measurement for level in this tank is
measured directly in units of height since
the level of the tank is seen directly
through a sight glass (scaled) representing
the current level of the tank.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Single Point Type Measurement Instrument Range - refers to the capability
Sensor A and Sensor B will only trigger when of the instrument to measure a variable.
the level reaches the set height high and
low respectively. Calibration Range - refers to the set of
values within the instrument measuring
range where the scaled output; 4-20 mA,
3-15 psi or 1-5 V is set during calibration.

Instrument Span
It is the distance (or difference)
between the upper range value (URV) and
lower range value (LRV).

Upper Range Value (URV) is the highest

value of the measured process variable
that the output of a transmitter is currently
Continuous Type Measurement
configured to measure.
The magnetic float indicates the current
Lower Range Value (LRV) is the lowest
measurement of the level through a sight
value of the measured process variable
glass according to its range regardless of
that the analog output of a transmitter is
the current height of the liquid in the tank.
currently configured to measure.
The actual level, in real time, is monitored.
Discrete Process Measurement
In engineering, a “discrete”
variable or measurement refers to a true-
or-false condition. Thus, a discrete sensor is
one that is only able to indicate whether
the measured variable is above or below a
specified setpoint.
Discrete sensors typically take the
form of “switches”, built to trip when the
measured quantity either exceeds or falls
below a specified value. These devices are
less sophisticated than so-called
continuous sensors capable of reporting an
analog value, but they are quite useful in
industry.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
“Normal” Status of a Switch Hand Switches
A hand switch is an electrical switch
The “normal” status for a actuated by a person’s hand motion. This
switch is the status its electrical contacts may take a form of toggle, pushbutton or
are in under a condition of minimum rotary.
physical stimulus. For a momentary-
contact pushbutton switch, this would be
the status of the switch when it is not being
pressed.
Electrical switch contacts are
typically classified as either normally-open
or normally closed, referring to the open or
closed status of the contacts under
“normal” conditions.

Limit Switches
Normally-Open Status
A limit switch detects the physical motion
The lamp will energize only if someone
of an object by direct contact with that
presses the switch, holding its normally-
object. A limit switch will be in its “normal”
open contacts in the closed position.
status when it is not in contact with
Normally-open switch are sometimes
anything.
referred to in the electrical industry as form-
A contacts

Proximity Switches
Normally-Closed Status A proximity switch detects the proximity
The lamp would energize only if the switch (closeness) of an object. By definition,
was left alone, but it would turn off if these switches are non-contact sensors,
anyone pressed the switch. Normally-close using magnetic, electric or optical means
switch are sometimes referred to in the to sense the proximity of objects.
electrical industry as form-B contacts.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Pressure Switches Flow Switches
A pressure switch detects the presence of A flow switch detects the flow of some fluid
fluid pressure. Pressure switches often use through pipe. Flow switches often use
diaphragms or bellows as the pressure “paddles” as the flow-sensing element, the
sensing elements, the motion of which motion of which actuates one or more
actuates one or more switch contacts. switch contacts.

Level Switches
A level switch detects the level of liquid or
solid (granules or powder) in a vessel. Level
Discrete Control Elements
switches often use floats as the level-
On/Off Valves
sensing element, the motion of which
An on/off valve is the fluid
actuates one or more switch contacts.
equivalent of an electrical switch: a device
that either allows unimpeded flow or acts
to prevent flow altogether.
Valve styles commonly used for
on/off service include ball, plug, butterfly,
gate and globe.

Temperature Switches
A temperature switch detects the
temperature of an object. Temperature
switches often use bimetallic strips as the
temperature-sensing element.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Controlling Element

~Known as the controller and is the brain of

the control system

~Performs appropriate functions for

maintaining the desired level (set point) of
parameters to restore quality and rate of
production.

Final Control Element

Controller
~ The part of the control system that acts
-a device that receives data from a
to physically change the manipulated
measurement instrument , compares that
variable.
data to a programmed setpoint, and, if
necessary, signals a control element to
~ Typically used to increase or decrease
take corrective action.
fluid flow.

Common examples of controller: Actuator

~ the part of a final control device that
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) – causes a physical change in the final
usually computers connected to a set of control device when signalled to do so.
input/output (I/O) devices. The computers
are programmed to respond to inputs by
sending outputs to maintain all processes Control Valves
at setpoint. ~manipulate the flow rate of gas or liquid;
whereas, the control switches manipulate
Distributed Control System (DCS) – are the electrical energy entering a system.
controllers that, in addition to performing
control functions , provide readings of the
status of the process, maintain databases
amd advance man-machine-interface.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
 INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS
Types of Instrumentation Symbols Process Line Symbols
-Instrument Symbols Used to represent process lines and
instrument connections.
-Line Symbols
Process piping is generally
-Valves and Actuators
shown with thick solid lines.
Instrument Symbols
Thin solid lines indicate
• Symbols such as circles, lines, instrument-to-process
letters, and numbers are used connections or instrument
to provide information about tubing.
the process.
Signal Line Symbols
• Symbols may represent devices
Signal line symbols indicate the
in the system or indicate how
type of signal that connects
devices are connected to
two instruments.
each other.
Valve and Actuator Symbols
• In this notation, shapes denote
function while the lines in the Indicates the action of
middle denote location or actuation in a valve-actuator
mounting instrument.
Line Symbols Also indicates the position
during fail mode.
• Line symbols indicate how
instruments are connected to Valve are usually drawn as a
each other and to the process bow tie shaped symbol.
and represents the types of
signals transmmited in the
process. TAG NUMBERS
• Line Symbols could either be a
process line symbol or a signal
line symbol.

Instrumentation Identification
Number or Tag Number is an
alphanumeric code that provides
specific information about an
instrument or its function.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Contains two information • The succeeding letters
designate one or more
- Functional Identification
readout or passive
- Loop Identification functions and/or output
functions.
Loop Identification
Functional Identifier
• Loop identification
• A functional Identifier is
numbers indicate the
a series of letters, or
loop/system in which an
letter code, that
instrument belongs.
identifies the function of
the instrument.
• The first letter identifies
the measured or
initiating variable.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
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 JKLJ
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 RECEIVING ELEMENTS

RECEIVING ELEMENTS Types of Indicators:

An instrument which receives a signal 1. According to the display - Analog,
from a measuring instrument and Digital, Bargraph
processes it into an information
2. According to the inputs - Scanning,
usable by an operator. It can be an:
Multi-channel
A. Indicator
3. According to the scale - horizontal,
B. Recorder vertical, semi- circle, quarter-
circle.
C. Controller
4. According to mounting - control
D. Alarm unit
room mounted, field mounted
. . . Or any combination of these.

An example where remote indication

A. INDICATORS would be practical is shown here, in a
nuclear reactor temperature
ISA Definition:
measurement system:
A measuring instrument in which only
the present value of the measured
variable is visibly indicated.
Indicators:
A receiving element that receives the
PV signal from the measuring element
and shows a display or reading of the
variable in actual engineering units.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
One common “auxiliary” instrument is and stores the historical values of the
the indicator, the purpose of which is variable in a graphical and/or
to provide a human readable tabulated manner, on paper or a
indication of an instrument signal. memory media, and may have a
Sometimes process transmitters are display showing the measured
not equipped with readouts for values.
whatever variable they measure:
they just transmit a standard
instrument signal (4 to 20 mA, etc.) to TYPES OF RECORDERS
another device.
1. According to the recording format
In some cases we may need extra - Trend, Log
local display for showing the process 2. According to the inputs – Multi
value to the operators, examples like channel, Multi
an level transmitter installed on a big -point, n-point
tank & level value will be shown to 3. According to the construction
operator at the bottom of the tank - circular-chart, strip-chart,
using indicators or loop powered paperless, data logger
devices.
An indicator gives a human operator IMPORTANCE OF RECORDING
a convenient way of seeing what the
1. As a guide to the operation of a
output of the transmitter is without
process by observation of the trend
having to connect test equipment.
of variables.
Moreover, indicators may be located
far from their respective transmitters, 2. As a troubleshooting function by
providing readouts in locations more analyzing or locating the
convenient than the location of the possible source of the problem.
transmitter itself.
3. As a source of management
information in measuring past
performance
B. RECORDERS
ISA Definition:
SPEED OF RECORDING
A measuring instrument in which the
values of the measured variables are 1. Circular – Continuous pen tracing,
recorded. 24hrs / rotation, 7 days/rotation
Recorders: 2. Strip Chart- continuous pen tracing
or printing, 20 to 25 mm/hr.
A receiving element that receives the
PV signal from the measuring element

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
3. Paperless & Data Logger- Interval TYPES OF CONTROL OUPUTS
sampling of valves according to -CONTINUOUS:
operator selection. Current, Pressure
-DISCONTINUOUS:
On/Off, Z pos., Time proportion
C. CONTROLLERS
ISA Definition: TYPES OF CONTROL SETPOINTS

A device which operates A. LOCAL, INTERNAL

automatically to regulate a -A setpoint adjusted by the operator
controlled variable. B. REMOTE, EXTERNAL, CASCADE
-a setpoint adjusted by signal input
Controllers:
to the controller
A receiving element that receives the C. PROGRAM or PROFILE
PV signal from the measuring element -a setpoint that changes
and shows the value on a display or automatically with respect to time, by
recording media, and calculates an a pre-arranged instruction during
output as a correction to maintain configuration.
the PV at the required value called
setpoint.
COMMON COMPUTER-BASED
CONTROL SYSTEM

TYPES OF CONTROLLERS DCS- Distributed control system

1.According to the capacity PLC- Programmable Logic

Controller
- Single-loop, Multi-loop
SCADA- Supervisory Control and
2. According to display
Data Acquisition
- Analog, Digital, Recording,
PAC- Programmable Automation
Blind
Controller
3. According to size
DAS- Data Acquisition System
- 1/4 DIN, 1/2 DIN, etc.
SER- Sequence of Events Recorder
4. According to technology A computer-based control system is a system that
functions as a multipoint indicator, recorder, alarm
-Pneumatic,Electric, & multi-loop controller in one unit.
Electronic,Digital,
Microprocessor-based

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) SCADA systems are used to monitor
– usually computers connected to a and control a plant or equipment in
set of input/output (I/O) devices. The industries such as
computers are programmed to telecommunications, water and
respond to inputs by sending outputs waste control, energy, oil and gas
to maintain all processes at setpoint. refining and transportation

Distributed Control System (DCS) – HMI- Human Machine Interface

are controllers that, in addition to
performing control functions , provide
readings of the status of the process,
maintain databases amd advance
man-machine-interface.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS source may be an electric current,

hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic
The part of the control system that
pressure. When it receives a control
acts to physically change the
signal, an actuator responds by
manipulated variable.
converting the signal's energy into
The final control element may be: mechanical motion.

Actuator Control ValvesA valve used to control

fluid flow by varying the size of the
Control Valve
flow passage as directed by a signal
Electrical motors from a controller.This enables the
direct control of flow rate and the
Pumps
consequential control of process
Dampers quantities such as pressure,
temperature, and liquid level.
Actuator
The part of a final control device that
causes a physical change in the final
control device when signalled to do
so.
An actuator requires a control signal
and a source of energy. The control
signal is relatively low energy and
may be electric voltage or current,
pneumatic or hydraulic pressure, or
even human power. Its main energy

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
 Types of Valve Actuator
- Pneumatic actuators
- Electrical motor operated actuators
- Solenoid actuators
- Hydraulic actuators
- Manual actuator (handwheel)

Diaphragm Type
These types of pneumatic actuators
uses a flexible diaphragm to seal the
pressure chamber and are capable
of driving a substantial drive force for
a relatively low pressure due to the
large cross-sectional area that can
be achieved.

VALVE ACTUATOR TYPES

A valve is a device that regulates,
directs or controls the flow of a fluid
(gases, liquids, fluidized solids, or
slurries) by opening, closing, or
partially obstructing various
passageways.
An actuator is an assembly fitted to
the control valve to provide power to
control the flow of the process
medium.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Electric Motor Type
Electric Motor valve actuators mount
on valves which, in response to a
signal, automatically move to a
desired position using an outside
power source.
Hand (Manual)
Manual actuators include a
handwheel connected to the valve
stem either directly or through gears.
Use of gears makes it easier to open
or close the valve. However, several
turns of gears are necessary for one
full turn of the valve stem. This
prolongs the opening and closing
time of large sized valves.

Solenoid Type
These types of actuators are mostly
installed at small size lines, typically
up to 1'' size. Electro-Hydraulic Type
Electro-hydraulic valve actuators and
hydraulic valve actuators convert
fluid pressure into motion in response
to a signal. They use an outside power
source and receive signals that are
measured in amperes, volts, or
Piston Type pressure.
In piston actuators, compresses air is
supplied to a solid piston in a
cylindrical chamber to the piston rod
is turn coupled to the valve stem by a
coupling mechanism.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Valve Failure Modes
Fail-Safe Concept
A mechanism that is automatically
triggered by failure that reduces or
eliminates harm to other equipment,
environment or people.
Fail-Open (FO)
Fail Open is the term where a valve Fail-Locked
opens at loss of signal. This scenario
might be chosen to prevent Fail-Locked means that it will secure
overpressure in the event of a the valve in its current position on loss
blocked line or in case of a of power.
catastrophic failure.

Fail-Indeterminate
Fail-Closed (FC)
Fail-Indeterminate means that the
Fail Closed means the valve will valve position during failure is not
closed when the signal is exactly known, established, or
interrupted. An example of this defined.
would be block valves closing to
isolate a steam injection well on loss
of power. Because uncontrolled
steam is dangerous and potentially
lethal, automatic valve closure might
be required.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation
FL/Drift Open and FL/Drift Closed
Valves with "Fail last" as fail safe
condition can be either FL/DC or
FL/DO. Such valves would be locked
to their last position on air failure.
However, due to leaks they would
either go to open position for FL/DO
or closed position for FL/DC.

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Fundamentals of Instrumentation