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Structure 6.

1 Introduction

6.2 Objectives

6.3 Various Guidance Services

6.3.1 Orientation Service

6.3.2 Pupil Inventory Service

6.3.3 Occupational Information Service

6.3.4 Counselling Service

6.3.5 Placement Service

6.3.6 Follow-up Service

6.4 Organization of School Guidance Programme

6.4.1 Pre-requisites of a Guidance Programme

6.4.2 Planning of a Guidance Programme

6.4.3 Guidance Activities

6.5 Evaluation of Guidance Programme

6.5.1 Need for Evaluation

6.5.2 Steps in Evaluation

6.5.3 Methods of Evaluation

6.6 Let Us Sum Up

6.7 Unit-end Exercises

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Students face many problems during the various phases of school life. These problems may be
related to personal, behavioural, educational, or vocational factors. Enabling students to overcome
these problems and become self-reliant in future is one of the major aims of the guidance
programme. However, one is also aware that the implementation of guidance programme in schools
is hardly noticeable. This situation persists in spite of various recommendations made by the
government since the last few decades. One of the likely causes for the non implementation of
guidance programme is largely due to the lack of adequate knowledge among the concerned staff
regarding the planning and organization of the guidance programme in schools. The present unit
deals with the various services involved in a guidance programme and the functions performed by
each of these services. Subsequently a brief is made on the planning and organization of guidance
programme in the schools. This is finally followed by a description of various steps involved in
evaluating the guidance programme.

6.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• define a guidance programme;


• explain the various functions of a guidance programme; 30 Techniques and Procedures

• prepare a plan for organizing guidance programme in school;

• enumerate different guidance activities required in schools; and

• describe the procedure for evaluation of a guidance programme.

6.3 VARIOUS GUIDANCE SERVICES

A school guidance programme constitutes a cluster of activities which enable the students to
overcome their educational, vocational, personal or social problems that they face during the
different phases of development. It forms an integral part of school education and is non-
instructional in nature. A guidance programme constitutes various services. A school guidance
programme largely consists of six services. They are orientation, counselling, pupil inventory,
occupational information, placement and follow-up services. Each of these services is distinct due to
their specific functions. Guidance Services.

6.3.1 Orientation Service It is generally noticed that when students shift from one school to another,
they find it difficult to immediately accept and adjust to the new surroundings. This also occurs in
case of those students who either move from school to college or school to a work situation. An
entry into anon-familiar or new situation may lead to certain adjustment problems among the
students. To overcome this obstacle, the orientation services are organized, especially to familiarize
the students with the new surroundings and thereby adapt themselves and make necessary
adjustments. Hence, it is always advisable to begin any educational course or programme with an
orientation activity.

Some of the objectives of the orientation service are:

1) Develop awareness regarding the rules and regulations, functioning patterns and available
infrastructural and physical facilities in the school or institution or work place.

2) Acquaint the students with the concerned staff and the student body. Orientation Service Pupil
Inventory Service Follow-up Service Placement Service Guidance Service Occupation Information
Service Counselling Service 31

3) Provide opportunities for the staff members and student body to interact Guidance Programme
with the new comers.

4) Develop favourable attitudes among the students both towards the school and the staff. One
should also note that the orientation services are not only restricted to the students, but they can
also be extended for the parents and towards the community. Further, this service needs to be
organized for all students so that they fulfil their various needs. In addition, this can also be a
continuous activity, implying that implementation of these activities can be distributed throughout
the year. Orientation Activities The activities are to be organized based on the age group of the
students and the availability of resources.

The activities can be broadly classified as

(i) Pre-admission Orientation and

(ii) Post-admission Orientation


. i) Pre-admission Orientation: This is one of the services which is lacking in our schools. It helps to
acquaint students with the institution, its tradition, purpose, its rules and regulations, curricula,
extracurricular activities, the staff and the student body. Activities: Some of the suggested activities
could be: a) visit to schools along with the staff or parents;

b) arranging conferences and talks with the parents, since they also play a major role;

c) issuing handbooks or pamphlets giving information about the school, its courses and activities;
and

d) arranging exhibitions to expose them to the activities that students are undertaking.

ii) Post-admission Orientation: This service can be provided throughout the year. It helps the
teacher in determining the abilities of students and thereby adapting their teaching styles and
activities according to the student needs.

Activities

a) Conduct various games like “get-acquainted” games where the student can talk about
themselves, such as their interest, hobbies, etc.

b) Arrange group activities, wherein the students are provided opportunities to interact with each
other and exhibit their abilities.

6.3.2 Pupil Inventory Service Apart from knowing the general characteristics of students, it is also
very essential to identify the specific abilities predominant among the students, before a counsellor
or career teacher assists them. Without identifying the pupils’ aptitudes and interests, one cannot
determine what to expect from them and what they are capable of doing. The various aspects that
have to be assessed before one guides a student are his aptitude, achievement, interests, attitudes,
socio-economic status, family background etc. In Unit 5: Techniques of Guidance you have studied
32 Techniques and Procedures about various techniques of guidance. The pupil inventory service
helps in recording and maintaining of these data. These records can be prepared by the collaborative
effort of the teacher, counsellor and career teacher through various techniques. You are familiar
with the techniques as testing and non-testing techniques. Observation, anecdotes, rating scales,
sociometry and interview are some of the well-known non-testing techniques. The testing
techniques are the verbal tests, non-verbal tests, performance tests, projective techniques and the
personality tests. These tests must be administered by the counsellor or any professionally trained
personnel. However, assistance from a teacher is must for maintaining the records of students using
some of these techniques. A teacher could give details of certain behaviour of students by observing
them in the classroom situations and making their records. These incidents could be accumulated in
the form of anecdotal records. The objectives of pupil inventory service are: i) to identify the various
abilities of students by administration of various tests; and ii) to maintain various records concerned
with each student and update them periodically. The types of data generally collected are personal,
family data, psychological data, achievement, health data etc. These data help a counsellor and a
career teacher in their counselling process and career guidance programme respectively.

6.3.3 Occupational Information Service This is a service which can be provided by the integrated
effort of a teacher, counsellor and a career teacher. The main objective of the service is to provide
the students information about the educational opportunities in various levels, related training
programmes and occupations available. This helps the students to be aware of the options open to
them with respect to a particular course or subject in any of the above areas. Further the student is
also exposed to the world of work, nature and pattern of work and the skills required for performing
the work. The objectives of information services are: i) To create an awareness of the necessary
occupational and educational information; ii) To develop a broad and realistic view of the various
educational, training and occupational opportunities; and iii) To help the student obtain and
interpret the information he/she needs in making specific plans for his/her future career. This
service needs to be more emphasized at the secondary and higher secondary levels. The various
information given to students through this service are about the job or occupation positions, duties
performed, educational and professional requirements, conditions of work, rewards offered,
promotional avenues, etc. Such information are collected and disseminated by the guidance worker
in the form of career talks, conferences, etc. 33 Guidance Programme

6.3.4 Counselling Service This service is the most fundamental aspect of the guidance process. The
purpose of it is to assist the students in the process of all round development. It provides an
opportunity to the individual to discuss their plans and problems with a professional or counsellor in
a helping environment. The process ultimately makes a person capable of self-directing and self-
sufficient. This service can be practiced only by a counsellor. A detailed description of the role of
counsellor and counselling techniques are described in Unit 4&8. However, some assistance can also
be provided by the teacher in a school. This is because a teacher is the one who spends maximum
time working with the students in the classroom. When the teacher comes across any student who
displays deviant behaviours, he/she can always refer the case to a school counsellor. Further,
observations made and recorded by the teacher about certain students can help the counsellor in
the counselling process. The counselling service includes individual counselling and group
counselling which we have explained in Unit 4. It must be noted that counselling is open to all
students.

6.3.5 Placement Service The placement service makes an effort to help those students secure
employment, who are either in school or have left the school. The school provides certain facilities
through which the employment needs of the students are met either through special placement
personnel or by integration services of the other guidance personnel. It is an activity which requires
the co-operation of the principal, counsellor, teacher, career master, state employment agencies,
private agencies and also the community. This service is more significant for the students at the
secondary and higher secondary level. The placement service here is concerned for those: i) Who
withdraw from the formal education before they complete school (dropouts). ii) Who prefer part
time work while going to school or may be during the vacation or after school hours or during
weekends. iii) Who terminate formal education after completing senior secondary education. The
basic aim of placement is to facilitate the process of meeting the needs of both employer and the
prospective employee. The student should be included for the placement service only after the
correct and appropriate information regarding him/her has been obtained from the counsellor or
the incharge guidance personnel. The information that is generally made available is his/her
personal bio-data, achievement grades, attendance, test-scores, health-data and such other
required data. The teacher may also assist by providing details concerning the student’s interest, and
other skills such as communication and participation in various school activities. Apart from
placement, this service also orients the students to some of the job applying techniques. The
guidance worker could familiarize them with the methods of applying for a job, identifying various
sources of information and how to prepare for the interview. These skills can be developed either
through group or individual counselling. A school that provides placement services hence 34
Techniques and Procedures should be capable to draw upon all the possible resources to assist its
students in finding suitable and appropriate jobs. The extent to which the placement service fulfils
this purpose is a measure of its effectiveness. This could largely be met by a systematic and proper
functioning of the guidance committee. The school committee could also publicize about the
placement programme both to the students and community. Within the schools, the information
could be published in school magazine, notified in the libraries or announced in student assemblies.

6.3.6

Follow-up Service A guidance worker who does not assess the progress made by his/her student is
like the physician who does not verify whether his/her patient has recovered or not. Here, it
becomes very essential in a guidance programme to learn the nature and extent of progress of the
student even after he leaves the school. This service does not only pertain to the study of
occupational aspect but also to other related aspects such as emotional and social adjustments. For
example, if a student has been counselled for social-emotional problem, after he/she leaves the
school, the guidance worker must do a follow-up to check how far he/she is able to cope up with the
new environment and whether he/she is still facing any such problem. Purpose of this Service i) It
draws upon information from the former students regarding the extent of influence or effectiveness
of the school guidance programme. ii) Based on the feedback obtained, make relevant changes in
the school guidance programme. The guidance worker generally keeps contact with the students
and drop-outs after leaving school. One of the most common methods adopted for follow-up is the
questionnaire which is periodically sent to the students after they leave school. Based on the
experiences of former students, the guidance worker can formulate future programme for the
present students. The follow-up service has relevance for research. After receiving valid information
from former students, the administrators can improve upon their services. Further, employing this
information, the educational institutions can conduct studies of the relationship between the
training given to these former students and how far the utilization of the training was made. Studies
on the effectiveness, efficiency and desirability of the courses offered can also be conducted. The
three steps that are dealt in a follow-up programme are: i) A systematic gathering of data from the
alumni. ii) Interpretation and presentation of that data to all the concerned personnel, i.e. student,
parent and community. iii) Suggest a modified framework of educational programme based on the
findings made. 35 Guidance Programme Check Your Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the
space given below. b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the block. 1) Describe a
guidance programme in 3-4
lines. ............................................................................................................... .........................................
...................................................................... ...........................................................................................
.................... ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. 2) List out the 3 major services of a guidance
programme. ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. ...............................................................................
................................ ............................................................................................................... .................
.............................................................................................. 3) Match the following. Service Purpose
a) Counselling a) bridge the gap between home and school b) Placement b) awareness of various
career options c) Orientation c) obtaining suitable jobs d) Occupational information d) assisting in all
round development 4) The service which keeps in touch with the students who pass out of school
is ...................... (Counselling/placement/follow-up) 5) The service which aims at collecting
information about individuals by various methods and techniques is a) Counselling service b) Pupil
inventory service c) Placement service d) Occupational information service 6) Counselling service is
not a part of guidance service. (T/F) 7) Guidance programme must be available for children at all
levels.(T/F) 8) In elementary level, more emphasis must be laid on occupational information service.
(T/F) 9) Differentiate between placement and follow-up
service. ............................................................................................................... .....................................
.......................................................................... .......................................................................................
........................ 36 Techniques and Procedures 6.4 ORGANISATION OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE
PROGRAMME The organization of guidance programme at the schools requires cooperative effort of
various personnel present both within and outside the school. The programme must be planned
with the assistance of various personnel like the school principal, the staff, counsellor, career master
and the parents. Before planning a guidance programme, it is essential to understand the purpose
and aims of guidance which we have discussed in Unit 1. 6.4.1 Pre-requisites of a Guidance
Programme Some of the preliminary tasks needed to be undertaken to organize a guidance
programme are: a) Formation of a guidance committee, which comprises of at least seven to eight
members. The committee would be constituted of various personnel such as at least two parents,
two teachers, a counsellor and a career master. The principal could be the chairperson of the
committee. b) Decisions and arrangements must be made regarding the allotment of budget for
conducting the various services. The expenses could be determined also keeping in view the
payment of honorarium for guest lectures, conveyance to specialists or professionals such as
educationists, doctors, etc. c) Suitable arrangements need to be made to acquire minimum
infrastructural and physical facilities such as a guidance cell or room, tables, chairs various
psychological tests and other required literature. d) Support from the parents and community could
be obtained by orienting them to the significance of a guidance programme. e) The school staff and
students also need to be briefed about the purpose and importance of the guidance programme and
encouraged to participate. 6.4.2 Planning of a Guidance Programme The following steps are
necessary to be undertaken to plan the guidance programme: 1. First make a survey of the available
guidance services existing in the school or institution. 2. Identify the student needs (or) areas where
assistance is required. 3. Obtain the opinion of the staff members and ascertain the extent of
assistance possible from them. 4. Statement of explicit objective for the guidance programme on the
basis of the student needs. 5. Specification of the various functions of each guidance service. 6.
Assignment and defining of duties to each personnel, who are the members of the guidance
committee. For the smooth functioning of guidance service, a well-planned guidance programme is
necessary. It facilitates co-ordination of activities among the personnel in an integrated pattern. 37
Guidance Programme In brief, the guidance committee first identifies the programme objectives
based on the survey of the student needs and characteristics. This is followed by preparation of a
yearly plan of the school guidance programme. Further, keeping in view the objective, the
committee prepares a tentative plan or chart, indicating the functions of various personnel. Next,
another subsidiary chart is prepared, specifying the duties or tasks to be performed by each
personnel. Role of the Principal: The principal, chairperson of the committee provides the required
facilities for the smooth and successful functioning of the guidance programme at the schools. Some
of them have provision of a separate room or office for the counsellor, space for conference room,
clerical staff and other physical facilities such as table, chairs etc. Apart from that appropriate action
needs to be taken by the principal to make suitable arrangements for the procurement of
psychological test materials, literature, documents and arranging sufficient budget. Further,
monitoring of the guidance activities are also been done by the principal. Role of the Teacher: The
teacher provides assistance by maintaining the cumulative records of students and also in organizing
the various guidance activities. A detail description of the role of teacher, career master and
counsellor has been already provided in Unit 3. Above all, one should also be aware that during the
initial stages of the programme implementation, the following problems are likely to come up: 1)
Inadequacy of staffor trained personnel to provide assistance for conducting the service. 2) conflict
of roles and responsibilities among the various personnel and 3) the involvement of personnel in
non-guidance activities. However, gradually you can overcome the above problems. 6.4.3 Guidance
Activities At Secondary Level This stage which includes students of class IX and X, requires guidance
activities to be focussed on the needs of three group of students. They include those who intend to:
a) Continue in higher education (graduation). b) Take up vocational or professional courses
(polytechnics; professional education like medicine, etc.) c) Enter a job. Keeping in view the above
target groups and their characteristics, the following are the objectives of the guidance activities
organized at this stage. The Objectives are listed here: i) Help the students to understand and accept
the physiological changes in one self. ii) Help them to make effective adjustments in the family,
school and society. 38 Techniques and Procedures iii) Identify, develop and strengthen their abilities
and interests. iv) Provide information about various educational and vocational opportunities and
the essential requirements. v) Enlighten parents and teachers about the importance of this stage
especially adolescent and create appropriate situations for effective learning and development. vi)
Enable them to make realistic educational and vocational choices. After class X, the students have to
choose their subject stream, hence the most important function of guidance services at this stage is
to enable students make appropriate choices. Services and their activities for secondary school
students Service Activities Orientation i) organize school visits, talks by the other school staff. ii)
Arrange parent-teacher meetings to orient the parents. Pupil Inventory i) Collect data on abilities,
aptitudes, interests, achievement and other psychological variables through administration of tests.
ii) Maintain student cumulative records. iii) Identify under-achievers and drop-outs from the school
records. Counselling i) Refer the cases to counsellor. ii) Counselling activities to develop one self. iii)
Organize and conduct group activities, discussions, role-playing to develop personal and social skills.
iv) Arrange talks by professionals such as doctors, educationists on matters like health, addiction,
personal habits, sex education and other educational issues. v) Conduct activities on social service
and arrange for camps. Occupational i) Organize career exhibitions and career conferences.
information ii) Arrange field trips. iii) Arrange career talks. iv) Orient the parents regarding various
courses after class X. v) Prepare activities showing self-employed persons. vi) Conduct programme to
interact with self-employed persons. Placement Provide placement: i) For drop-outs 39 Guidance
Programme ii) For students who terminate their formal education and get into some vocational
course. iii) For students who are completing school education. Follow-up i) Obtain and document the
addresses of the school leaving students and drop-outs. ii) Administer questionnaires or interviews
to obtain students opinion about the school guidance programme. iii) Arrange meetings like “old
student association or Alumni”. At Higher Secondary Level This stage covers two classes i.e. XI and
XII and the age of the students usually ranging from 16 to 18 years. The objectives of guidance
programme at this stage are: i) Help students to make appropriate choice of course(s) in accordance
with their abilities and interest. ii) Help them to plan their career based on the choice of course. iii)
Make them aware of various job opportunities related to various courses. iv) Guide them in the area
of personal-social adjustment. v) Help them develop self-confidence. vi) Help them make decisions.
Services and their activities for (+2 students) senior secondary students Service Activities Orientation
i) obtain pamphlets/handbook of various educational institutions. ii) orient parents and teachers
about various educational institutions. iii) arrange talks by the school/institution staff, employees.
Pupil Inventory i) administer various tests to measure abilities, and other psychological variables. ii)
Maintain the records of the students and constantly up date them. Counselling i) conduct sessions to
develop self-confidence in students. ii) conduct sessions on role playing .e.g. attending an interview;
communication skills; leadership qualities. iii) Arrange debates, group discussions, and drama on
various social and educational issues such as: a) “Discipline in work place” b) career choices and life
styles 40 Techniques and Procedures c) making decision and alternatives in planning career goals d)
strategies to cope with stress and anxiety. Occupational i) Organize information - career conferences
- field visits - career talks ii) establish communication with the staff at employment exchanges and
related agencies. iii) conduct classroom sessions on - “Resumes, Applications and Interview” -
“Employment Trends” Placement i) arrange for in-campus interviews ii) advertise vacancies and
college information on the school notice board and address or announce during the assemblies.
Follow-up i) form a students’ association of the school leaving students ii) administer follow-up
questionnaires to students periodically. iii) arrange meetings to invite old students. Check Your
Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with
those given at the end of the block. 10) Orientation programme must be conducted only during the
preadmission period. (T/F) 11) List out any three major activities that can be carried out by the
orientation service and pupil inventory service at secondary
level. ............................................................................................................... .........................................
...................................................................... ...........................................................................................
.................... ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. 12) Career exhibition and conferences are
conducted by the ........... service. 13) Explain in brief the planning of a guidance
programme. ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. ...............................................................................
................................ ............................................................................................................... 41
Guidance Programme 14) List out any two counselling service activities that need to be conducted at
the higher/senior secondary (+2)
level. ............................................................................................................... .........................................
...................................................................... ...........................................................................................
.................... ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. 6.5 EVALUATION OF GUIDANCE PROGRAMME
Evaluation of guidance programme refers to the process where efforts are made to assess how far
the objectives of the programme have been fulfilled or what extent is the programme is effective.
6.5.1 Need for Evaluation Evaluation is needed to determine various aspects like: - effect of various
guidance services on the behaviour of students - quality of guidance services provided - adequacy
and feasibility of the guidance services provided - the other activities and techniques need to be
adopted in order to make the service effective. In general, it contributes to the sum total of useful
knowledge in the guidance field. Research and evaluation are simultaneous activities. Hence, in
every aspect of the guidance service, a research component is essential. The results derived from
research and evaluation have implications for both the improvement of guidance programme and
also for the school curriculum. An educational institution can utilize these findings to redesign its
instructional techniques so that they are able to meet the needs of its students at a greater extent. A
qualified guidance worker must always be encouraged to evaluate and simultaneously undertake
research. The guidance committee could discuss the findings with the other staff members, parents
and students, thereby facilitating a better co-ordination and hence leading to improvement in the
guidance services. Unless the existing programmes are evaluated, the worth of it cannot be
established. 6.5.2 Steps in Evaluation i) Identification of objectives: The first step is to list out the
objectives of the guidance programme. The objectives need to be clearly defined, such that they are
specific and measurable. ii) Criteria for measurement: After the identification of objectives the
criteria for measuring them must be established. This is followed by the determination of the
appropriate methods and techniques to collect the required data based on the criteria selected. 42
Techniques and Procedures iii) Implementation of the plan: Once the design of the plan is prepared,
it requires to be implemented. Before its implementations, the expert’s opinions and suggestions
from other guidance personnel could be obtained subsequently. The activities could be organized
and conducted in a systematic way. iv) Interpretation of findings: Maximum efforts must be made to
check that the data collected is reliable. The data must first be compiled and later interpreted
accurately. The findings must be summarized and shared with the school personnel and guidance
worker. Further, steps must also be taken to implement these findings. 6.5.3 Methods of Evaluation
Based on the criteria of evaluation, the methods of evaluation have to be decided. Some of the
methods are suggested below: i) Survey method: It is one of the most commonly used methods.
Here the reactions of the students are collected either through questionnaires or by personal
interviews. The survey is not limited to the follow-up study of school leavers, but it can also be done
on the students who are still at schools. ii) Experimental method: It is used generally on two groups.
Where, one group must be control group. The groups are matched in all respects except the
treatment factor, for example, in the present situation counselling is done on the experimental
group and no treatment given to the control group. After the treatment the outcomes of the two
groups are compared. This shows whether the counselling technique (treatment) has any influence
on the experimental group and how far is it. More detailed studies using more than two groups can
also be carried out. iii) Case study method involves a detail and continuous study of each student
and maintaining contact with him/her for a considerable period. The careful and individual follow-up
of students helps them in making a better school record in terms of monthly report. This monthly
record will indicate the effect of counselling/treatment of student. In addition to this, availability of
records of a number of other students may provide an adequate basis for evaluation. Check Your
Progress Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below. b) Compare your answers with
those given at the end of the block. 15) Identify two major needs of evaluation process in the
guidance
programme. ............................................................................................................... .............................
.................................................................................. ...............................................................................
................................ ............................................................................................................... 43
Guidance Programme 16) List out the steps in
evaluation. ............................................................................................................... ...............................
................................................................................ .................................................................................
.............................. ............................................................................................................... ...................
............................................................................................ 17) One of the most common methods of
evaluation
is ............................................................................................................... ...............................................
................................................................ .................................................................................................
.............. ............................................................................................................... ...................................
............................................................................ 18) The effectiveness of a guidance programme can
be measured even without evaluation (T/F) 6.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit, we have discussed the
various services in a school guidance programme. These are orientation, pupil inventory, counselling,
occupational information, placement and follow-up services. Each of these services has distinct
functions and objectives. To organize a school guidance programme, some of the preliminary steps
to be undertaken are formation of guidance committee, arrangement of required facilities, budget
and orienting the students, parents and community. On the basis of the objectives of each service,
various guidance activities can be conducted for the secondary and higher or senior secondary
school students. The activities are also organized keeping in view the need and
UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND TESTING PROCEDURE: INDUSTRIAL AND
ORGANISATIONAL TESTING Structure 3.0 Introduction 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Interview as Assessment
Techniques 3.3 Psychological Tests and its Characteristics 3.3.1 Standardisation 3.3.2 Objectivity
3.3.3 Reliability 3.3.4 Validity 3.3.5 Norms 3.4 Purpose of Psychological Tests 3.4.1 Selection 3.4.2
Placement 3.5 Establishment of an Assessment or Testing Procedure for Industrial/ Organisational
Setting 3.6 Classification of Psychological Tests 3.6.1 Test Administration Perspective 3.6.2 Computer
Assisted Testing 3.6.3 Speed and Power Tests 3.6.4 Paper and Pencil Tests 3.6.5 Objective and
Subjective Scoring 3.6.6 Characteristics Perspective 3.7 Cognitive Ability 3.7.1 The Otis Self-
administering Test of Mental Ability 3.7.2 The Wonderlic Personnel Tests 3.7.3 The Wechsler’s Adult
Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIA-R) 3.7.4 The Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) 3.8 Aptitude Tests
3.9 Motor Ability Tests 3.10 Personality Tests 3.10.1 Self Report Inventories 3.11 Projective Tests
3.12 Assessment of Interest 3.13 Advantages and Limitations of Psychological Testing 3.13.1
Problems and Limitations of Psychological Testing 3.14 Let Us Sum Up 3.15 Unit End Questions 3.16
Glossary 3.17 Suggested Readings 3 4 3.0 INTRODUCTION Psychological assessment is the
appropriate understanding of the psychological attributes or characteristics of an individual or group
of individuals using objective techniques of measurement. Psychological tests are measuring devices
that are used to assess a sample of behaviour objectively, consistently and systematically. Industrial
and organisational psychology is the field of psychology that applies psychological principles to work
related issues. There are a variety of assessment techniques. They range from unstructured
interview to structured psychological test. The main goal of these techniques is to predict job
performance. Each technique has its own relative strengths and weaknesses in this regard. The unit
1 starts with assessment techniques and puts forward the important characteristics of psychological
tests. The unit then presents the purposes of psychological tests and the manner in which the
psychological tests are classified. The various dimensions that are being tapped by psychological
tests are then taken up and finally the advantages and disadvantages of psychological tests are
discussed. 3.1 OBJECTIVES After reading this unit, you will be able to:  Define psychological
assessment;  Describe the characteristic features of psychological tests;  Explain the purposes of
psychological tests;  Classify the psychological tests on certain criteria;  Present the various
psychological tests; and  Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of the tests. 3.2 INTERVIEWAS
ASSESSMENTTECHNIQUES A very commonly employed selection technique is a job interview. Job
interview can be unstructured or structured. Let us see what is unstructured interview and then
consider the structured interview. i) Unstructured Interview: In an unstructured interview, the
interviewer engages in dialogue with the interviewee that does not follow a predetermined format,
questions may vary from applicant to applicant, and there is usually no standardised scoring method.
Consequently, validating this technique as a job performance predictor is quite difficult (e.g., one
applicant may have the opportunity to respond favourably to a question that was not asked of
another or vice versa). ii) Structured Interview: In contrast, through a structured interview all
applicants are judged on responses to the same questions asked in the same format. Structured
interviews provide for reliable and consistent scoring results. Also, if interviews are conducted by a
panel of interviewers their predictive value increases. Basic weaknesses of interviews are: 1) Failure
of interviewers to agree, 2) Failure to interviews to predict job success, 3) Pressure of interview
situation, Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational Testing 3 5
Personnel Psychology 3 6 4) Interviewers’ subjective standards of comparison, and 5) Interviewers’
prejudices. iii) Situational Interview: Again a different type of interview, the situational interview, is
developed specifically to meet the needs of a particular job. The interview questions are not
designed to inquire into general characteristic, traits, or abilities, but rather into the actual
behaviours needed for the job in question. The job behaviours are determined by a systematic job
analysis conducted by the critical-incidents technique. In developing the situational interview the
primary step is to prepare a list of critical incidents that differentiate between current successful and
unsuccessful employees. These incidents are written by supervisors who have comprehensive
knowledge of the job. The supervisors determine benchmarks for scoring the critical incidents.
Because of the use of the benchmarks developed by persons who have detailed knowledge of the
job, the scoring of the situational interview is objective and has been observed to be most valid
interview for job success (Schultz & Schultz, 1990). 3.3 PSYCHOLOGICALTESTS AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS Well-developed and soundly researched psychological tests must meet and satisfy
the following characteristics, namely, Standardisation, Objectivity, Reliability, Validity, Norms etc.
3.3.1 Standardisation It refers to the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and procedures for
administering a test. If we want to make a comparative evaluation of the performances of many
individuals on the same test, it is obvious that they all take that test under identical circumstances.
Any change in testing procedure may produce a change in individual performance on the test. 3.3.2
Objectivity It refers primarily to the scoring of the test result for a test to be scored objectively, it is
necessary that anyone scoring the test be able to obtain the same results. 3.3.3 Reliability It refers to
the consistency of response on a test and can be determined in three ways : the test-retest method
(which involves administering a test twice to the same group of individuals and the correlating the
two sets of scores); the equivalent or parallel forms method (it uses the test-retest approach but
instead of taking the same test a similar form of the test is given and the two sets of scores are
correlated) and the third approach is the split-half method (here the test is taken once, divided in
half and the corresponding two sets of scores are correlated with each other). Whatever method is
used the reliability coefficient should exceed atleast +0.70. 3.3.4 Validity The most important
requirement in evaluating any psychological test is that it measures accurately what it is intended to
measure. This is technically called as validity. Personnel psychologists are concerned with the
approaches to criterion related validity, i.e., predictive validity (how well the test scores predict the
future job success) and 3 7 concurrent validity (how well the test scores speak about the present
status of the job performance). However, another approach is the rational validity which focuses
mainly on the nature of the test itself, its structure and content. This validity is established by either
construct validity or content validity. Validity coefficients (the correlation between test scores and
performance) around +0.30 to +0.40 may be considered acceptable. Tests are no longer considered
to be differentially valid. Researchers are investigating the concept of validity generalisation. A test
valid for one job will be valid for other jobs. Therefore, tests may no longer need to be validated
every time they are applied to a different job or company. Furthermore the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) in various countries has prescribed the kinds of validation studies
that must be conducted on all tests used for selection to ensure that they are measuring
characteristics is that are clearly related to the job in question but certainly not discriminate
applicants because of their race, religion, sex or national origin. 3.3.5 Norms To interpret the results
of a psychological test, a frame of reference or point of comparison must exist so that the
performance of one individual can be compared with the performance of other, similar individuals.
This is obtained from test norms, that refers specifically to the average or typical performance of a
large group of people similar in nature being tested. Self Assessment Questions 1) Why is
psychological testing necessary for I/O
psychology? ..................................................................................................................... ........................
............................................................................................. ....................................................................
................................................. ................................................................................................................
..... 2) Explain unstructured and structured
interview. ..................................................................................................................... ...........................
.......................................................................................... .......................................................................
.............................................. ...................................................................................................................
.. 3) Define the following: a) Reliability b) Validity c)
Norms ..................................................................................................................... .................................
.................................................................................... .............................................................................
........................................ 3.4 PURPOSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS By and large, psychological tests
serve two purposes: (i) Selection and (ii) Placement. Both functions involve making a prediction
about an individual’s future behaviour or Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial
and Organisational Testing Personnel Psychology 3 8 performance and for that the same kinds of
tests are used for both purposes while the difference lies in how the results are applied. Let us first
take up selection purpose and see the importance of psychological tests here. 3.4.1 Selection It is
concerned with determining what kind of person is suitable for a particular job; the emphasis is on
the job itself and to select from among many applicants the ones who will succeed on that job. The
test scores obtained by the individual candidate clearly gives the suitability of the person for the
concerned job. 3.4.2 Placement Here the emphasis is on the individual. The problem is to find the
right kind of job for a particular person. This process is generally aided by a vocational or guidance
counsellor who attempts to diagnose an individual’s capabilities to suggest the work in which he or
she is most likely to accomplish success. 3.5 ESTABLISHINGAN ASSESSMENT OR TESTING PROCEDURE
FOR INDUSTRIAL / ORGANISATIONAL SETTING The fundamental steps in setting up a testing
procedure are basically similar as those necessary for any kind of selection procedure for the
requirement of an industry or organisation. The primary step is to understand the nature or
characteristics of the job for which psychological testing is to be used as a selection device. When
job and worker analyses have been performed, the appropriate test or set of tests to assess the
behaviours and abilities required for success on the job must be very carefully chosen or developed.
This is a critical point. No matter how exhaustively a job has been carefully analysed, if a poor test is
subsequently utilised, the selection procedure is turned into a futile one. Hence, only properly
trained and qualified psychologists who are well conversant in selection issues can set up the
needed worthwhile selection procedure, especially ones which involve the use of psychological tests.
Now, the problem is, where do psychologists find suitable psychological tests. They can either use
tests already available in the market or can develop new tests specially serving for the needs of the
concerned job and the organisation, as well. During looking for a published test(s) to use, the
psychologists know precisely for what tests to look for and where to get the same from. The best or
efficient tests provide information on reliability and validity and make test norms available for public
evaluation. Again, there are significant sources of information on the nature and statistical
characteristics of psychological tests. The major source of information is the comprehensive and
periodically revised Mental Measurements Yearbook. This efficient handbook contains critical
reviews and evaluations of over 1500 tests (Mitchell, 1985). In India we have “Survey of
Psychological Tests” brought out by the Indian Council of Social Science Research. A leading sets of
journal in the field, Personnel Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, Applied Psychology – An
International Review, also publish articles containing information on the reliability and validity of
tests available for use in personnel selection. 3 9 Over and above, Psychological Abstracts publishes
information on psychological literatures involving reports of validity studies conducted on various
tests. Apart from these, in 1988, the Test Validity Yearbook Organisational began publication,
focusing on criterion-related validity studies. Efficient psychologists possess expertise in regard to
how to evaluate the information obtained and, thus, can learn much about the relevant tests being
considered for selection purposes. An effective choice among tests can only be made on the basis of
comprehensive knowledge often pertinent materials. A host of important factors should be taken
into serious account while taking decision as to whether to develop a new test or to use one
available in the market. In this regard, certainly cost involvement is primarily an important
consideration. It is relatively less expensive to purchase an available test than to develop a new one,
especially when a small number of workers are to be selected. In addition, time is also an important
factor. The organisation / industry may require workers as quickly as possible and may express their
unwillingness or inability to wait for a new and useful test to be developed. In fact, a large scale
testing procedure may require couple of months’ investigation before the test can be used for
selection purpose, but an already published test can be used readily, assuring it serves efficiently the
specific needs of the job in question. However, there are certain situations in which existing tests are
not sufficient and effective for the same. For example, if the job is entirely a novel one, it may
require new skills such as those needed to operate sophisticated and complex equipment. It is
unlikely that an existing test will be able to measure the abilities needed for success in a new kind of
work. Herein lies the necessity for developing a new test. When an organisation decides to develop
its own test for a particular job, the personnel psychologist must write or compile a list of suitable
items or questions (centering around several logically or intellectually defined enquiry areas or
constructs constituting the operational definition of the concerned attribute). Next, the psychologist
proceeds to examine and evaluate critically each item in the test, conducting an item analysis to
determine how effectively each item discriminates between those who scored high on the total test
and those who scored low. In essence this involves correlating a person’s response on each item
with the response on the test as a whole. Such discrimination index may be determined by applying
a suitable psychometric technique – quite a number of such standard techniques are available. The
level of difficulty of each item / question must also be determined. If the majority of the test items
are too easy, most people will obtain high scores. As a result, the obtain narrow range of scores
makes it difficult to determine efficiently and effectively between those who are very high on the
characteristic or ability being tested and those who are moderately high. A test on which most of the
items are too difficult presents the reverse problem. It would be difficult to distinguish between
those who possess extremely low ability and those who possess only moderately low ability. Hence,
those items which are extremely difficult (virtually impossible to answer by the individuals of the
target group) and those which are very easy (almost all individuals of the group could answer the
items correctly) are desirably to be excluded from the concerned test. Psychological Assessment and
Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational Testing Personnel Psychology 4 0 In addition,
reliability and validity of the test should also be assessed by applying the suitable techniques, as
mentioned earlier, under 3.2.3 and 3.2.4. Once validity and reliability of a test have been found to be
satisfactory, the problem of setting a cutoff score (the score below which an applicant will not be
hired) must be resolved. There are a number of psychometric techniques for establishing cutoff
scores, most of which involve job analysis and criterion-related validity studies involving a minimally
acceptable level of job performance. In setting cutoff scores, it has been observed that better
workers are not those who score much high. As for example, quite intelligent people often do not
work well in routine assembly line jobs. It may be necessary, therefore, that both minimum and
maximum cutoff scores be determined for an intelligence test that is a part of this kind of
organisation’s selection procedure. Hence, the applicants must be intelligent enough to be able to
learn the job but not so intelligent that they will be bored with it. Hence, in the perspective of such a
cluster of salient aspects of testing procedure the need for well-trained test administrators is the
essential prerequisite. The task requires considerable technical skill coupled with sympathetic
understanding of, and interest in, those being tested. 3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS
Psychological tests can be classified by the ways in which (1) they are constructed, scored and
administered and (2) in terms of behaviour or the characteristics they are designed to assess. Let us
deal with these one by one. 3.6.1 Test Administration Perspective Many tests are designed in such a
way that they can be administered to a large number of people at the same time. These group tests
are advantageous in a situation that requires the testing of many people, i.e., large-scale testing
programme in industry, the only limitation of which is the size of the testing facility. Individual tests,
administered to one person at a time, are costlier and therefore, are used to a lesser degree in
Industry than are group tests. These tests are used more frequently for vocational guidance and
counselling as well as for clinical and diagnostic work with emotionally disturbed persons. 3.6.2
Computer Assisted Testing Designed for large scale group testing or computer assisted testing is
nevertheless an individual testing situation in which the person taking the test interacts with a
computer. The questions appear one at a time on the computer screen and the job applicant presses
a key corresponding to an answer selected. Computerised test is more efficient and less costly, and it
provides standardised reports. Computers also eliminate all personal biases and errors of
interpretation and are unaffected by feelings of fatigue, boredom or burnout. 3.6.3 Speed and
Power Tests A speed test has a fixed time limit at which point everyone taking the test must stop. A
power test has no time limit and the subjects are allowed as much time as they feel they need to
finish the test. By and large, a speed test consists of a set of items having more or less uniform level
of difficulty while a power test contains more 4 1 difficult items and the set of its constituent items
are arranged in an increasing order of difficulty. 3.6.4 Paper and Pencil Tests Paper-and-Pencil tests
are the type with which we are most familiar. The items or the questions are in printed form and the
answers (generally in several alternative forms) are pointed on a separate answer sheet. Majority of
the standard group tests of intelligence, interest, personality are paper-and-pencil tests. Again some
behaviours or characteristics do not lend themselves to evaluation by paper-and-pencil forms. As for
example, mechanical ability, can be assessed better by providing the applicants to perform a series
of mechanical operations than by answering questions about the nature of those operations. Other
examples are the assessment of typing ability by observing the typist in operation. Similarly, the
evaluation of more complex skills, expensive equipment may be required. Such tests are
Performance tests that may require mostly in individual testing situation. 3.6.5 Objective and
Subjective Scoring Majority of the psychological tests used in assessing persons performances in
industrial/ organisational settings are objectively scored for evaluation. Subjectivity in test scoring as
interviewing allows personal prejudices and attitudes to enter into the assessment situation which
can lead to distortion of the evaluation. 3.6.6 Characteristics Perspective Psychological tests may,
however, be most usefully classified in terms of characteristics or behaviours they are designed to
assess. The most basic types are tests of cognitive or mental ability, aptitude, motor ability, interest
and personality. 3.7 COGNITIVE ABILITY Cognitive ability tests measure a person’s skills needed for a
new job or to cope with the demands of a training course. These tests are not the same thing as
tests of achievement or tests of attainment. Tests of attainment assess specifically what people have
learnt, e.g., typing skills. Several tests of cognitive ability (generally known as intelligence tests) are
used frequently in employee selection. An important survey on industrial selection (Cooper &
Robertson, 1988) found that about 80% of cognitive ability tests are used effectively for the said
purpose. Group intelligence tests, the kind used most often are primarily a rough screening device.
The tests are short, take little time to complete, and can be administered to large groups. These can
be rapidly and easily scored by even a clerical staff or a machine. Personal psychologists have found
that tests of cognitive ability are highly valid for predicting success in training programmes as well as
actual job performance (Guion & Gibson, 1988). Indeed such tests are the “most valid way known of
identifying the employees or trainees who will be the most productive workers” (Hawk, 1986). 3.7.1
The Otis Self-administering Tests of Mental Ability This is a frequently used selection test, which has
proven to be useful for screening applicants for a wide variety of jobs, including office clerks,
assembly-line workers, Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and
Organisational Testing Personnel Psychology 4 2 and lower level supervisors, that is, jobs not
requiring an extremely high level of intelligence. The test is group administered and takes little time
to complete. It is less useful for professional or high-level supervisory positions because it does not
discriminate well at the upper ranges of intelligence. 3.7.2 The Wonderlic Personnel Test This is a 50-
item version of one of the Otis series of tests, is particularly popular in industrial selection because it
takes a mere 12 minutes to complete, making it an economical screening device. This group test
includes verbal, numerical, and spatial content items and has been useful in predicting success in
certain lower level clerical jobs. 3.7.3 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) This is
a lengthy, individually administered test that is used in industry primarily for the selection of senior
management personnel. The administration, scoring and interpretation of the WAIS require much
training and experience on the part of the examiner. The test involves 11 subtests in two sections,
verbal and performance. The verbal subtests are Information, Comprehension, Arithmetic,
Similarities, Digit Span, and Vocabulary; the performance subtests are Digit Symbol, Picture
Completion, Block Design, Picture Arrangement, and Object Assembly. Two separate measures of
intelligence, therefore, can be obtained as well as a full-scale IQ score by combining the verbal and
performance measures. Computer-assisted interpretation is available. 3.7.4 The Raven’s Progressive
Matrices (RPM) This is a non-verbal intelligence test requiring interactive reasoning about abstract
geometric patterns. This was first published in 1938 and later revised several times and is designed
to cover a very wide range of mental ability and to be useable with subjects irrespective of age, sex,
nationality, or education. The respondent is provided with 60 abstract geometric patterns with a
missing part. In each case the subject must select from several alternatives the one that fits in a
missing part of the pattern. Some psychologists believe that it provides the purest available measure
of general intelligence, uncontaminated by cultural and educational influences. English Psychologist
John C. Raven (1902-1970) developed this test in 1938. The R.P.M. is available in three forms,
differing in level of difficulty. The Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM-1996 Edition) is the form
suitable for average individuals between the ages 6 and 80 years (Fig. page 43). An easier form, the
Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM-1990 Edition), is available for younger children and for special
groups who cannot be adequately tests with the SPM for various reasons. A third form, the
Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM-1994 Edition) was developed for above-average adolescents
and adults. 4 3 Fig. 4.: Typical Items from the Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM). One easy item
(A5) and one difficult item (E1) are shown (Source: The Psychological Corporation) 3.8 APTITUDE
TESTS Aptitude tests must be designed for many jobs especially to assess the skills required by that
job, but there are published tests that measure general aptitudes for mechanical and clerical skills. A
couple of tests measure clerical aptitude having potentials in the prediction of success for clerical
workers. These tests are concerned mainly with speed and accuracy of perception. The Minnesota
Clerical Test is a group tests consisting of two parts, number comparison and name comparison. The
test is a speed test to determine the individual’s accuracy when working in a limited time period. The
test instructions urge the examinees to work as fast as they can without errors. The number
comparison consists of 200 pairs of numbers, each of which contains 3 to 12 digits. The name
comparison section is similar but uses proper names instead of numbers. These tasks are analogous
to the work required in clerical jobs. The General Clerical Test is a group speed test published in two
booklets. A— Clerical, Numerical and B—Verbal. Booklet A contains items on checking,
alphabetizing, numerical computation, error location, and arithmetic reasoning and is suitable for
testing job applicants for accounting or payroll clerk positions. Booklet B contains items on spelling,
reading, comprehension, vocabulary, and grammar and is suitable for applicants for secretarial jobs.
Tests to assess mechanical aptitude emphasise on the abilities of mechanical comprehension and
spatial visualisation. The Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test is a measure of spatial relations
or visualisation and the manipulation of objects in space, necessary abilities for occupations such as
drafting. The applicant is presented with drawings of figures cut into two or more segments and
must be able to picture how the total figure would appear if the pieces were put together. Sample
items from this test are shown in Figure below. Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure:
Industrial and Organisational Testing Personnel Psychology 4 4 Fig. 5: Sample items from Revised
Minnesota Paper Form Board Test. The subject must pick the figure (from A to E) that shows how
the parts will look when assembled (Source : The Psychological Corporation) Investigation conducted
with this test has exhibited some degree of validity in predicting successful performance in
mechanical work, engineering shop-work, and power sewing machine operation as well as classroom
performance of art and dentistry students. Another widely used test of mechanical aptitude, in both
the military and private industry, is the Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test. This test employs
pictures with questions about the mechanical principles involved in them and provides norms for
various levels of training and background. Sample items are shown in Figure below. Both written and
tape-recorded instructions are available, the latter for use with applicants who have difficulty
reading. Both forms are available in English. Fig. 6: Sample Items from the Bennett Mechanical
Comprehension Test. Answers are recorded on a separate answer sheet (Source: The Psychological
Corporation) 4 5 The Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test has two parts. The examinee’s task in the
first part is to place 60 cylindrical blocks in 60 wells in a board. The second task is to turn all the
blocks over. The score is the amount of time taken to complete each task. Fig. 7: Sample items from
MacQuarrie Test for Mechanical Ability by T.W. MacQuarrie (Source The Psychological Corporation)
There are other tests of motor ability that measure coordination. The most common ones utilise the
pursuit rotor, a test in which the testee uses a stylus to follow a dot on a revoking disk. One variation
of this procedure is the Purdue Hand Precision Test. As an upper disk with a hole revolves, the
person being tested must touch target holes in a plate underneath the disk by using a stylus. The
score is kept electronically as the stylus activates a counter. Again, in certain specific occasions,
special devices are developed to assess motor skills sophisticated machines with the help of which
the individual performs motor tasks of highly complex jobs as a result to visual signals. However,
such tools are relatively more costly than the usual motor ability tests. 3.9 MOTOR ABILITY TESTS A
cluster of jobs in industrial and military organisations need a sufficient degree of motor skill involving
muscular coordination, finger dexterity or a precise eye-hand coordination. The MacQuarrie Test for
Mechanical Ability is one of the few tests of motor ability in paper-and-pencil form. The seven
subtests include:  Tracing—a line is drawn through very small openings in a number of vertical
lines. Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational Testing
Personnel Psychology 4 6  Tapping—dots are made on paper as quickly as possible.  Dotting—dots
are made in circles as quickly as possible.  Copying—simple designs are copied.  Location—specific
points must be located in a smaller size version of a stimulus figure.  Blocks—the number of blocks
in a drawing must be determined.  Pursuit—the visual tracing of assorted lines in a maze. A few of
these tasks are pictured in Figure below. The Purdue Pegboard is a performance test that simulates
conditions on an assembly line and measures finger dexterity as well as gross movement skills of
fingers, hands, and arms. The task is to place pins in a series of holes as rapidly as possible, first with
one hand, then the other, then both. Each of these tasks takes 30 seconds. Fig. 8: Crawford Small
Parts Dexterity Test In addition, the Purdue Pegboard incorporates a 1-minute test involving the
simultaneous use of both hands to assemble pins, collars, and washers in each hole. The O’Connor
Finger Dexterity Test and O’Connor Tweezer Dexterity Test assess how quickly an individual can
insert pins into small holes, both by hand and by the use of tweezers. This is a standard measure of
finger dexterity, and the test has proven to be useful in predicting success among sewing machine
operator trainees, dentistry students, and a variety of other tasks requiring precise manipulative
skills (Schultz & Schultz, 1990). Several tests have been devised to measure speed, coordination, and
other psychomotor skills. Majority are concerned with manual dexterity, but a few involve leg or
foot movements that may be required in performing specific jobs. Some measure a combination of
motor and perceptual, spatial, or mechanical aptitudes. The principal application of these tests has
been in the selection of industrial and military personnel. Psychomotor tests are characteristically
apparatus tests, although several paper-and-pencil adaptations have been designed for group
administration. An example of a published instrument requiring several simple manipulative skills is
the Crawford Small Parts Dexterity Test (Crawford & Crawford, 1981), shown in Figure 8. In Part I of
this test, the examinee uses tweezers to insert pins into closefitting holes and then places a small
collar over each pin. In Part II, small screws are placed in threaded holes and screwed down with a
screwdriver. The score is the time required to complete each part (Anastasi, 1996). 4 7 3.10
PERSONALITY TESTS Assessment of personality characteristics have been found to correlate with
proficiency in many jobs. In addition, personality has had immense significance not only in job
performance, but also in job satisfaction (Paunonen & Jackson, 1987). There are two broad
approaches to the assessment of personality characteristics. Self-report inventories and projective
techniques. 3.10.1 Self Report Inventories The self-report inventory involves various sets of items
concerning specific circumstances, symptoms or feelings. Individuals are requested to point out how
explicitly each item describes themselves or to what extent they agree with each of them. However,
self-report inventories are especially subject to malingering or faking. Most items on such
inventories have one answer that may be identifiable as socially more desirable or acceptable than
the others. On such test-items, the respondent may be motivated to “fake good” or select answers
that create a favourable impression, as when applying for a job or seeking admission to an
educational institution. Under other circumstances, he may be motivated to ‘fake bad” thus making
himself or herself appear more psychologically disturbed than he or she is. This may occur, for
example, in the testing of persons on trial for a criminal offence. Several techniques have been
adopted in the effort to meet the problem of faking of which the introduction of verification keys
that detect faking is most useful. Various well-known self-report inventories are available viz.,
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Revised
NEO Personality Inventory, etc. The Guildford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey is one of the more
widely used paper-and-pencil personality inventories. The items in the form of statements, are
categorized into ten component independent personality traits: General activity, Restraint,
Ascendance, Sociability, Emotional Stability, Objectivity, Friendliness, Thoughtfulness, Personal
relations and Masculinity. The respondents check the statements by ‘yes’, ‘?’ and ‘no’ responses. In
order to check against deliberate faking or carelessness in responding, the test has three falsification
scales based on the answers to selected test items. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI), probably the best known and most significant of all the self-report inventories, consisting of
566 (originally 504, later 550) statements, including 16 that are repeated, to be classified by the
respondent as ‘true’, ‘false’ or ‘cannot say’. This inventory provides 10 component scales (clinical) :
Hypochon-driasis (Hs), Depression (D), Conversion Hysteria (Hy), Psychopathic Deviate (Pd),
Masculinity-Femininity (Mf), Paranoia (Pa), Psychoasthenia (Pt), Schizophrenia (Sc), Hypomania (Ma)
and Social Introversion (Si). In addition there are four validity (test-taking attitude) scales : a score for
the number of questions left unanswered (?); a Lie Scale (L) containing items describing socially
desirable but unlikely behaviour, such as ‘I always tell the truth’ (True); an Infrequency Scale (F) of
items answered in the keyed direction by 10 percent or les of normal people, such as ‘I see things,
animals or people around me that others do not see’ (True); and a Correction factor (K) reflecting
defensiveness in admitting to problems, containing items such as ‘At times I feel like swearing’
(False). Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational Testing
Personnel Psychology 4 8 Numerous other scales have been derived from the MMPI test items. The
MMPI was developed and first published in 1942 by US clinical psychologist S.R. Hathaway (1903-
1984) and the US neuropsychiatrist J.C. McKinley (1891-1950); a revised version, called MMPI-2 was
issued in 1989. Typical items are as follows :  I cannot keep my mind on one thing.  I used to keep
a diary.  I usually feel that life is worthwhile.  Some people are so bossy that I feel like doing the
opposite of what they request even though I know they are right. The Revised NEO Personality
Inventory (NEO PI-R) is a coincise measure of the five major dimensions, or domains, of personality
and some of the more important traits or facets that define each domain. The NEO PI-R allows a
comprehensive assessment of personality. There are two versions of the NEO PI-R : Form S for self-
reports and Form R for observer ratings where each form consists of 240 items answerable along a
5-point scale. The NEO PI-R supplants the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI; Costa & McCrae,
1985). When it appeared in 1985, the NEO-PI had well-research scales to measure the facets of
Neuroticism (N), Extraversion (E), and Openness (O), but only global scales to measure the factors of
Agreeableness (A) and Conscientiousness (C). In 1889, several enhancements of the NEO-PI were
offered to the user but the inventory itself remained unchanged. In NEO PI-R the three validity check
items were also presented in the answer sheet. Apart from the utility in diagnosis and counseling the
NEO PI-R is useful in industrial and organisational settings for various purposes (Costs & McCrae,
1992). Many other self-report inventories are also available, most of them assess a variety of traits,
and there are also psychological tests that can assess specific personality traits such as introversion-
extroversion, sociability, emotional maturity, emotional security, etc. In connection with the
selection at the executive or managerial level self-report inventories are usually used in
organisational or industrial settings. 3.11 PROJECTIVE TESTS Although projective tests were
developed primarily for their uses in clinical psychology with emotionally disturbed individuals yet
their effective role to assess candidate for high-level executive positions are also undesirable. The
most well-known projective technique is the Rorschach inkblot test, which was first published by a
Swiss psychiatrist—Hermann Rorschach in 1921. The test consists of 10 standardised inkblots – 5 of
which are in colour and the rest 5 one in shaded of black and gray. As the examinee is shown each
inkblot, he is asked to tell what he sees – what the blot could represent. Besides keeping a verbatim
record of the responses to each card, the examiner notes time of responses, position or positions in
which cards are held, spontaneous remarks, emotional expressions, and other incidental behaviour
of the examinee during test sessions. 4 9 The process of interpreting the responses is complicated
and is depending on whether the examinees reported seeing movement, human figures, inanimate
or animate objects, and so on. The scoring is relatively subjective and depends on the training, skill
and insight of the examiner. Of late, a few standardised procedures for administering, scoring and
interpreting the results have been developed (Exner, 1986). In contrast to inkblot techniques, the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) presents more highly structured stimuli and requires more
complex and meaningfully organised verbal responses. This test was developed by Henry Murray
and his staff at the Harvard Psychological Clinic (Murray et al., 1938). The TAT materials consist of 19
cards containing vague pictures in black and white and one blank card. The examinee is asked to
make up a story to fit each picture, telling what led up to the event shown in the picture, describing
what is happening at the moment and what the characteristics are feeling and thinking and giving
the outcome. The stories are analysed in a subjective and unstandardised process. The TAT is also
used primarily in clinical psychology but its uses in industrial selection purposes are also important.
Besides above there are other notable projective tests, viz., Rosenzweig PictureFrustration Study,
Sentence Completion Test, etc. 3.12 ASSESSMENT OF INTEREST In industrial personnel selection,
although interest inventories do not play a significant role (rather these tests are of immense
significance in vocational guidance and career counseling) many organisations do include measures
of interest as a part of their overall assessment programme. It is indeed a fact that in spite of
possessing an intense degree of interest in a particular occupation it is no guarantee that an
individual’s level of ability is quite compatible with the same. However, if the assessment provides
that a person having no interest in a job, his or her successful performance in it is limited. Two
widely used interest inventories are the Strong—Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) and the Kuder
Occupational Interest Survey. The SCII is a group-administered test composed of 325 questions that
deal with occupations, school subjects, activities, leisure pursuits, and social contacts, some of which
are to be ranked in order of preference and others rated as like, dislike, or indifferent. The SCII
groups occupations in six areas: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.
Scoring is done by computer. The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey consists of a large number of
items arranged in groups of three. Within each triad, examinees must indicate which activity they
most prefer and which they least prefer. They are not allowed to skip any group if they do not like
any of the alternatives or to check more than one as the most preferred activity. It can be scored for
126 occupations (Anastasi, 1976). 3.13 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL
TESTING The main advantage of using psychological test is not only an assessment technique in
selection process but also some of its special types that can improve the said selection process. In
addition, psychological tests also provide a good amount of valid information about an individual in a
short period of time. Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational
Testing Personnel Psychology 5 0 In terms of predictive value, tests of cognitive ability are valid
predictors of performance on the job and in training programme for a variety of jobs in many
settings. 3.13.1 Problems and Limitations of Psychological Testing The problems of psychological
testing include: (i) uncritical use, (ii) unfair rejection of applicants, (iii) faking of test resources, (iv)
conformity and (v) poor quality of test administration. In recent years, people become more critical
of tests and there are serious ethical issues involved in their use as selection devices, including
invasion of privacy and the confidentiality of test questions and answers (Schultz & Schultz, 1990).
3.14 LET US SUM UP Psychological assessment is the appropriate understanding of the psychological
attributes or characteristics of an individual or group of individuals using standardised techniques of
measurement having sufficient characteristics of reliability and validity. There are a variety of
assessment techniques. They range from unstructured interview to structured psychological test.
The main goal of these techniques is to predict job performance. Generally, assessment techniques
or psychological tests serve two major purposes in industrial and organisational settings: 1)
Selection: Selection is concerned with determining what kind of person is suitable for a particular
job. 2) Placement: Placement is concerned with determining what kind of job is suitable for a
particular person. Several steps are necessary to conduct a testing programme: 1) performing a job
and worker analysis, 2) seeking or developing an appropriate test, 3) conducting item analysis of
each question on the test, 4) determining the level of difficulty of each question, 5) assessing
reliability and validity of the test, and 6) setting-up the cut off scores. There may be variety of
psychological tests in which they are constructed and administered or in terms of behaviour they
measure, viz., individual or group tests, speed or power tests, paper-and-pencil tests or performance
tests, computer assisted tests are examples of the former, and cognitive ability, motor ability,
aptitude, interest and personality tests are the examples of the latter. Personality characteristics are
measured by self-report inventories and projective techniques. Psychological tests are by far the
best selection devices. There are however certain limitation of psychological testing, viz., uncritical
use, unfair rejection of applicants, faking of test responses, conformity and poor test administration.
3.15 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1) Discuss interview as an assessment technique 5 1 2) What are the
characteristic features of psychological tests? 3) Discuss the purposes of psychological tests 4) What
are the requirements to be considered to establish testing procedure in industries? 5) How are
psychological tests classified? 6) Discuss the various dimensions that are assessed by psychologivcal
tests. 3.16 GLOSSARY Psychological test : Psychological test is an objective and standardised
measure of a sample of behaviour. Standardisation : Standardisation implies objectivity, reliability
and validity of a measuring device or psychological test. Selection : It is concerned with what kind of
person is suitable for a particular job. Placement : It is concerned with what kind of job is suitable for
a particular person. Projective technique : This is an approach to personality testing where a set of
ambiguous stimulus such as ink blots are presented to an individual who will give some structure
and meaning to this stimulus and thereby he will project his personal thoughts, desires, wishes and
feelings. 3.17 SUGGESTED READINGS Anastasi, Anne and Urbina, Susana (1997). Psychological
Testing. Prentice Hall, NY Freeman, Frank, S. (1953). Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.
London. Pitman. Psychological Assessment and Testing Procedure: Industrial and Organisational
Testing
characteristics of these students. Evaluation of the guidance programme also forms an essential
component in a school guidance programme. The need, procedure and methods for evaluation have
also been described. 6.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES 1) Visit any school and study their organization of
guidance programme at the secondary level. Prepare a chart showing the organization of the
guidance programme and list out the various activities that are carried in each service. 2) Visit any
school and study the functioning and objectives of the institution at higher secondary level. Identify
the student’s needs and prepare a list of activities that need to be carried out by each service.
Prepare a report in about 600 words. 44 Techniques and Procedures 3) Suppose you are a counsellor
of a school and you wish to make an evaluation of the guidance services in your school. Write in
detail the plan and how you would like to go about doing it? Write a detailed report in about 600
words only (specify the objectives, and procedure). 4) Develop a follow-up questionnaire for school
leaving students (XII standard) to get a feedback about the effectiveness of the guidance programme
of the school. 5) A survey was conducted on all the 80 students of the secondary class IX and X in a
school. The following data was obtained. a) 50% of the students were below average students. b)
10% of the students were above average students. c) 20% of the students drop-out very year. d) 70%
of the students are unaware of the various courses and job’s opening. Mention what guidance
activities need to be adopted for any of the two groups mentioned above. Justify your answer with
the help of suitable illustrations.

m
Behavior modification assumes that observable and measurable
behaviors are good targets for change. All behavior follows a set of
consistent rules. Methods can be developed for defining, observing,
and measuring behaviors, as well as designing effective
interventions. Behavior modification techniques never fail. Rather,
they are either applied inefficiently or inconsistently, which leads to
less than desired change. All behavior is maintained, changed, or
shaped by the consequences of that behavior. Although there are
certain limits, such as temperamental or emotional influences
related to ADHD or depression, all children function more effectively
under the right set of consequences. Reinforcers are
consequences that strengthen behavior. Punishments are
consequences that weaken behavior. Students’ behaviors are
managed and changed by the consequences of classroom
behavior. To manage behavior through consequences, use this
multi-step process:

1. The problem must be defined, usually by count or description.


2. Design a way to change the behavior.
3. Identify an effective reinforcer.
4. Apply the reinforcer consistently to shape or change behavior.
Consequences of behavior are directly related to the events that
either come immediately before or after them. Table 4.2 provides
examples of behavioral outcomes as they relate to various events.

Table 4.1. Popular models and techniques for dealing with discipline refer

Model Techniques emphasized


Focusing on Prevention

Effective teaching practices, freque


Preventative classroom management monitoring, clear rules and proced
social praise, and so forth

Systematic reinforcement, modelin


Prosocial behavior prosocial behavior, verbal instructi
playing

Classroom moral discussions of re


dilemmas, hypothetical situations,
Moral education
literature; role playing; student par
in school government

Direct teaching of SPS skills (e.g.


Social problem solving (SPS) alternative thinking, means-ends th
self- instruction training, dialoguing

Values clarification activities, active


Effective communication models listening, communication and inter
skills training for students and teac
Focusing on Correction and Control of
Misbehavior

Direct instruction; reinforcement te


including social praise, material rei
and tokens; punishment-oriented
Behavior modification techniques, including verbal reprim
response cost, and time-out; group
contingency techniques such as th
Behavior Game; behavioral contra

Teacher assertion, systematic use


Assertive discipline behavior modification techniques,
continuous monitoring

Confrontation questioning, classro


meetings, classroom moral discuss
social problem solving, behavioral
Reality therapy
contracting, logical consequences,
preventative techniques such as d
governance

Focus on Treatment

Social skills training Direct instruction, modeling and re


coaching, self-instruction, manipula
antecedents and consequences

Social skills training techniques, se


Aggression replacement training instruction (e.g. anger control train
moral discussions

Parent training in application of be


Parent management training
techniques

Variety of therapeutic and educatio


Family therapy techniques, depending on the part
model

Variety of cognitive, behavioral, an


Behavior therapy
techniques

From Bear, G.G. (1990). Modeks and


techniques that focus on prevention. In A.
Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices
in school psychology (p. 652). Silver Spring,
MID: National Association of School
Psychologists; Copyright 1990 by the
National Association of School
Psychologists. Reprinted by permission of
publisher.

Reinforcement and punishment follow a clear set of basic


principles:

1. reinforcement or punishment always follows behavior,


2. reinforcement or punishment follows the target behavior as soon as
possible,
3. reinforcement or punishment fits the target behavior and must be
meaningful to the child, and
4. multiple reinforcers, or punishments are likely more effective than
single reinforcers or punishments.

Reinforcement

Table 4.2. Technique, behavior, consequence, and probable effect

Proba
Exhibited
Classification Consequences future
behavior
behav

Jane w
Jane cleans her Jane’s parents praise
Positive reinforcement continu
room. her.
clean h

Positive reinforcement Carmen brushes Carmen receives a Carme


continu
her teeth after
nickel each time. brush
meals.
after m

Rob w
Rob works quietly The teacher praises continu
Positive reinforcement
at his seat. and rewards Rob. work q
his sea

Jason complains
that older boys Jason’s parents allow
Jason
consistently beat him to remain at
Negative reinforcement continu
him up, and he home because of his
school
refuses to attend complaints.
school.

Balin w
Balin complains of
Balin is allowed to go heada
headaches when it
Negative reinforcement to bed without doing whene
is time to do
his homework. is hom
homework.
do.

Jim wi
Jim washes his Jim’s car washing
Extinction washin
father’s car. behavior is ignored.
father’
Carme
Carmen puts glue stop pu
Extinction Carmen is ignored.
on Joe’s seat. glue on
seat.

Marta is spanked Marta


Marta sits on the
Punishment each time she sits on on the
arm of the chair.
the arm of the chair. the cha

The teacher Takeo


Takeo puts Gwen’s administers the put Gw
Punishment
pigtails in the paint. paddle to Takeo’s pigtail
posterior. paint.

From Walker, J.E., & Shea,


T.M. (1991). Behavior
management: A practical
approach for educators (5th
ed.). New York: Macmillan;
adapted by permission.

Although reinforcement and punishment can be equally effective in


reducing specific target behaviors in the classroom, reinforcement
is by far more effective in helping children develop alternative, more
functional behaviors. When Jeremy was in third grade, his teacher
instituted a procedure in which he would receive a tally mark if she
looked over and saw that he was tipping back in his chair. She
placed 4 Xs under each chair leg to remind him not to lean back. A
more positive approach would be to let Jeremy earn a tally mark
each time she looked over and saw that all four legs were down.
This would reinforce the desired behavior. It is important to always
begin with a number of reinforcing strategies before resorting to
punishment as a means of reducing unwanted or aversive
classroom behaviors.

Schedules
Schedules define and identify the amount of work required or the
time that must elapse between reinforcers. Some schedules are
continuous, providing a reinforcement or punishment every time the
target behavior occurs. Fixed or variable interval schedules are time
related, and fixed or variable ratio schedules are related to how
much work is completed. Fixed schedules result in higher rates of
performance than continuous schedules. In classroom settings,
most teachers use fixed ratio interval schedules. They are effective
because the child knows exactly what is expected and the
requirements of performance are clearly spelled out. Keep in mind
that variable schedules are not as good for shaping new behaviors
but are excellent for maintaining well-learned behaviors.

A simple system to evaluate the most common classroom problems


(e.g. talking out, being out of the seat, not focusing or paying
attention, disruptive behavior) appears in Figure 4.4. Information
obtained is usually observed at 15-second intervals. If any of the
behaviors occur, whether once or more than once, a single notation
is made for that interval.

Positive reinforcement
The appropriate application of positive reinforcement has
repeatedly been demonstrated to increase both on-task behavior
and work completion (for reviews, see Barkley, 1990; DuPaul &
Stoner, 1994; Goldstein, 1995; and Walker & Walker, 1991). In the
early elementary school grades, teachers exhibit a significant
degree of positive reinforcement for desired behaviors (White,
1975). That is, when a desired behavior is exhibited, teachers
frequently respond with a consequence that is likely to increase the
reoccurrence of that behavior. Jeremy’s first-grade teacher offered
frequent praise when he was sitting quietly in his seat.
By middle elementary school and through secondary school,
however, teachers begin paying increasingly greater attention to
undesirable behaviors and less attention to appropriate behaviors.
Unfortunately, paying attention to the undesirable behavior causes
it to cease in the short run but occur more frequently in the long run.

Children with ADHD may often be more interested in tasks other


than those on which the teacher is focusing (Douglas, 1972). This
leads to significantly more nonproductive activity and uneven,
unpredictable classroom behavior. Interestingly, the overall rates of
negative teacher-child interactions involving typical students are
also higher in classrooms containing children with ADHD
(Campbell, Endman, & Bernfeld, 1977). According to reports,
teachers are more intense and controlling when interacting with
children with ADHD. Within school settings, children with ADHD
appear to experience negative consequences because of their
temperament and a performance history that often involves
beginning but not completing tasks. Many teachers in this
circumstance unfortunately tend to focus on the misbehavior rather
than on the reduction or termination of the behavior. This may
further disrupt the classroom by disturbing other students.

This naturally occurring pattern of teachers paying less attention to


desirable behavior and more attention to undesirable behavior, as
children progress through school, places children with ADHD at a
greater disadvantage than their classmates. In the first few grades,
when teachers appear to be making a conscientious effort to
positively reinforce their students, the child with ADHD often does
not receive his or her share of reinforcement. In the later grades, as
teachers exhibit less positive reinforcement, perhaps because they
feel that it is not needed, the child with ADHD is placed at even
greater risk.

Positive reinforcement programs should begin at the level at which


children can succeed and be positively reinforced. All too often,
teachers set up wonderful behavioral programs but set initial criteria
for success too high. The child with ADHD in this system rarely
reaches success. Problem behavior must be defined operationally
and then a level of baseline occurrence must be obtained. At first,
provide reinforcement when the child is at or slightly better than
baseline. For example, in first grade, Jeremy was out of his seat 10
times during a work period, so his teacher provided reinforcement
when he was out of his seat no more than eight times. As the child
succeeds, the necessary criteria for reinforcement can be gradually
increased, requiring fewer out-of-seat behaviors during a given time
period.

Response discrepancy observation method


You may also want to determine the amount of time a student
exhibits on- and off-task behavior. One simple behavioral
observation method is called response discrepancy because it
allows you to record a discrepancy between the target student and
a typical class peer (Rhode, Jenson, & Reavis, 1992). Figure 4.5
presents a form to use for this system. To begin, match the target
student with a same-sex peer who exhibits typical classroom
behavior. Next, check off the type of activity: class, small-group
activity or independent activity. The observation period lasts 15
minutes, and behavior is recorded at 10-second intervals (for a total
of 90 intervals). The left side of the box is used for the target
student and the right side is used for the classroom peer. At the end
of each 10-second interval, record a + for on-task activities or - for
off-task activities for each student. Ignore behaviors between the
recording points. At the end of the 15-minute observation period,
compute the percentage of on-task behavior for each student. This
may be accomplished using the formula provided in Figure 4.6
(Rhode et al., 1992).

Figure 4.6. Operational definitions of behaviors in the TOAD system

Talking Out Spoken words, either friendly, ne


negative in content, are directed
the teacher without first obtaining
permission to speak or unsolicite
classmates during inappropriate
during work periods

The child is not supporting his or


Out of Seat weight with the chair. Up on knee
not count as out-of-seat behavio

The child is not attending either t


independent work or to a group a
The child is therefore engaged in
activity other than that which has
Attention Problem
directed and is clearly different fr
the other children are doing. This
the child’s not following teacher
directions.

The child’s actions result in


consequences that appear to be
interrupting other children’s work
Disruption
behaviors might include noises o
physical contact. They may be in
or unintentional.

Figure 4.4. The Talking Out/Out of


Seat/Attention Problem/Disruption (TOAD)
System. (From Goldstein, S., & Goldstein, M.
[1990]. Managing attention disorders in
children: A guide for practitioners [pp. 93-94].
New York: John Wiley & Sons. This material
is used by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.)

Figure 4.5. Behavior observation form.

From Rhode, G., Jenson, W.R., & Reavis, H.K. [1992]. The tough
kid book: Practical classroom management strategies [p. 271.
Longmont, CO: Sopris West; Reprinted with permission of Sopris
West, Inc.

When Jeremy was in third grade, a volunteer completed this type of


observation for Jeremy and a peer while they were engaged in a
small-group activity. Jeremy had been on task for 34 of the
intervals. He had been off task for 56 of the 90 intervals. His total
time on task was 34 / 90 X 100 or approximately 38% of the time.

In contrast, Jeremy’s peer had been on task for 78 of the 90


intervals and had been off task for 12 of the intervals. His total time
on task was then 78/90 X 100 or approximately 87%. As a general
guideline, if a student is on task less than 60% of the time and the
peer’s average is 85% or more, the target student’s attention to the
task is problematic. If both students’ on-task behavior is below 60%,
the problem may be more related to classroom management
(Rhode et al., 1992). When compared with his peer, Jeremy
appears to be much more distractible and off task.

As a general rule, observe a student in two different settings or two


different types of activities. Some students are only off task and
distractible when presented with tasks they find uninteresting. Other
students are distractible only during specific subjects, such as in a
math class. Keep in mind that students’ attention varies depending
on the type of task, the difficulty of the material, the type of activity,
the setting, and the classroom management skills of the teacher.

Positive reinforcement should follow immediately after good


behavior. It should be specific and initially continuous, slowly
moving to an intermittent schedule. Material reinforcers provide the
child with something tangible. Social reinforcers are more versatile,
and, even if material reinforcers are used, a kind word from the
teacher should always accompany them. It is also easier to
increase behavior than decrease it. Thus, when choosing a target
behavior, it is preferable to focus on behaviors to be increased
rather than on those to be decreased. Shea and Bauer (1987)
described the following process to apply positive reinforcement
effectively:

 Select a target behavior to increase, define the behavior, and


choose a reinforcer.
 Observe the child and watch for the behavior.
 Reinforce the target behavior every time it is exhibited.
 Comment in a positive way about the behavior when providing
reinforcement.
 Be enthusiastic -and interested.
 Offer assistance.
 Vary the reinforcer.
Rhode, Jenson, and Reavis (1992) provided a well-defined model
for reinforcement in the classroom. This model, presented in Table
4.3, is an excellent summary of reinforcement contingencies.
Be certain to select reinforcers that are age appropriate and not
necessarily time-limited. Most important, do not deny students their
basic rights (e.g. lunch, bathroom use, playground time) and then
define these rights as positive reinforcers. At times, the use of a
reinforcement list or menu can facilitate choosing a reinforcer that is
meaningful to the child. You can provide a list of enjoyable or free
time activities and ask the child to rank them by preference. You
can ask the child what he or she might do with free time, where he
or she might like to sit, what he or she might like to learn about, and
also what kinds of activities make him or her feel needed, proud,
and important in the classroom. Finally, one question to consider
inquiring of every student is “ ‘What is the very best reward in this
class that you could get for good work and behavior?”

Click to see Figure 4.6. Formula for the response discrepancy


observation method.

Selection of reinforcements
Some consequences that teachers provide for children are
irrelevant and neither strengthen nor weaken the behavior they
follow (Bushell, 1973). Many teachers believe that placing stars on
a chart as a reward or providing a prize are consequences that
work with all children. Some children are motivated by these
consequences; others are not. Furthermore, children with ADHD
may find these consequences salient one day but lose interest in
them quickly the next day. Therefore, the fact that certain
consequences follow a child’s behavior may neither strengthen nor
weaken the chances for that behavior to reoccur. Bushell (1973)
referred to consequences that are irrelevant as noise, neutral
consequences that have no effect on the behavior. Teachers must
evaluate whether chosen consequences are positively reinforcing or
simply noise. A reinforcement menu or inventory completed jointly
by you and the child ensures that the former rather than the latter
will occur. Sample reinforcement menus across grade levels appear
in Figure 4.7.

Ms. Adams met with Jeremy when he was in her second-grade


class to select some reinforcers that would increase his time on
task. Jeremy quickly offered several suggestions. He wanted time
to look through books about dinosaurs, to read joke books, and to
play with blocks. He also wanted time for drawing and art projects.
Ms. Adams explained that each morning they would decide what
assignments needed to be completed before break. When he
completed the assignments, he could choose his reward. Ms.
Adams also adapted the assignments. Jeremy was expected to
write in his journal, but he could answer the questions about his
reading orally.

Paine, Radicchi, Rosellini, Deutchman, and Darch (1983) found that


the five most frequent reinforcement ideas suggested by
elementary school students were additional recess, free time in
class, material reinforcers, field trips, and games in class.
Intermediate grade students more frequently favored activities that
involved interaction with teachers, including acting as an assistant
in grading papers, carrying on a discussion, or playing a game on a
one-to-one basis. As previously discussed, reinforcers take on
different values for different individuals.

You must develop a hierarchy of the behaviors that you would like
to see the child exhibit. For example, in response to out-of-seat
behavior, many teachers may initiate a reinforcement system to
increase in-seat behavior. Although the child may earn multiple
reinforcers for remaining in his seat, this does not guarantee that he
will engage in constructive or appropriate behavior while remaining
seated. Often, multiple reinforcers and multiple levels of
reinforcement must be initiated. For example, in first grade, Jeremy
was provided with one reinforcer for sitting and a second reinforcer
for working while sitting.

Robinson, Newby, and Ganzell (1981) used a token reinforcement


system for successful completion of four tasks, two involving
learning to read and using vocabulary words and sentences and
two involving teaching these tasks to other students. Tokens were
exchanged for access to a pinball machine or electronic game.
Using a reversal design, the token intervention program resulted in
a nine-fold increase in the mean number of tasks completed over
the baseline level and significant improvement in performance on
the school district’s standardized weekly reading level
examinations. A reduction in disruptive behavior was also
anecdotally reported. This reinforcement system was managed by a
single teacher working with 18 children, all of whom had received
diagnoses of ADHD. Walker and Shea (1991) also described an in-
depth model of structuring a token economy successfully in the
classroom.

Table 4.3. IFEED-AV rules

The I stands for reinforcing the studen


immediately. The longer the teacher w
reinforce a student, the less effective
reinforcer will be. This is particularly t
Immediately
younger students or students with sev
disabilities. For example, reinforcer
effectiveness is limited if the student h
wait until the end of the week to recei

Frequently The F stands for frequently reinforcing


student. It is especially important to fr
reinforce when a student is learning a
behavior or skill. If reinforcers are not
frequently enough, the student may n
produce enough of a new behavior fo
become well-established. The standa
three or four positive reinforcers for e
negative consequence (including neg
verbal comments) that the teacher de
in the beginning, there is a great deal
inappropriate behavior to which the te
must attend, positive reinforcement a
recognition of appropriate behavior m
increased accordingly to maintain the
three or four positives to each negativ
reinforcer can be a simple social reinf
such as, “Good job. You finished your
assignment.”

The first E stands for enthusiasm in th


delivery of the reinforcer. It is easy to
hand an edible reinforcer to a student
more effort to pair it with an enthusias
comment. Modulation in the voice and
excitement with a congratulatory air c
Enthusiasm that the student has done something
For most teachers, this seems artificia
However, with practice, enthusiasm m
difference between a reinforcer delive
drab, uninteresting way and one that
that something important has taken p
which the teacher is interested.

It is also important for the teacher to l


student in the eyes when giving a rein
even if the student is not looking at hi
Eye contact Like enthusiasm, eye contact sugges
student is special and has the teache
undivided attention. Over time, eye co
may become reinforcing in and of itse

D stands for describing the behavior t


being reinforced. The younger the stu
Describe the behavior the more severe the disability, the mo
important it is to describe the appropr
behavior that is being reinforced. Tea
often assume that students know wha
they are doing right that has resulted
delivery of reinforcement. However, th
often not the case. The student may n
why reinforcement is being delivered
think that it is being delivered for som
behavior other than what the teacher
to reinforce.

Even if the student does know what b


being reinforced, describing it is impo
First, describing the behavior highligh
emphasizes the behavior the teacher
reinforce. Second, if the behavior has
steps, describing it helps to review the
expectations for the student. An exam
“Wow, you got yourself dressed - look
You have your socks on, your shoes
your pants are on with a belt, and you
has all the buttons fastened and is tuc
This is much more effective than sayi
job dressing.”

Building excitement and anticipation f


earning of a reinforcer can motivate s
do their very best. The more “hype” th
Anticipation uses, the more excited students beco
earn the reinforcer. Presenting the po
reinforcer in a mysterious way also bu
anticipation.
Variety Just like adults, students get tired of t
things. A certain reinforcer may be hig
desired, but, after repeated exposure
its effectiveness. It is easy to get caug
giving students the same old reinforce
and time again. However, variety is th
of life for everyone. Generally, when t
are asked why they do not vary their
reinforcers, they indicate that it worke
well once. It is necessary to change r
frequently to make the reinforcement
effective.
From Rhode, G., Jenson, W.R., &
Reavis, H.K. (1992). The tough kid book:
Practical classroom management
strategies (p. 34). Longmont, CO: Sopris
West; Reprinted with permission from
Sopris West, Inc.

Negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement requires the child to work for the removal of
an in-place, unpleasant consequence. The child’s goal is to get rid
of something that is unpleasant rather than to earn something that
is desirable. In a negative reinforcement model, instead of working
to earn a positive consequence, the child works to distance him- or
herself from an aversive consequence. Negative reinforcement is
often used in the classroom to manage problem behaviors.
Teachers inadvertently pay attention to a child who may not be
complying and withdraw their attention contingent on the child’s
compliance. Surprisingly, this strengthens rather than weakens the
noncompliant behavior. The next time a similar situation occurs, the
child again will not comply until confronted with the aversive
consequence (i.e. the teacher’s attention). Negative reinforcement
is often seductive and coercive for teachers. It works in the short
run but in the long run is likely to strengthen rather than weaken the
undesirable behavior.

Many of the same variables that affect positive reinforcement-


immediacy, frequency, consistency–affect negative reinforcement.
Behaviors that in and of themselves may not be negative become
negative reinforcers when paired with certain events. For example,
a teacher approaching a child who is not working quickly becomes
a negative reinforcer, even though the action itself, the teacher
walking up to the child, does not have a negative connotation
(Favell, 1977). Clark and Elliott (1988) found that negative
reinforcement was rated by teachers as the most frequently used
classroom intervention. Children with ADHD often experience
negative reinforcement because of their temperament, which makes
it difficult for them to complete tasks; their consequent learning
history reinforces them for beginning but rarely for finishing.

Reinforceme
Reinforcement
Reinforcement Menu: Kindergarten Tenth-Grade
Menu: Third Grade
Geometry

Main Courses Main Courses Main Course

Play the piano Go to the library to Challenge so


work on a special a game of che
Paint
project related to a Use the comp
Look out of the window study unit
Do extra cred
Use the toys at the back of the room Arrange the game problems to r
Work with puzzles shelf and pick a game grade
to play
Use model clay Make up a qu
Listen to a story with give it to the c
Move a chair to another place earphones
Choose a carpet piece to sit on Sit at the teac
Work in the art corner desk while do
Use the computer Read and record a homework
Cut and paste favorite story with Prepare the b
expression and clarity board using d
Talk to a classmate
Work on scrapbook for student’s cho
Drink history project using Write a letter
Hug magazines in the room
Read
Use colored chalk Leave 5 minutes early
for lunch
Be line captain
Be in charge of taking Play charade
attendance
Discuss past
Get a drink at any time forthcoming a
Swing feet without asking social events
permission
Walk around in the back of the room Have a creati
Be in charge of period (i.e. sh
Watch a science video passing out papers tell for older s
Sing and other class
materials Be excused 1
minutes early
Be excused 15 erasers and
minutes early to clean chalkboard
erasers and
chalkboard
Daily Specia

Monday: App
Daily Specials guest lecturer
another math
Monday: Watch a
Daily Specials Tuesday: Do
video crossword pu
Tuesday: Use the involving geo
Monday: Visit first grade computer concepts
Tuesday: Finger paint Wednesday: Be a Wednesday:
Wednesday: Play a game with teacher group leader math game w
another stude
Thursday: Make a mural Thursday: Add
another piece to class Thursday: Co
Friday: Use the computer
mural special paper
Friday: Help plan the using geomet
Friday group activity figures
Friday: Solve
mysteries inv
mathematical
Figure 4.7. Sample reinforcement menu.
(Toward Positive Classroom Discipline,
3rd ed. by H.F. Clarizio 0 1987. Reprinted
by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.) Figure
4.7.

A number of simple, effective ways exist to deal with this problem. If


you are using negative reinforcement, pay attention to the student
until the assignment is completed. Although this too is negative
reinforcement, it teaches the child that the only way to get rid of the
aversive consequence (i.e. your attention) is not just to start but to
complete the task at hand. As an example, you may move the
student’s desk next to your desk until that particular piece of work is
completed.

A second alternative involves the use of differential attention or


ignoring. The term differential attention applies when ignoring is
used as the negative consequence for exhibiting the undesirable
behavior, and attention is used as a positive consequence for
exhibiting the competing desirable behavior. This is an active
process in which the teacher ignores the child engaged in an off-
task activity but pays attention immediately when the child begins
working. Many teachers avoid interaction with the child when he or
she is on task for fear of interrupting the child’s train of thought. It is
important, however, to reinforce the child when working so that a
pattern of working to earn positive reinforcement rather than
working to avoid negative reinforcement is developed.

Secondary school teachers at times complain that if they ignore the


adolescent with ADHD during an hour-long class, they never have
the opportunity to pay positive attention as the student may never
exhibit positive behavior. Waiting, however, even if one has to wait
until the next day, is more effective in the long run than paying
attention to off-task behavior.

You need to make a distinction between off-task behavior that


disrupts and off-task behavior that does not disrupt. Differential
attention works effectively for the latter. However, when a child is off
task and disturbing his or her neighbor, you may find that being a
negative reinforcer holds an advantage in stemming the tide of an
off-task behavior that involves other students as well. Differential
attention alone has been demonstrated to be ineffective in
maintaining high rates of on-task behavior and work productivity for
students with ADHD (Rosen, O’Leary, Joyce, Conway, & Pfiffner,
1984). In part, we suggest that many factors other than teacher
attention maintain and influence student behavior.

Differential attention is a powerful intervention when used


appropriately. Once the strategy of ignoring inappropriate behavior
is employed, it must be continued despite escalation . If not, you run
the risk of intermittently reinforcing the negative behavior, thereby
strengthening its occurrence. For example, if you decide to use
differential attention for a child’s out-of-seat behavior but become
sufficiently frustrated after the child is out of his or her seat for 10
minutes and respond by directing attention to the child, the behavior
will be reinforced rather than extinguished. The 10 minutes of
ignoring will quickly be lost in the one incident of negative attention.
If the teacher yells, “Sit down,” the child has received the desired
attention by persisting in a negative behavior.

Madsen, Becker, and Thomas (1968) evaluated rules, praise, and


ignoring for inappropriate behavior in two children in a typical
second-grade classroom and in one child in a kindergarten class.
The results indicated that in the absence of praise, rules and
ignoring were ineffective. Inappropriate behavior decreased only
after praise was added. Others have demonstrated the importance
of praise in a general education classroom (Thomas, Becker, &
Armstrong, 1968). Specifically, whenever teacher approval was
withdrawn, disruptive behaviors increased.

Overall, however, the research on differential attention with children


with ADHD has been inconsistent. Rosen and colleagues (1984)
evaluated the results of praise and reprimands in maintaining
appropriate social and academic behaviors in second- and third-
grade children with ADHD. Children’s on-task behavior and
academic performance deteriorated when negative feedback was
withdrawn but not when positive feedback was omitted. Students’
on-task behavior remained high, even after 9 days of no praise from
the teacher. Acker and O’Leary (1988) demonstrated that the use of
only reprimands for behavior management without positive
consequences does not lead to dramatic improvement in on-task
performance when praise is added. Dramatic deterioration in on-
task behavior was observed when reprimands were subsequently
withdrawn, even though the teacher was still delivering praise for
appropriate behavior.

Children with ADHD perform as well as typical children with a


continuous schedule of reinforcement but perform significantly
worse with a partial schedule of reinforcement (e.g. reinforcement is
provided only sometimes), which is typically found in most
classrooms (Douglas & Parry, 1983). Praise is important for the
development of other attributes in human beings, such as self-
esteem, school attitude, and motivation toward academics (Redd,
Morris, & Martin, 1975). In addition, the opposite is also true: A
large amount of punishment can negatively affect emotional
development and self-esteem.

Modeling
Through modeling, observation, and then imitation, children develop
new behaviors. Modeling can be as simple as having a child watch
another child sharpen a pencil. By watching the model, a child can
learn a new behavior, inhibit another behavior, or strengthen
previously learned behavior (e.g. saying “thank you”). To use
modeling effectively, you must determine whether a child has the
capacity to observe and then imitate the model. In classroom
settings, a student’s response to modeling is influenced by three
factors: 1) the characteristics of the model (e.g. is this a student
whom the other students like and respect?), 2) the characteristics of
the observer (e.g. is this child capable of observing and imitating
the behavior), and 3) the positive or negative consequences
associated with the behavior. Children are more likely to respond to
teacher modeling when they view their teachers as competent,
nurturing, supportive, fun, and interesting. Children are also more
likely to imitate behavior that results in a positive consequence.

Younger children have been reported as more frequently imitating


others than older children. Children consistently model someone
whom they value or look up to. They also imitate the behavior of a
same-sex child more often than that of a different-sex child. They
model someone whom they perceive as successful and socially
valued regardless of whether the teacher perceives that child as
successful and socially valued. Finally, if a child observes a model
being reinforced or punished for certain behavior, this influences the
likelihood that the child will then model that behavior.

Modeling is a powerful tool, often underutilized by teachers. When


teachers are cheerful and enthusiastic, their attitudes are
contagious. When they are respectful of students, students respect
each other. When teachers are patient, fair, consistent, and
optimistic, their students exhibit these traits as well. Teacher
behavior sets the tone for the classroom environment.

In 1970, Kaplan described a ripple effect in transactions between


teachers and misbehaving students that affected not only those
students but also the entire classroom. Teachers who were firm
reduced the problem behaviors both from the first child who
misbehaved and from those students who saw the initial problem
behavior. When teachers enforced rules, the ripple effect worked in
their favor. When they failed to follow through with rules, the ripple
effect worked against them. Furthermore, the misbehaving
student’s social standing in the classroom was also an issue. When
teachers successfully managed the behavior of high-status
troublemakers, their control tended to benefit the entire classroom.
Likewise, the ripple effect when high-status offenders were not
managed increased negative behaviors among others. Finally,
when managing a disruptive behavior, it is important to focus on
tasks and behaviors rather than on approval. In the latter situation,
teachers may focus on their relationship with the disruptive student
when trying to get that student to behave. This strategy,
unfortunately, is usually ineffective over the long term.

Shaping
Waiting for the appropriate target behavior or something close to
that behavior to occur before reinforcing the behavior is referred to
as shaping. Shaping can be used to establish behaviors that are not
routinely exhibited. Walker and Shea (1991) described the steps to
effective shaping:

1. Select a target behavior and define it.


2. Observe how often the behavior is exhibited.
3. Select reinforcers.
4. Decide on close approximations and reinforce successive
approximations to the target behavior each time it occurs.
5. Reinforce the newly established behavior.
6. Reinforce the old behavior on a variable schedule, and begin
reinforcing the new behavior on an every-time or continuous
schedule. The key to successful shaping is to reinforce closer
approximations and not reinforce lesser approximations.
Any behavior that remotely resembles the target behavior should
initially be reinforced. Prompts can be used and then faded.
Shaping can be used for all kinds of behavior in the classroom,
including academics. Steps toward successive approximation,
however, must be carefully thought out; otherwise, behaviors that
are not working toward the desired goal may inadvertently be
reinforced.

Punishment
Punishment suppresses undesirable behavior but may not
necessarily eliminate it (McDaniel, 1980). In some cases,
suppression may be of short duration, and when the punishment is
removed, the behavior may reoccur. Punishment can involve
presentation of an unpleasant consequence or the loss of a
pleasurable consequence following the occurrence of the
undesirable behavior. Punishment is designed to reduce the
probability that the behavior that precedes it will reoccur. Although
punishment is an efficient way of changing behavior, it can become
seductive and reinforcing for classroom teachers and can be
overused. The greatest problem with punishment is that it does not
provide an appropriate model of acceptable behavior. Furthermore,
in many classrooms, punishment is accompanied by an emotional
response from the teacher. Although most teachers consider
punishment as involving a reprimand, time-out, or loss of an activity
such as recess, in many classrooms, physical punishment designed
to embarrass children into submission is still used, even though it
has a high emotional cost. Shea and Bauer (1987) made a strong
case for minimizing the use of punishment, especially more severe
punishment, such as embarrassment or spanking, because these
interventions are likely to erode self-esteem and further impair an
already strained teacher-student relationship. When punishments
are used, these guidelines should be followed:

1. All students are aware of which behaviors are punished and how
they are punished.
2. Appropriate models for acceptable behavior are provided.
3. Punishments are offered immediately, consistently, and fairly.
4. Punishments are offered impersonally.
5. A natural or logical consequence should be used as often as
possible.
6. The student being punished must understand the relationship
between his or her behavior and the punishment.
Loss of the privilege during which the inappropriate behavior is
exhibited is fair. Warning, nagging, threatening, and debating,
however, should be avoided. In other words, act, don’t yak.
Punishment can exert a complex, negative effect in the classroom
and on teacher-student relationships. Furthermore, when less
punishing interventions are combined with positive reinforcers, they
tend to be effective in the long run. In 1946, Anderson and Brewer
reported that teachers using dominating behaviors of force, threat,
shame, and blame had classrooms in which children displayed
nonconforming behavior at rates higher than in classrooms in which
teachers were more positive and supportive. Personal hostility from
teachers and punishments in an atmosphere containing minimal
positive reinforcement and emotional warmth are unproductive. To
be effective, punishment must be related in form to the misbehavior.
It must be consistent, fair, and just; must be delivered impersonally;
and must not involve the assignment of extra work that is unrelated
to the act for which the student is being punished. Opportunities
must also be offered for the student to exhibit and receive
reinforcement for more appropriate behavior.

Reprimands are the most frequent punishment used by teachers.


Contacting parents, losing privileges, and time-outs come next in
frequency. Reprimands include a statement of appropriate
alternative behavior. Students respond well to short reprimands
followed by clear, directed statements. Effective reprimands are
specific, do not humiliate the child, are provided immediately, and
are given with a firm voice and controlled physical demeanor. They
are often backed up with a loss of privilege, including a statement
encouraging more appropriate behavior. Attempt to describe the
behavior that you observe, rather than how you feel about the
certain behavior. Instead of telling a student that he or she is rude
for interrupting, make a statement such as, “You have interrupted
me three times. I will answer your question as soon as I finish the
explanation.”’ This should be delivered in a calm way and in a way
that does not embarrass the child in the presence of others. Jeremy
had complained to his mother that his teacher was always yelling at
him to keep still or be quiet. Feeling particularly upset one
afternoon, Jeremy wrote his fifth-grade teacher the letter presented
in Figure 4.8. Fortunately, after reading this letter, his teacher
understood that yelling was an ineffective way to deal with Jeremy’s
behavior.

Figure 4.8. Jeremy’s Letter


Abramowitz, O’Leary, and Futtersak (1988) compared the effects of
short and long reprimands in an alternating treatment design. Over
the course of the study, short reprimands resulted in significantly
lower off-task rates than long reprimands. Prudent reprimands that
are immediate, unemotional, brief, and consistently backed up with
consequences are clearly preferred to lengthy reprimands that are
delayed, loud, emotional, and not matched to consequences.
Abramowitz and O’Leary (1991) suggested that immediate
reprimands result in much lower rates of off-task interactions with
peers but do not change rates of off-task behaviors that do not
involve peers. The authors hypothesized that non-interactive, off-
task behavior may be an avoidance response to difficult
schoolwork. Interactive, off-task behaviors may be reinforced by
peer attention and modified more effectively by the timing of
feedback. Consistent reprimands are clearly superior to inconsistent
reprimands for minimizing calling out and other disruptive behaviors
(Acker & O’Leary, 1988). When misbehaviors followed with
reprimands versus ignoring are evaluated, however, reprimands are
not particularly effective in managing off-task behavior.
Reprimanding every incident of off-task behavior did not prove to be
any more effective than reprimanding one quarter of misbehavior
incidents. Increasing consistency in these low-rate situations does
not appear to lead to significant differences (Pfiffner, O’Leary,
Rosen, & Sanderson, 1985).

Furthermore, the intensity or aversiveness of the initial delivery of


the reprimand may be critical for children with ADHD (Futtersak,
OLeary, & Abramowitz, 1989). In this study, children were exposed
to teachers who delivered either consistently strong reprimands
from the outset with immediate brief and firm close proximity to the
child or reprimands that increased in severity over time. Results
supported the hypothesis that gradually strengthening initially weak
reprimands was less effective for suppressing off-task behavior
than the immediate introduction and maintenance of full-strength
reprimands. In addition, reprimands are more effective when
delivered with eye contact and in close proximity to the child (Van
Hauten, Nau, MacKenzie-Keating, Sameoto, & Colavecchia, 1982).

Response cost
Response cost is a punishing technique that translates to the
equivalent of losing what you possess or have earned. Earned
consequences are considered reinforcers. When they are lost, this
is response cost. The child places in jeopardy what he or she has
earned as the result of inappropriate behavior. In many situations,
response cost in the form of a penalty or fine is combined with
positive reinforcement. To be effective, more reinforcers must be
earned than lost. Response cost is often used to reduce off-task
behavior and improve compliance with directions.

Response cost may be the most powerful means of managing


consequences for children with ADHD or other disruptive behavior
problems (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). In a traditional model
of response cost, many children with ADHD may immediately go
bankrupt. Alternative systems have included adjusting the ratio of
the number of reinforcers provided for each positive behavior
versus those lost for negative behavior as well as increasing the
number of opportunities to exhibit positive behavior and receive
reinforcement. In the former case, six points might be provided for
the appropriate behavior but only one point lost for the negative
behavior. In the latter case, increased opportunities are provided,
making it easier for children to earn a greater number of points,
thereby decreasing their chances of going bankrupt when they
exhibit negative behavior. A slightly altered form of response cost
has been found to be quite effective with children with ADHD
(Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982). Under this system, the child is
initially provided with a maximum number of points or tokens to be
earned during a school day and must work throughout the school
day to retain those reinforcers. Some impulsive children seem to
work harder to keep their plates full rather than attempt to fill an
empty plate. Possibly because they have a long history of not
working well for positive reinforcement, a system in which they are
provided with all of their reinforcement initially and must work to
keep, a response cost system may appear more motivating or
attractive to them.

A substantial body of research documents the effectiveness of


response cost in the classroom (Kazdin, 1982). One of the earliest
studies (Rapport, Murphy, & Bailey, 1982) compared response cost
and stimulant medication for task-related behavior in a group of
hyperactive boys. The response cost procedure resulted in
significant increases in on-task behavior and academic
performance. Stimulant medication was notably less effective.
Pfiffner and colleagues (1985) found that response cost in the form
of lost recess was more effective than reprimands in maintaining
on-task behavior. Response cost has also been compared with
reward alone. Both conditions resulted in a twofold increase in
academic output or reduction in inappropriate classroom behavior
and a corresponding increase in on-task behavior. Children often do
not show a differential preference for either reward or response cost
procedures (Hundert, 1976; Iwata & Bailey, 1974), but they appear
to maintain treatment gains better during fading and withdrawal of
response cost than they do in response to traditional rewards
(Sullivan & O’Leary, 1990).

A response cost system can be as simple as chips in a cup, marks


on a chart, or marbles in a jar. A more complex means of managing
response cost includes electronic devices such as the Attention
Training System (Gordon & Davidson, 1981; Rapport, 1987). The
Attention Training System is a remote-controlled counter that sits on
the student’s desk. This device provides the student with a digital
readout showing the number of points he or she has earned. Using
a remote control device, points can be added or removed from
anywhere in the classroom, contingent on the child’s on- and off-
task behavior. By not having to move within physical proximity of
the child, the teacher avoids becoming a negative reinforcer when
the child is off task. DuPaul, Guevremont, and Barkley (1992)
demonstrated the efficacy of response cost contingencies for
managing classroom behavior and academic productivity using the
Attention Training System. Response cost contingencies led to
marked improvements on task-related attention and a reduction in
ADHD symptoms during work time.

For response cost to be effective, the procedure must be used for


most, if not, all, of the classroom day (Morgan & Jenson, 1988). The
number of students in the program must be manageable, and highly
motivating rewards must be provided. If not thought out well and
managed effectively, response cost can backfire and increase
classroom problem behaviors (Burchard & Barrera, 1972).

Response cost can be difficult to implement. Though it may be as


simple as chips in a cup placed on the student’s desk, many
teachers inadvertently become negative reinforcers when they
approach the child to remove a consequence, thereby building
failure into a potentially useful model. When students who become
bankrupt quickly or who are oppositional from the start are placed in
a group contingency situation with built-in failure (e.g. everyone
must earn the reinforcer or no one has access to it), the result is
often greater rather than fewer classroom problems. Morgan and
Jenson (1988) suggested the following guide-lines for using
response cost in the classroom:

1. Use the procedure for most, if not all, of the classroom day for the
target behavior.
2. Make certain the number of students with whom you are using the
program is manageable.
3. Make certain there are more opportunities for success than for
failure.
4. Build in additional incentives, including additional reinforcers that
can be earned at the end of the week, by retaining a minimum
number of reinforcers through the week.
5. Consider incorporating self-monitoring techniques in which students
can administer response cost independently when they recognize a
rule violation.

Time-out
Time-out from reinforcement excludes children from the opportunity
to participate with others and receive any kind of positive
reinforcement. Time-out is by far the best known disciplinary
technique among teachers. It is also the most likely to be overused
and misused in the classroom. Although a brief time-out of a few
minutes duration can exert a positive influence on classroom
behavior when applied appropriately, many teachers apply time-out
ineffectively as often as effectively (Walker & Walker, 1991).

The least restrictive form of time-out consists of removal of certain


reinforcing activities or objects from the misbehaving child for a
short period. Time-out, in a restricted environment outside of the
classroom is the most extreme form of this type of discipline. The
child cannot see the classroom nor interact with others.

The effectiveness of time-out is well established; however,


additional research is needed to identify specific situations,
parameters, and procedures associated with the success of time-
out for children with ADHD. Clearly, time-out holds a low probability
of directly affecting children’s ADHD symptoms for the better. Time-
out can be quite effective for noncompliant children, but for children
with ADHD, you must distinguish between noncompliant behaviors
and behaviors resulting from ADHD.

In general, for time-out to be effective:

1. students should be separated from reinforcement,


2. the time should be short,
3. confrontation should be avoided,
4. verbal interaction should be limited, and
5. a time-contingent release should be provided (Bean & Roberts,
1981). Time-contingent release refers to the amount of time and the
contingencies (e.g. sitting quietly) required to earn release. These
contingencies should be explained and provided to the child prior to
entering time-out. Children warned less in time-out also respond
better (Roberts, 1982).
The length of time-out is also critical in determining effectiveness. A
4-minute time-out was found to be significantly better than a 10-
second or 1-minute timeout among a group of elementary school
students (Hobbs, Forehand, & Murray, 1978). Long periods of time-
out constitute seclusion and lose their punishing value. It is also
important for the time-out activity to be less reinforcing than the
setting or activity from which the child is being removed. If a
particular activity the child is leaving is non-reinforcing, this child
may in fact learn to misbehave as a means of going to time-out to
do something else. Work should not be missed due to time-out.
Time-out should be boring, uninteresting, and something the child
places last on his or her list of chosen school activities. The
effectiveness of time-out depends on a number of factors, including
the child, your ability to apply the intervention consistently, the
child’s understanding of the intervention, the rules governing the
intervention, characteristics of the time-out area, duration of
timeout, and the ability to evaluate the effectiveness of time-out
quickly. If time-out does not work in the first few interventions, an
alternative strategy should be considered. Eight parameters should
define the use of time-out (Scarboro, & Forehand, 1975):

1. A warning that time-out may come should be offered.


2. The child should be consistently removed and placed in time-out
when the behavior reoccurs.
3. A specific location should be defined for time-out.
4. A specific duration for time-out should be set.
5. The consistent schedule for time-out use should be defined.
6. A defined behavior should lead to time-out.
7. Clear contingencies should be defined for the child to be released
from time-out.
Time-out can be effective in typical classroom settings because it
restores order by removing the child who is disrupting class, by
reducing the opportunity for peer approval that maintains some
children who disrupt, by reducing the opportunity for students to
manipulate situations, and by allowing the student to demonstrate
appropriate behavior before exiting time-out. In elementary
classroom settings, time-out should be from 2 to 5 minutes. If a
student is not in control, an additional minute should be added.
Teachers should not force resistant students into time-out but
should seek help from the principal or other school personnel.
Finally, as soon as possible after time-out is over, something
positive in the student’s behavior should be reinforced. Table 4.4
contains a list of dos and don’ts for time-out. Table 4.5 contains a
thorough list of procedures for implementing seclusionary time-out.

There are many things you can do to minimize the need to use
time-out. Make sure that classroom activities are more reinforcing
than time-out. Provide students with ample but not excessive
opportunities to comply. Provide disruptive students with additional
positive consequences for not requiring time-out in a given time
span.

Table 4.4. The “Dos and Don’ts” of time-out

Do Don’t
Don’t start the procedure wi
Do explain the total procedure to the child before explaining time-out to the ch
starting time-out. a calm setting that is not em
charged.

Don’t just pick any place. Ma


Do prepare a time-out setting for the child that is
it isn’t too dark, too confining
clean, well-lit, and ventilated.
dangerous, or not ventilated

Don’t pick a place that is sca


Do pick a place or situation for time-out that is
could be more reinforcing th
boring or less reinforcing than the classroom.
classroom.

Do use a set of structured verbal requests with the


Don’t threaten the child repe
child, such as the recommended precision request
with a time-out.
format.

Don’t get into a verbal excha


Do remain calm, and don’t talk with the child when
the child on the way to time-
he or she is being taken to time-out.
while the child is in time-out

Do place the child in time-out for a set period that Don’t tell the child to come o
you control. time-out when he or she is “
behave.”

Don’t let a child out of time-o


Do require the child to be quiet for 30 seconds at
he or she is crying, screamin
the end of the time-out period, before being let out.
yelling, or having a tantrum.

Do use a short period of time (e.g. 5-10 minutes). Don’t use exceedingly long

Don’t allow the child to avoid


Do require the child to complete the request that
compliance to a request or m
led to time-out or missed academic work.
academic work by going to t

From Morgan, D.P., & Jenson, W.R. (1988).


Teaching behaviorally disordered students:
Preferred practices (p. 36). New York: Macmillan;
reprinted by permission.

Table 4.5. Seclusionary time-out procedures

1. Seclusionary time-out should not be used unless all other


procedures have been tried and failed. This should be a last effort
technique.
2. Seclusionary time-out should never be used without a parent’s
written consent.
3. Seclusionary time-out should be used only if it is listed as an
approved and agreed-on technique in a student’s individualized
education plan (IEP) by the IEP team. The student should only be
placed in time-out for approved behaviors on the IEP, such as
aggression, severe noncompliance, or destructive tantrum-throwing.
4. Seclusionary time-out is defined as removing a student from a
reinforcing classroom setting to a less reinforcing setting. This
setting can be another classroom, a chair or desk outside the
classroom, or a room specifically approved for time-out. If a room is
used for time-out, it should be used only for time-out and no other
purpose (e.g. storage, counseling students, special academic work
area).
5. The time-out setting should be well-lit, well-ventilated, non-
threatening, and clean. It must also have an observation window or
device.
6. The entire time-out procedure should be explained to the student
before it is implemented, prior to the occurrence of misbehavior that
results in its use.
7. If misbehavior occurs, identify it. For example, tell the student in a
calm, neutral manner, “That’s fighting; you need to go to the time-
out room.” Tell the student to remove his or her jewelry, belt, and
shoes. Tell the student to empty his or her pockets (in order to
check for such items as pens, pencils, paper clips, knives, and so
forth). The student’s socks should be checked for these types of
items also. If the student does not comply with these requests, call
for help and then remove the items and check the pockets yourself.
No other conversation should ensue.
8. When a student is placed in the time-out room, he or she must be
constantly monitored by a staff member. The student must never be
left alone.
9. When a student is placed in the time-out room, the following
information should be placed in a time-out log:
o Name of the student
o Date
o Staff member responsible for monitoring student
o Time in and time out
o Target behavior warranting the procedures
10. The student should be placed in the time-out room for a
specific period of time. A recommended formula is 1 minute per
year of age (e.g. 10 minutes for a 10-year-old child).
11. If a student is screaming, throwing a tantrum, or yelling, he or
she should be quiet for 30 consecutive seconds before being
released from the time-out room. This 30 seconds does not begin
until the original designated time-out period has lapsed.
12. Communication between the supervising staff member and
the student should not take place when the student is in the time-
out room (i.e. do not talk with the student, threaten the student, or
try to counsel the student at this time).
13. Do remain calm while taking a student to the time-out room.
Do not argue with, threaten, or verbally reprimand the student.
14. If a student refuses to go to the time-out room, add on time to
the specified time-out duration (e.g. 1 minute for each refusal, up to
5 minutes).
15. If a student refuses to come out of the time-out room, do not
beg or try to remove the student. Simply wait outside, and sooner or
later the student will come out on his or her own.
16. If the student makes a mess in the time-out room, require him
or her to clean it up before he or she leaves.
17. Once the time-out period has ended, return the student to the
ongoing classroom activity, making sure the student is required to
complete the task he or she was engaged in prior to the time-out
period. This ensures that students do not purposely avoid
unpleasant tasks by going to the time-out room.
18. All staff members should be trained, and this training
documented, before time-out procedures are started.
19. To ensure the effectiveness of time-out, the reinforcement rate
for appropriate behaviors in the classroom should meet the
recommended rate of three or four positive responses to each
negative response (and never fewer than four positive responses
per contact hour).
20. Data should be collected on target behaviors. If time-out is
effective, these behaviors should decrease shortly after the
technique is started. If they do not, check that the procedure is
being used correctly, and the reinforcement rate for appropriate
behavior in the classroom is high enough; consider another
technique for possible use.
21. The use of time-out should not be threatened (e.g. “If you do
that again, I will put you in the time-out room”). Rather, the
technique should be combined with a precision request, such as “I
need you to stop kicking your desk.” If the student persists, the
time-out procedure should be used, and when the student comes
out of the time-out room, the precision request should be restated
(“I need you to stop kicking your desk”).
22. The student should be reinforced for not needing time-out.
From Rhode, G., Jenson, W.R., & Reavis, H.K. (1992). The tough
kid book: Practical classroom management strategies (p. 65).
Longmont, CO: Sopris West; Reprinted with permission of Sopris
West, Inc

Consequential versus Rule-Governed Behavior Due to their


inhibitory problems, children with ADHD may function quite well
under appropriate external or environmental consequences but
struggle to develop the internal self-monitoring skills to govern their
own behavior. This latter issue was referred to by Barkley in 1981
as “problems following rule-governed behavior.” Children with
ADHD may acquire behavior at a rate similar to others but take
longer to learn to self-manage that behavior in the absence of
external consequences and cues. Thus, even when appropriate
reinforcers are located, the child with ADHD requires a greater
number of successful trials to make the transition to self-
management. In part, this speaks to the difference between
behavior modification and behavior management. Teachers are
repeatedly taught that if they provide consequences appropriately,
within a reasonable period of time, children’s behavior will change.
Success is usually based on the child’s continuing to demonstrate
the desired behavior when consequences are removed. When this
model is applied to children with ADHD, many interventions are
often deemed to be failures. For the child with ADHD,
demonstrating a behavior in the presence of consequences is not
synonymous with having developed the self-management skills to
use the behavior. Focus on behavior management. That is, the
intervention is deemed successful if the child’s behavior is modified
in the presence of consequences. As consequences are removed
and the child’s behavior regresses, this should not be interpreted as
failure but rather as too quick a change in the schedule of
reinforcement. The child has yet to make the transition from
consequentially managed behavior to rule-governed behavior for
that particular task.

Three Keys to Using Punishment Effectively Timing, intensity,


and consistency are the three keys to using punishment effectively
and appropriately in the classroom. The punishing procedures
should be initiated as soon as possible after the aversive behavior
is exhibited and should be as closely related to the misbehavior as
possible. Furthermore, if punishments are too mild, they will not be
effective and may slowly habituate the child to tolerate or adapt to
more intensive or lengthy punishments. If too intense, however,
punishments are not only abusive but likely create other problems.
Be conservative when using punishing techniques but make certain
their intensity is appropriate. To be effective, punishments must be
consistent and predictable. Following punishment, you should
return the child to the situation without expecting overt guilt, making
efforts to reassure or reinforce the child. A consistent schedule of
punishments should also be used. A continuous schedule of
punishment for a specific targeted behavior is best. Finally, it is
valuable to attempt to find out what drives the misbehavior and
work toward managing the environment to minimize causative
factors. As noted previously in this chapter, children who are
experiencing LD may misbehave out of frustration. This may also
be the case for children who are experiencing anxiety or
depression. By identifying the child’s goals and misbehavior, you
can present more appropriate opportunities and methods to reach
the child’s goals. When used appropriately, punishment can make a
positive difference; however, punishing interventions should always
follow efforts at using reinforcing interventions to model and shape
appropriate classroom behavior.

Conclusion
The effective use of behavioral and cognitive strategies in the
classroom may appear daunting even to experienced teachers.
However, changing your behavior and strategies is often the most
efficient and effective means of improving all types of classroom
behaviors, both disruptive and non-disruptive. Through practice
comes proficiency. The building block of emotions and behavior
likely contains the largest and most diverse set of problems
encountered in the classroom. By first understanding these
problems and seeing the world through the eyes of your students,
and, by then developing and using a set of intervention strategies
on a regular basis, problems of emotions and behavior can be
effectively managed and changed in the classroom.
MARCH, 2022 - MAY, 2022 PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELLING CELL IN COLLABORATION WITH IQAC Raja
Peary Mohan College Individual Counselling Sessions - Report Counsellor: Mrs. Anindita Mukherjee
Psychologist and Counsellor Convenor: Dr. Anindita Mandal Majee Associate Professor Department
of Physiology Joint Convenor: Prof. Jyoti Das Assistant Professor Department of Zoology Report on
1st Counselling session Organised by Psychological Counselling Cell 11.4.2022 Date–11.04.2022
Venue–Psychological Counselling Cell. Time– 12:30 p.m. -4 p.m. No. of students participated in
thesession–8 Name of the students who were counselled: 1. Sayan Kundu 2. Poulomi Das 3.
Soumyojyoti Bhakta 4. Hia Samanta 5. Damini Dey 6. Soma Sarkar 7. Abhijit Patra 8. Kaushik
Choudhury About the Counselling Session: The Counselling Session was conducted upon getting the
names of the candidates willing or requiring counselling. The students were shortlisted based on
their need and risk assessment. The students with the greatest needs were prioritized for this
session. Objectives: The objectives of the counselling sessions were: • To understand the problems
that is affecting the student, • To help the students attain a positive mental health, • To help the
students work out a plan to solve their difficulties, • To inspire successful endeavour towards
attainment of life goals and happiness. Outcome in Brief - The participant students mostly suffer
from anxiety in their daily life mostly involving
educationanditsfuture.Lowconfidencelevelisanotherproblemamongmostofthestudents .Overthinking
,indecisiveness produces stress among a large group of students. One of the female students suffers
from familial problems which creates insecurity in her life related to education and future planning.
One of them is a known case of OCD. Two of the students in this session requires follow-up at
regular interval, according to the counsellor. Our psychologist and Counsellor, Mrs. Anindita
Mukherjee suggested our students ways to boost their confidence, overcome stress and how they
can solve their problems related to education and family related issues that actually boosts our
students to overcome their problems and their mental health can be promoted. The counselor also
suggested certain therapeutic exercises, yoga therapy to the students depending on th3e need that
must be beneficial to maintain their physical and mental strength and overcome their problems.
Glimpsesof thesession – Report on 2ndCounselling session Organised by
PsychologicalCounsellingCellon1 8.4.2022 Date–18.04.2022 Venue–PsychologicalCounsellingCell.
Time– 01:00 p.m. -4 p.m. No. of students participated in thesession–8 Name of the students who
participated in the seminar: 1. Adit Kumar Pal 2. Diksha Chatterjee 3. Kaushik Choudhury 4. Bhaskar
Pal 5. Abhijit Ruidas 6. Smita Biswas 7. Soudipti Ghosh 8. Banani Dhang About the Counselling
Session: The Counselling Session was conducted upon getting the names of the candidates willing or
requiring counselling. The students were shortlisted based on their need and risk assessment. The
students with the greatest needs were prioritized for this session. Objectives: The objectives of the
counselling sessions were: • To understand the problems that is affecting the student, • To help the
students attain a positive mental health, • To help the students work out a plan to solve their
difficulties, • To inspire successful endeavour towards attainment of life goals and happiness.
Outcome in Brief - Participant students in this session mainly suffered from lack of concentration,
low selfesteem,performance anxiety, personal and social relationship problems. Some of the
students are physiologically weak like suffering from anaemia, breathing problem (asthma), sleep
disturbance(insomnia), stammering, etc. Few students have economic problems along with high
aspiration, failure of reaching their dsired goals are leading to anger outbreak, emotional outburst.
Depression and performance anxiety are very common among the participants. Counsellor, Mrs.
Anindita Mukherjee motivated them, helped them to try and solve their own problems by putting
forth some example and suggested alternative ways to enhance their mental strength that will
perhaps be helpful to increase their ability to solve their own problems. Some students need follow
up to keep track of their mental health condition. Glimpses of the session– Report on 3rd
Counselling session Organisedby PsychologicalCounsellingCellon2 5.4.2022 Date–25.04.2022 Venue–
Psychological Counselling Cell. Time– 01:00 p.m. -4 p.m. No. of students participated in the session–
7 Name of the students who participated in the seminar: 1. Damini Dey 2. Sayantani Koley 3. Sneha
Ghosh 4. Puja Talukdar 5. Abhijit Guchhait 6. Suhel Adak 7. Amartya Roy About the Counselling
Session: The Counselling Session was conducted upon getting the names of the candidates willing or
requiring counselling. The students were shortlisted based on their need and risk assessment. The
students with the greatest needs were prioritized for this session. Objectives: The objectives of the
counselling sessions were: • To understand the problems that is affecting the student, • To help the
students attain a positive mental health, • To help the students work out a plan to solve their
difficulties, • To inspire successful endeavour towards attainment of life goals and happiness.
Outcome in Brief - Participant students in this session face various family related problems, involving
feeling, verbal and emotional abuse by family members. Few of them has lack of confidence and lack
of self-esteem that creates depression, anxiety and frustration, .Family related issues also lead to
depression and lack of self-confidence. Mrs. Anindita Mukherjee, Psychologist and counsellor was
trying to solve these problems by suggesting them ways that can help boost their confidence and
alleviate depression, and suggested various exercises and techniques to develop their mental
strength. Some students need follow up sessions to monitor their problems. Students participated
freely with the counsellor regarding their problem; few of them need more than one follow up
session and students felt happy upon discussing their problems with the counsellor. Report on 4th
Counselling session Organized by Psychological Counselling Cell on 10.5.22 Date – 10.5.2022 Venue –
Psychological Counselling Cell. Time – 12:30 p.m. - 4 p.m. No. of students participated in the session
– 7 Name of the students who participated in counselling: 1.Akash Ghosh 2.Tushar Shaw 3.Sanhita
Chakraborty 4. Debasish Kangshabanik 5. Anusree Karmakar 6. Subhecha Naskar 7. Anindita Gope
The students in the session had problems varying from anxiety, stress, lack of confidence and anger
management issues. One of the student had unsolved traumatic issues and also had trust isssues
with family members. Another student had episodes of emotional outbursts because of the unsolved
past family history and she was given certain exercises to practice at home, dialogue between the
student and the parents was required and so a follow up was suggested. Another student was
suffering from mobile addiction which was hampering their day-to-day activities like inability to
decide and feeling restless all the time. Counsellors Notes: Follow up required for one of the
candidate. Report on 5th Counselling session Organized by Psychological Counselling Cell on 24.5.22
Date – 24.5.2022 Venue – Psychological Counselling Cell. Time – 12:30 p.m. - 4 p.m. No. of students
participated in the session – 6 Name of the students who participated in counseling: 1.Anuradha
Saha 2.Shilpi Koley 3.Monosree Das 4. Damini Dey 5. Lisa Ghosh 6. Aditya Pal The students in the
session had problems varying from anxiety, stress, lack of confidence, lack of motivation and family
issues. One of the student had unsolved traumatic issues and had troubled mother, and lives in a
disharmonic situation with mother. Another student had developed family issues, after her parents
lost jobs during the lockdown and they had to take up all the responsibility of the household Another
student was having difficulty with personal relations leading to lack of concentration, poor mental
health thereby leading to psychological disturbances. Counsellors Notes: Follow up required for two
of the candidate.
Contemporary Issues in Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10, Number 1 Copyright by
author(s); CC-BY 1 The Clute Institute Significance Of Life Skills Education Ravindra Prajapati, Ph.D.,
Fiji National University, Fiji Bosky Sharma, Fiji National University, Fiji Dharmendra Sharma, Ph.D., Fiji
National University, Fiji ABSTRACT Adolescence is a period when the intellectual, physical, social,
emotional and all the capabilities are very high, but, unfortunately, most of the adolescents are
unable to utilize their potential to maximum due to various reasons. They face many emerging issues
such as global warming, famines, poverty, suicide, population explosion as well as other issues like
alcoholism, drug abuse, sexual abuse, smoking, juvenile delinquency, anti-social acts, etc. that have
an adverse effect on them and others too, to a large extent. The cut-throat competition,
unemployment, lack of job security, etc. are some of the major concerns for the educated and as a
result, they are caught in the mad race. This new challenge requires immediate and effective
responses from a socially responsible system of education. ‘Education’ is important, but education to
support and live life better is more important. It has been felt that life skills education bridges the
gap between basic functioning and capabilities. It strengthens the ability of an individual to meet the
needs and demands of the present society and helps in dealing with the above issues in a manner to
get desired behavior practical. Imparting life skill training through inculcating life skill education will
help youth to overcome such difficulties in life. The present paper focuses on the importance of life
skills education and the benefits of imparting life skill education in our curriculum i.e. developing
social, emotional & thinking skills in students, as they are the important building blocks for a
dynamic citizen, who can cope up with future challenges, and survive well. Keywords: Life Skills
Education; Adolescent; Challenges INTRODUCTION n the new millennium, education is undergoing a
revolutionized change regarding science & technology, globalization, privatization, urbanization,
industrialization, etc. Today’s youth are facing many emerging issues such as global warming,
famines, poverty, suicide, population explosion as well as social, emotional, physical and
psychological issues. Cut-throat competition, unemployment, lack of job security, etc. are some of
the major concerns for the educated and as a result, they are caught in the mad race. No one has
time for his/her ‘self’, to develop empathy with surrounding and to have harmony in society. Young
mind is being considered, as the most productive members of the society, due to their physical and
intellectual capability. But in real scenario, most of them are unable to utilize their potential in an
appropriate way due to lack of guidance and motivation. Social problems like alcoholism, drug
abuse, sexual abuse, smoking, juvenile delinquency, anti-social acts, etc. have an adverse effect on
them and others too, to a large extent. This new challenge requires immediate and an effective
response from a socially responsible system of education. Education, now a days is hence, very
important, but the kind of education, to support and live life better is more important. Thus, the
cardinal focus of Education, therefore, needs an extraordinary emphasis on developing such skills in
students, as they are the important building blocks for a dynamic citizen, who can cope up with
future challenges, and survive. Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) India has recognized
this fact that it is necessary to develop scholastic as well as co-scholastic areas, and hence, has made
life skill education as a compulsory element in its curriculum. It has been felt, that life skills
education bridges the gap between basic functioning and capabilities. It I Contemporary Issues in
Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10, Number 1 Copyright by author(s); CC-BY 2 The
Clute Institute strengthens the ability of an individual to meet the needs and demands of the present
society. Thus, a relevant life skill education helps in dealing with the above issues in a manner to get
desired behavior practical. REVIEW OF LITERATURE The topic has been a significant area of interest
to the researchers, theorists, and practitioners, and there have been numerous researches carried
out to emphasize the importance & effectiveness of life skills education in the development of
students’ social, emotional and cognitive development & dealing with their psychosocial problems
and issues. According to Albertyn et al. (2004) life skills training enhance critical thinking abilities,
which further impacts were living life actively, being responsible in the job and in future planning
too. Ramesh and Farshad C. (2004) in his study proved the effectiveness of like skills training in
increasing mental and physical health, pro-social behavior and decreasing in behavioral, social
problems & self-destructive behaviors. Smith & et al., (2004) noted significant improvement in
interpersonal relationship and reduction in aggression and behavioral problems. Tuttle et al., (2006),
during their investigation, add the life skills to students' curriculum. The results of this study
suggested the extraordinary capability of teens to positive promotion and flexibility. Vranda and Rao
(2011) proved that life skills training enhanced their psychosocial Competencies. Puspakumarag
(2013) in his study showed that life skills training was effective in preventing a wide range of
problems such as substance abuse, teenage pregnancies, violence Bullying & to promote self-
confidence and selfesteem among the adolescents. Roodbari, Sahdipoor, and Ghale (2013) in their
research showed that life skills training has a positive effect and improves social development,
emotional and social adjustment, suggesting an increase in compatibility of children and public
health. The present paper focuses on how enhancing social, emotional and thinking skills through
life skills education, helps the 21st- century youngsters to achieve their goals strengthens the
abilities to meet the needs and demands of the present society and be successful in life. LIFE SKILL
EDUCATION According to UNICEF, Life Skills are a behavior change or behavior development
approach designed to address balance of three areas: • Knowledge • Attitude • Skills. The world
bodies such as UNICEF, UNESCO, and WHO list the ten core Life Skills as: 1. Self-awareness 2. Critical
thinking 3. Creative thinking 4. Decision making 5. Problem Solving 6. Effective communication 7.
Interpersonal relationship 8. Empathy 9. Coping with stress 10. Coping with emotion Contemporary
Issues in Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10, Number 1 Copyright by author(s); CC-
BY 3 The Clute Institute Life skills training/ education takes into account psychosocial competencies
and interpersonal skills that help students to take right decisions, solve problems, think critically and
creatively, communicate effectively, build healthy relationships, empathize with others, and cope
with managing their lives in a healthy and productive manner. (WHO) defines Life skills as the
abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with the
demands and challenges of everyday life. Life skill has been classified into three broad categories: •
Thinking skills: Thinking skills are the skill that enhances the logical faculty of the brain using an
analytical ability, thinking creatively and critically, and developing problem-solving skills and
improving decision-making abilities. • Social skills: Social skills include interpersonal skills,
communication skills, leadership skills, management skills, advocacy skills, co-operation and team
building skills, etc. • Emotional skills: Emotional skills, involves, knowing and being comfortable with
oneself. Thus, self– management, including managing/coping with feelings, emotions, stress and
resisting peer and family pressure. Imparting ‘Life Skills Education’ In Classroom Imparting Life Skills
Education in classroom has been researched meticulously. In the light of the above literature review,
now have been a proven fact that it has positive outcome when taught as a part of curriculum Yadav
P, Iqbal N (2009). There are various past research indications, over life skills be implemented as a
training program, as an intervention approach and a model contributing to healthy development of
adolescents. Thus, the significance of life skills education and in the following section researchers
have tried to attempt, how with the help of simple activities it can be implemented in classroom
settings. Different activities that can be used to enhance Life Skills in Students are as follows:
Classroom Discussions: An activity, providing opportunities for students to learn and practice turning
to one another in solving problems. Enables students to deepen their understanding of the topic and
personalize their connection to it. Develops skills, in listening, assertiveness, and empathy.
Brainstorming: It allows students to generate ideas quickly and spontaneously. Helps students use
their imagination and think out of the box. Good discussion starter because the class can creatively
generate ideas. It is essential to evaluate the pros and cons of each idea or rank ideas according to
certain criteria. Role Plays: Along with being a fun activity and involves whole class, to be active and
participative, it also provides an excellent strategy for practicing skills; experiencing how one might
handle a potential situation in real life; increasing empathy for others and their point of view; and
increasing insight into own feelings. Groups: Groups are helpful when the time is limited as it
maximizes student input. Allows students interactions, allows to, know, one another better which in
a way enhances team building and team work. Educational Games and Simulations: It promotes fun,
active learning, and rich discussion as participants work hard to prove their points or earn points.
They require the combined use of knowledge, attitudes, and skills and allow students to test out
assumptions and abilities in a relatively safe environment. Analysis of Situation and Case Studies: It
gives a chance, to analyze, explore, challenges, dilemmas and safely test solutions for; providing
opportunities for working together in groups, sharing idea, new learnings and gives insight and
promotes sometimes to see things differently. Case studies are like powerful catalysts for thought
and discussion. Engaging in this thinking process; students improve their own, critical thinking,
decision-making skills. It also gives chance to confront with risks or any challenges and find ways to
cope with it. Contemporary Issues in Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10, Number 1
Copyright by author(s); CC-BY 4 The Clute Institute Story-Telling: Can help students think about local
problems and develop critical thinking skills, creative skills to write stories, or interact to tell stories.
‘Story-Telling’ lends itself to draw analogies or make comparisons, help discover healthy solutions. It
also enhances attention, concentration, listening skills and develops patience and endurance.
Debates: Provides opportunity to address a particular issue in depth and creatively. Health issues
lend themselves well: students can debate, for instance, whether smoking should be ban in public
places in a community. It allows students to defend a position that may mean a lot to them. It offers
a chance to practice higher thinking skills. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION A relevant and proper
implementation of life skill education is a need of an hour, for today’s society. Imparting life skills
education to the students, can be helpful as it specifically addresses the needs of children, helps in
motivating, providing practical, cognitive, emotional, social and self-management skills for life
adjustments. Yadav P, Iqbal N(2009) showed positive results of imparting life skills education to
students and bringing the change in adolescent’ s attitude, thought and behavior by providing
supportive environment to them. According to Errecart et al., (1991) and Caplan et al., (1992) life
skills education proves to be an effective approach in primary prevention education, as its more
interactive, uses problem solving approach and is activities based. Hence, teacher and the taught
both involves in learn and fun too. On the whole, life skills education, have found to be an effective
psychosocial intervention strategy for promoting positive social, and mental health of adolescents
which plays an important role in all aspects such as strengthening coping strategies and developing
self-confidence and emotional intelligence, as well as enhancing critical thinking, problem solving
and decision making skills as has been well documented in the aforementioned studies. Thus, there
is, significance and importance of life skills education to be integrated into the regular school
curriculum and given on a daily basis by a life skills trainer/ teacher/counsellor to enhance the
mental health of students, equip them with better adapted skills to face the challenges of changing
life situations and empower them to become fully functioning contributors to the host society in
particular and the world in general. In the light of above discussion, it could be concluded, that, Life
skill education has its importance and significance in overall development of students. Our findings
are in common to the findings of Botvin, et al., (1998), Nair. M.K.C, (2005) many more, suggesting
life skill education program as a good supportive system for adolescents. Future Implications:
Although considerable progress has been made in the past decade, and in the present study too, to
reflect, life skills education, as an effective mode of education, which does enhances social,
emotional and thinking skills, and helps the 21st- century youngsters to achieve their goals, by
strengthening their abilities to meet the needs and demands of the present society and be successful
in life but still further empirical research is needed from future researchers, academicians and
professionals in the related field to demonstrate robust findings. AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES Dr. R.K.
Prajapati, has done his Bachelors & Masters in Psychology from M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana,
India. He completed his PhD- Psychology in 2011. He is presently working as a Clinical Psychologist,
Empower Pacific, lautoka, Fiji. His work experiences mark his training and competence at both
National & International Organizations. He has also been involved in teaching, Training, research and
consultancy. His research papers published in peer reviewed journals. Dr. Dharmendra Sharma, has
done his Bachelors & Masters in Psychology from MLSU, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India. He completed his
PhD- Psychology in 2013. He is presently working as a Counselor, Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji.
His work experiences mark his training and competence at both National & State Organizations. He
has also been involved in teaching and research and has developed two psychometric scales and
have published a book, wrote chapters in a book and have research papers published in peer
reviewed journals. Contemporary Issues in Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10,
Number 1 Copyright by author(s); CC-BY 5 The Clute Institute Ms. Bosky Sharma, holds a Bachelors &
Maters degree in Clinical Psychology and is a Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical & Applied
Hypnotherapy 2010. She completed her Bachelors in Education in 2012. Currently, she is affiliated
with Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji, as a Counselor. She has acquired excellent training and
practical exposure for counselling & teaching Psychology at Secondary & Tertiary Level. Along with
her inclination and passion towards research she has published a book, few chapters in book and
done research paper publications too in peer reviewed journals. REFERRENCES Botvin, G., Griffin, K.,
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Ramesht, M., & Farshad, C. (2006). Study of life skills training in prevention of drug abuse in
students. Lecture, The 3rd Seminar of Students Mental Health; Iran University of Science and
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(2006). Results of a 3-Year Study of Two Methods of Delivery of Life Skills Training. Health Education
& Behavior, 33(3), 325-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198105285020 Tuttle, J., Campbell-
Heider, N., & David, T. (2006). Positive Adolescent Life Skills Training for High-Risk Teens: Results of a
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Contemporary Issues in Education Research – First Quarter 2017 Volume 10, Number 1 Copyright by
author(s); CC-BY 6 The Clute Institute NOTES

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