6.

3 BJT Circuits at DC 335

Example 6.4

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 6.23(a), which is redrawn in Fig. 6.23(b) to remind the reader of
the convention employed throughout this book for indicating connections to dc sources. We wish to
analyze this circuit to determine all node voltages and branch currents. We will assume that β is specified
to be 100.

10 V

IC RC 4.7 k
RC 4.7 k
4V
VC
10 V
IB
VE
4V RE
RE 3.3 k IE 3.3 k

(a) (b)

10 V

3 0.99 1 0.99 mA
4.7 k

10 0.99 4.7 5.3 V 4

4V

5 1.00 0.99 0.01 mA

4 0.7 3.3 V 1

3.3 k
3.3
1 mA 2
3.3

(c)

Figure 6.23 Analysis of the circuit for Example 6.4: (a) circuit; (b) circuit redrawn to remind the reader of the
convention used in this book to show connections to the dc sources; (c) analysis with the steps numbered.
336 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.4 continued

Solution
Glancing at the circuit in Fig. 6.23(a), we note that the base is connected to +4 V and the emitter is connected
to ground through a resistance RE . Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the base–emitter junction
will be forward biased. Assuming that this is the case and assuming that VBE is approximately 0.7 V, it
follows that the emitter voltage will be

VE = 4 − VBE  4 − 0.7 = 3.3 V

We are now in an opportune position; we know the voltages at the two ends of RE and thus can determine
the current IE through it,
VE − 0 3.3
IE = = = 1 mA
RE 3.3
Since the collector is connected through RC to the +10-V power supply, it appears possible that the collector
voltage will be higher than the base voltage, which implies active-mode operation. Assuming that this is
the case, we can evaluate the collector current from

IC = αIE

The value of α is obtained from

β 100
α= =  0.99
β + 1 101
Thus IC will be given by

IC = 0.99 × 1 = 0.99 mA

We are now in a position to use Ohm’s law to determine the collector voltage VC ,

VC = 10 − IC RC = 10 − 0.99 × 4.7  +5.3 V

Since the base is at +4 V, the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 1.3 V, and the transistor is indeed
in the active mode as assumed.
It remains only to determine the base current IB , as follows:
IE 1
IB = =  0.01 mA
β + 1 101
Before leaving this example, we wish to emphasize strongly the value of carrying out the analysis
directly on the circuit diagram. Only in this way will one be able to analyze complex circuits in a reasonable
length of time. Figure 6.23(c) illustrates the above analysis on the circuit diagram, with the order of the
analysis steps indicated by the circled numbers.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 337

Example 6.5

We wish to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.24(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. Note that this circuit is identical to that of Fig. 6.23 except that the voltage at the base is now
+6 V. Assume that the transistor β is specified to be at least 50.

10 V 10 V

3 1.6 mA
4.7 k
4.7 k

6V 6V 10 1.6 4.7 2.48 4

Impossible, not in
active mode

6 0.7 5.3 V 1
3.3 k
3.3 k
5.3
1.6 mA 2
3.3

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 6.24 Analysis of the circuit for Example 6.5. Note that the circled numbers indicate the order of the analysis
steps.
338 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.5 continued

Solution
With +6 V at the base, the base–emitter junction will be forward biased; thus,

VE = +6 − VBE  6 − 0.7 = 5.3 V

and

5.3
IE = = 1.6 mA
3.3

Now, assuming active-mode operation, IC = αIE  IE ; thus,

VC = +10 − 4.7 × IC  10 − 7.52 = 2.48 V

The details of the analysis performed above are illustrated in Fig. 6.24(b).
Since the collector voltage calculated is less than the base voltage by 3.52 V, it follows that our original
assumption of active-mode operation is incorrect. In fact, the transistor has to be in the saturation mode.
Assuming this to be the case, the values of VE and IE will remain unchanged. The collector voltage,
however, becomes

VC = VE + VCEsat  5.3 + 0.2 = +5.5 V

from which we can determine IC as

10 − 5.5
IC = = 0.96 mA
4.7

and IB can now be found as

IB = IE − IC = 1.6 − 0.96 = 0.64 mA

Thus the transistor is operating at a forced β of

IC 0.96
β forced = = = 1.5
IB 0.64

Since β forced is less than the minimum specified value of β, the transistor is indeed saturated. We should
emphasize here that in testing for saturation the minimum value of β should be used. By the same token,
if we are designing a circuit in which a transistor is to be saturated, the design should be based on the
minimum specified β. Obviously, if a transistor with this minimum β is saturated, then transistors with
higher values of β will also be saturated. The details of the analysis are shown in Fig. 6.24(c), where the
order of the steps used is indicated by the circled numbers.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 339

Example 6.6

We wish to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.25(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. Note that this circuit is identical to that considered in Examples 6.4 and 6.5 except that now
the base voltage is zero.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.25 Example 6.6: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the order of the analysis steps indicated by circled numbers.

Solution
Since the base is at zero volts and the emitter is connected to ground through RE , the base–emitter junction
cannot conduct and the emitter current is zero. Also, the collector–base junction cannot conduct, since the
n-type collector is connected through RC to the positive power supply while the p-type base is at ground. It
follows that the collector current will be zero. The base current will also have to be zero, and the transistor
is in the cutoff mode of operation.
The emitter voltage will be zero, while the collector voltage will be equal to +10 V, since the voltage
drops across RE and RC are zero. Figure 6.25(b) shows the analysis details.

EXERCISES

D6.22 For the circuit in Fig. 6.23(a), find the highest voltage to which the base can be raised while the
transistor remains in the active mode. Assume α 1.
Ans. +4.7 V
D6.23 Redesign the circuit of Fig. 6.23(a) (i.e., find new values for RE and RC ) to establish a collector current
of 0.5 mA and a reverse-bias voltage on the collector–base junction of 2 V. Assume α  1.
Ans. RE = 6.6 k; RC = 8 k
340 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

D6.24 For the circuit in Fig. 6.24(a), find the value to which the base voltage should be changed so that the
transistor operates in saturation with a forced β of 5.
Ans. +5.18 V

Example 6.7

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.26(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches.

V 10 V 10 V
10 0.7
4.65 mA 2
2
2k
RE 2k
0.7 V 1
5 0.05 mA

10 4.6 1 5.4 V 4
RC 1k
1k
3 0.99 4.65 4.6 mA

V 10 V 10 V

(a) (b)

Figure 6.26 Example 6.7: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the steps indicated by circled numbers.

Solution
+
The base of this pnp transistor is grounded, while the emitter is connected to a positive supply (V = +10 V)
through RE . It follows that the emitter–base junction will be forward biased with

VE = VEB  0.7 V

Thus the emitter current will be given by

+
V − VE 10 − 0.7
IE = = = 4.65 mA
RE 2
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 341

Since the collector is connected to a negative supply (more negative than the base voltage) through RC , it
is possible that this transistor is operating in the active mode. Assuming this to be the case, we obtain

IC = αI E

Since no value for β has been given, we shall assume β = 100, which results in α = 0.99. Since large
variations in β result in small differences in α, this assumption will not be critical as far as determining
the value of IC is concerned. Thus,

IC = 0.99 × 4.65 = 4.6 mA

The collector voltage will be

−
VC = V + IC RC
= −10 + 4.6 × 1 = −5.4 V

Thus the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 5.4 V, and the transistor is indeed in the active mode,
which supports our original assumption.
It remains only to calculate the base current,

IE 4.65
IB = =  0.05 mA
β +1 101

Obviously, the value of β critically affects the base current. Note, however, that in this circuit the value
of β will have no effect on the mode of operation of the transistor. Since β is generally an ill-specified
parameter, this circuit represents a good design. As a rule, one should strive to design the circuit such
that its performance is as insensitive to the value of β as possible. The analysis details are illustrated in
Fig. 6.26(b).

EXERCISES

D6.25 For the circuit in Fig. 6.26(a), find the largest value to which RC can be raised while the transistor
remains in the active mode.
Ans. 2.26 k
D6.26 Redesign the circuit of Fig. 6.26(a) (i.e., find new values for RE and RC ) to establish a collector
current of 1 mA and a reverse bias on the collector–base junction of 4 V. Assume α  1.
Ans. RE = 9.3 k; RC = 6 k
342 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.8

We want to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.27(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents in all
branches. Assume β = 100.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.27 Example 6.8: (a) circuit; (b) analysis, with the steps indicated by the circled numbers.

Solution
The base–emitter junction is clearly forward biased. Thus,
+5 − VBE 5 − 0.7
IB =  = 0.043 mA
RB 100
Assume that the transistor is operating in the active mode. We now can write
IC = βIB = 100 × 0.043 = 4.3 mA
The collector voltage can now be determined as
VC = 10 − IC RC = 10 − 4.3 × 2 = +1.4 V
Since the base voltage VB is
VB = VBE  + 0.7 V
it follows that the collector–base junction is reverse biased by 0.7 V and the transistor is indeed in the
active mode. The emitter current will be given by
IE = (β + 1)IB = 101 × 0.043  4.3 mA
We note from this example that the collector and emitter currents depend critically on the value of β. In
fact, if β were 10% higher, the transistor would leave the active mode and enter saturation. Therefore this
clearly is a bad design. The analysis details are illustrated in Fig. 6.27(b).
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 343

EXERCISE

D6.27 The circuit of Fig. 6.27(a) is to be fabricated using a transistor type whose β is specified to be in the
range of 50 to 150. That is, individual units of this same transistor type can have β values anywhere
in this range. Redesign the circuit by selecting a new value for RC so that all fabricated circuits
are guaranteed to be in the active mode. What is the range of collector voltages that the fabricated
circuits may exhibit?
Ans. RC = 1.5 k; VC = 0.3 V to 6.8 V

Example 6.9

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.28(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. The minimum value of β is specified to be 30.

5V

5V
5 ( VB 0.7)
4 IE 1k
1

1k VE VB 0.7 3
2 IB VB /10
10 k
10 k VEC sat 0.2 V 5

1
VB VC VB 0.5 6
VB 0.5 ( 5)
10 k 7 IC 10 k
10

5V 5V
(a) (b)

Figure 6.28 Example 6.9: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with steps numbered.

Solution
A quick glance at this circuit reveals that the transistor will be either active or saturated. Assuming
active-mode operation and neglecting the base current, we see that the base voltage will be approximately
zero volts, the emitter voltage will be approximately +0.7 V, and the emitter current will be approximately
4.3 mA. Since the maximum current that the collector can support while the transistor remains in the active
mode is approximately 0.5 mA, it follows that the transistor is definitely saturated.
344 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.9 continued

Assuming that the transistor is saturated and denoting the voltage at the base by VB (refer to Fig. 6.28b),
it follows that

VE = VB + VEB  VB + 0.7
VC = VE − VECsat  VB + 0.7 − 0.2 = VB + 0.5
+5 − VE 5 − VB − 0.7
IE = = = 4.3 − VB mA
1 1
V
IB = B = 0.1VB mA
10
V − (−5) VB + 0.5 + 5
IC = C = = 0.1VB + 0.55 mA
10 10
Using the relationship IE = IB + IC , we obtain

4.3 − VB = 0.1VB + 0.1VB + 0.55

which results in
3.75
VB =  3.13 V
1.2
Substituting in the equations above, we obtain

VE = 3.83 V
VC = 3.63 V
IE = 1.17 mA
IC = 0.86 mA
IB = 0.31 mA

from which we see that the transistor is saturated, since the value of forced β is
0.86
β forced =  2.8
0.31
which is much smaller than the specified minimum β.

Example 6.10

We want to analyze the circuit of Fig. 6.29(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches. Assume β = 100.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 345

15 V 15 V

RC RC
RB 1 5k VBB 5V 5k
100 k RBB
33.3 k

IE
IB
RB 2
50 k RE RE
L
3k 3k

(a) (b)

15 V 15 V

1.28 mA
5k 0.103 mA
100 k
5V 8.6 V
0.013 mA
33.3 k
4.57 V
0.013 mA 3.87 V
4.57 V 50 k
3k
1.29 mA 0.09 mA

(c) (d)

Figure 6.29 Circuits for Example 6.10.

Solution
The first step in the analysis consists of simplifying the base circuit using Thévenin’s theorem. The result
is shown in Fig. 6.29(b), where

RB2 50
VBB = +15 = 15 = +5 V
RB1 + RB2 100 + 50

RBB = RB1  RB2 = 100 50 = 33.3 k

346 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.10 continued

To evaluate the base or the emitter current, we have to write a loop equation around the loop labeled L
in Fig. 6.29(b). Note, however, that the current through RBB is different from the current through RE . The
loop equation will be
VBB = IB RBB + VBE + IE RE
Now, assuming active-mode operation, we replace IB with
IE
IB =
β +1
and rearrange the equation to obtain
VBB − VBE
IE =
RE + [RBB /(β + 1)]
For the numerical values given we have
5 − 0.7
IE = = 1.29 mA
3 + (33.3/101)
The base current will be
1.29
IB = = 0.0128 mA
101
The base voltage is given by
VB = VBE + IE RE
= 0.7 + 1.29 × 3 = 4.57 V
We can evaluate the collector current as
IC = αIE = 0.99 × 1.29 = 1.28 mA
The collector voltage can now be evaluated as
VC = +15 − IC RC = 15 − 1.28 × 5 = 8.6 V
It follows that the collector is higher in potential than the base by 4.03 V, which means that the transistor
is in the active mode, as had been assumed. The results of the analysis are given in Fig. 6.29(c, d).

EXERCISE

6.28 If the transistor in the circuit of Fig. 6.29(a) is replaced with another having half the value of β (i.e.,
β = 50), find the new value of IC , and express the change in IC as a percentage.
Ans. IC = 1.15 mA; –10%
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 347

Example 6.11

We wish to analyze the circuit in Fig. 6.30(a) to determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents through
all branches.

15 V

RE2 2k
RC1 5k
RB 1 100 k IE2
Q2
IC1
IB2
Q1
IC2

RC2 2.7 k
RB 2 50 k
RE 3k

(a)

15 V

2.78 mA
1.252 mA
0.103 mA 2k
5k
100 k 9.44 V
Q2
8.74 V
Q1 0.0275 mA
4.57 V 1.28 mA
7.43 V
0.013 mA
3.87 V
2.7 k
50 k
3k
0.09 mA 1.29 mA 2.75 mA

(b)

Figure 6.30 Circuits for Example 6.11.

348 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

Example 6.11 continued

Solution
We first recognize that part of this circuit is identical to the circuit we analyzed in Example 6.10 —namely,
the circuit of Fig. 6.29(a). The difference, of course, is that in the new circuit we have an additional
transistor Q2 together with its associated resistors RE2 and RC2 . Assume that Q1 is still in the active mode.
The following values will be identical to those obtained in the previous example:

VB1 = +4.57 V IE1 = 1.29 mA

IB1 = 0.0128 mA IC1 = 1.28 mA

However, the collector voltage will be different than previously calculated, since part of the collector
current IC1 will flow in the base lead of Q2 (IB2 ). As a first approximation we may assume that IB2 is much
smaller than IC1 ; that is, we may assume that the current through RC1 is almost equal to IC1 . This will enable
us to calculate VC1 :

VC1  + 15 − IC1 RC1

= 15 − 1.28 × 5 = +8.6 V

Thus Q1 is in the active mode, as had been assumed.

As far as Q2 is concerned, we note that its emitter is connected to +15 V through RE2 . It is therefore
safe to assume that the emitter–base junction of Q2 will be forward biased. Thus the emitter of Q2 will be
at a voltage VE2 given by

VE2 = VC1 + VEB Q  8.6 + 0.7 = +9.3 V
2

The emitter current of Q2 may now be calculated as

+15 − VE2 15 − 9.3

IE2 = = = 2.85 mA
RE2 2

Since the collector of Q2 is returned to ground via RC2 , it is possible that Q2 is operating in the active mode.
Assume this to be the case. We now find IC2 as

IC2 = α 2 IE2
 
= 0.99 × 2.85 = 2.82 mA assuming β 2 = 100

The collector voltage of Q2 will be

VC2 = IC2 RC2 = 2.82 × 2.7 = 7.62 V

which is lower than VB2 by 0.98 V. Thus Q2 is in the active mode, as assumed.
 6.3 BJT Circuits at DC 349

It is important at this stage to find the magnitude of the error incurred in our calculations by the
assumption that IB2 is negligible. The value of IB2 is given by
IE2 2.85
IB2 = = = 0.028 mA
β2 + 1 101
which is indeed much smaller than IC1 (1.28 mA). If desired, we can obtain more accurate results by
iterating one more time, assuming IB2 to be 0.028 mA. The new values will be

Current in RC1 = IC1 − IB2 = 1.28 − 0.028 = 1.252 mA

VC1 = 15 − 5 × 1.252 = 8.74 V
VE2 = 8.74 + 0.7 = 9.44 V
15 − 9.44
IE2 = = 2.78 mA
2
IC2 = 0.99 × 2.78 = 2.75 mA
VC2 = 2.75 × 2.7 = 7.43 V
2.78
IB2 = = 0.0275 mA
101
Note that the new value of IB2 is very close to the value used in our iteration, and no further iterations
are warranted. The final results are indicated in Fig. 6.30(b).
The reader justifiably might be wondering about the necessity for using an iterative scheme in solving
a linear (or linearized) problem. Indeed, we can obtain the exact solution (if we can call anything we
are doing with a first-order model exact!) by writing appropriate equations. The reader is encouraged to
find this solution and then compare the results with those obtained above. It is important to emphasize,
however, that in most such problems it is quite sufficient to obtain an approximate solution, provided we
can obtain it quickly and, of course, correctly.

In the above examples, we frequently used a precise value of α to calculate the collector
current. Since α  1, the error in such calculations will be very small if one assumes α = 1
and IC = IE . Therefore, except in calculations that depend critically on the value of α (e.g.,
the calculation of base current), one usually assumes α  1.

EXERCISES

6.29 For the circuit in Fig. 6.30, find the total current drawn from the power supply. Hence find the power
dissipated in the circuit.
Ans. 4.135 mA; 62 mW
6.30 The circuit in Fig. E6.30 is to be connected to the circuit in Fig. 6.30(a) as indicated; specifically, the
base of Q3 is to be connected to the collector of Q2 . If Q3 has β = 100, find the new value of VC2 and
the values of VE3 and IC3 .
350 Chapter 6 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

To collector
of Q2 in
Fig. 6.30 (a)

Figure E6.30

Ans. +7.06 V; +6.36 V; 13.4 mA

Example 6.12

We desire to evaluate the voltages at all nodes and the currents through all branches in the circuit of
Fig. 6.31(a). Assume β = 100.

On

0 3.9 mA
5 – 0.7
=
10 ⫹ 101 ⫻ 1
0.039 mA
Off
0

–5V
(a) (b)

Figure 6.31 Example 6.12: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the steps numbered.
 6.4 Transistor Breakdown and Temperature Effects 351

Solution
By examining the circuit, we conclude that the two transistors Q1 and Q2 cannot be simultaneously
conducting. Thus if Q1 is on, Q2 will be off, and vice versa. Assume that Q2 is on. It follows that current
will flow from ground through the 1-k resistor into the emitter of Q2 . Thus the base of Q2 will be at a
negative voltage, and base current will be flowing out of the base through the 10-k resistor and into the
+5-V supply. This is impossible, since if the base is negative, current in the 10-k resistor will have to
flow into the base. Thus we conclude that our original assumption—that Q2 is on—is incorrect. It follows
that Q2 will be off and Q1 will be on.
The question now is whether Q1 is active or saturated. The answer in this case is obvious: Since the
base is fed with a +5-V supply and since base current flows into the base of Q1 , it follows that the base
of Q1 will be at a voltage lower than +5 V. Thus the collector–base junction of Q1 is reverse biased and
Q1 is in the active mode. It remains only to determine the currents and voltages using techniques already
described in detail. The results are given in Fig. 6.31(b).

EXERCISES

6.31 Solve the problem in Example 6.12 for the case of a voltage of –5 V feeding the bases. What voltage
appears at the emitters?
Ans. –3.9 V
6.32 Solve the problem in Example 6.12 with the voltage feeding the bases changed to +10 V. Assume that
β min = 30, and find VE , VB , IC1 , and IC2 .
Ans. +4.8 V; +5.5 V; 4.35 mA; 0

6.4 Transistor Breakdown and Temperature Effects

We conclude this chapter with a brief discussion of two important nonideal effects in the BJT:
voltage breakdown, and the dependence of β on IC and temperature.

6.4.1 Transistor Breakdown

The maximum voltages that can be applied to a BJT are limited by the EBJ and CBJ breakdown
effects that follow the avalanche multiplication mechanism described in Section 3.5.3.
Consider first the common-base configuration (Fig. 6.32(a)). The iC – v CB characteristics in
Fig. 6.32(b) indicate that for iE = 0 (i.e., with the emitter open-circuited) the collector–base
junction breaks down at a voltage denoted by BVCBO . For iE > 0, breakdown occurs at voltages
smaller than BVCBO . Typically, for discrete BJTs, BVCBO is greater than 50 V.