BRAKES

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO BRAKE SYSTEMS

LESSON 1: FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF BRAKE SYSTEMS

I. Terms and definitions

A. Brake fading — Loss of brakes, usually due to heat.

B. Brake lining — Material mounted on the surface of a brake shoe or

pad. Brake lining produces a great deal of friction when brought
together with another friction surface.

C. Brake pads — Replaceable friction surfaces that are forced against

the rotor by the caliper piston.

D. Brake shoe — Drum brake component that is forced against a

brake drum in order to create friction.

E. Caliper — A nonrotating disc brake component that forms the

cylinder and contains the piston(s) and brake pads. The caliper
produces braking action by using hydraulic pressure to cause a
clamping action on a rotating disc.

F. Coefficient of friction — The amount of friction produced by two

objects rubbing against each other.

G. Disc brakes — Brake system that creates friction by forcing brake

pads against a rotating disc.

H. Drum brakes — Brake system that creates friction by forcing brake

shoes against brake drums.

I. Kinetic energy — A type of energy that moves objects.

J. Kinetic friction — A type of friction occurring between two objects,

one of which is moving.

K. Static friction — A type of friction occurring between two objects,

both of which are stationary.

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II. Effect of kinetic energy on the movement of a vehicle

A. The energy that moves a vehicle is called kinetic energy. A moving

vehicle encounters resistance that depletes (takes away) its kinetic
energy. Such resistance includes friction created by the vehicle’s
tires rolling against the pavement and by the vehicle’s body moving
through the atmosphere (wind resistance).

B. However, wind resistance and tire friction only slow a vehicle

gradually. A modern brake system can bring a vehicle to an abrupt
stop by rapidly converting a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat
through the use of friction and then dissipating it.

III. The principles of friction involved in brake action

A. Friction is the resistance to movement that results from two objects

moving or rubbing against each other. There are two types of
friction: kinetic and static.

1. Kinetic friction occurs between two objects, one of which is

moving. Kinetic friction always produces heat. The more
kinetic friction produced, the more heat produced.
Automotive braking systems use kinetic friction to convert the
energy of a moving vehicle into heat.

2. Static friction occurs between two objects that are stationary.

Automotive braking systems use static friction to hold a vehicle
while it is parked. Static friction produces no heat.

B. Various factors that affect the amount of friction produced between

two objects

1. The rougher the surfaces of two objects, the more friction they
produce.

a. Extremely rough surfaces create the most friction, but

rough surfaces also wear down quickly. Therefore,
automotive brakes use relatively smooth surfaces to avoid
rapid wear.

b. In order to compensate for their smooth surfaces,

automotive brakes are applied with a great amount of
pressure over a relatively large contact area.

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2. The greater the pressure bringing the objects together, the
more friction they produce. Therefore, the greater the
pressure applied to the brakes, with all other factors equal, the
greater their stopping power.

3. The greater the amount of shared contact area between two

objects, the greater the amount of friction the objects produce.

a. Automotive braking systems use the largest contact area

possible.

b. The greater the contact area of a brake shoe or pad, the

less heat the shoe or pad generates. Less heat allows for
more friction, which makes the brakes more efficient.

NOTE: On drum brake systems, a brake shoe is applied

to a brake drum to create friction. On disc brake
systems, a brake pad is applied to a disc to create
friction. Both of these systems are discussed later in this
module.

4. The hotter the friction surface of two objects, the less friction
produced. (Rub your hands together and feel the heat!)

a. All heat that the brake system creates must dissipate as

rapidly as it is created. The brake system can store little
or no heat.

b. Brake friction surfaces are made of a material that can

conduct heat easily.

c. Braking system components that produce friction (brake

shoes or brake pads) are positioned so that air cools
them. In some braking systems, forced air cools the
components.

C. The amount of friction that two objects produce when rubbing

against each other is called the coefficient of friction.

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D. An important brake friction surface is the brake lining that is
mounted on either a brake shoe or brake pad. The brake lining
produces friction by directly contacting another friction surface,
either a brake drum or disc. The brake lining and the material that
it touches must have the following special characteristics.

1. The brake drum or disc must conduct heat easily, hold its
shape under extremely high heat, withstand rapid temperature
changes, resist warping and distortion, and wear well in
general. Therefore, brake drums and discs are typically
constructed of iron or steel combined with aluminum.

2. The brake lining must be somewhat softer than the brake drum
or disc. At present, most brake linings are made of organic
materials, metallic particles, and other minerals held together
by a bonding agent.

NOTE: For years, asbestos was commonly used in brake

linings. Because asbestos is a cancer-causing substance, federal
law prohibits its use in brake systems.

3. When the brake lining is applied to a drum or disc, it is

important that the proper coefficient of friction is produced in
order to ensure that the brakes are effective.

a. If the friction coefficient is too great, the brakes may be

“grabby” or overly sensitive. Overly sensitive brakes may
cause the vehicle to skid too easily.

b. If the friction coefficient is too low, brake application

requires excessive pressure. Applying the brakes with
excessive pressure creates excessive heat that could result
in brake failure.

NOTE: Heat always reduces the coefficient of friction

between two objects. Hence, high temperatures may
cause brakes to fail.

c. If the brakes create more heat than they can dissipate, the
friction coefficient reduces, which causes the brakes to
fade.

• Excessive heat also causes bonding agents in the lining

to melt and flow to the surface, which produces a glaze
on the shoe lining.

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• This glaze reduces the brake’s friction coefficient and
causes more brake fading.

• Brake application then requires more pressure, thus

creating more heat and more glazing.

IV. How brakes are applied and how the hydraulic system functions

A. Automotive brake systems fall into two major categories: service

brakes (hydraulic brakes) and parking brakes.

1. Service brakes stop the vehicle when it is in motion.

2. A parking brake holds the vehicle while it is parked. A

parking brake is not designed to stop a moving vehicle.

NOTE: Parking brakes often use the same friction surfaces as

service brakes.

B. Hydraulic brake systems

1. In modern vehicles, hydraulic systems transfer pressure

(which the driver applies) from the brake pedal to the brake
shoes or pads. In some brake systems, servo action and/or
power boosters enhance pressure from the driver’s pedal.

2. Most vehicles use two separate hydraulic systems to activate

the brakes; therefore, failure of one hydraulic system does not
result in complete brake loss.

a. On some vehicles, one hydraulic system activates the

front-wheel brakes while the other hydraulic system
activates the rear-wheel brakes.

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b. On other types of vehicles, one hydraulic system activates
the brakes on one front wheel and one rear wheel while
another hydraulic system activates the brakes on the
other front wheel and rear wheel. In this design, the
brakes on one hydraulic system are always at opposite
corners of the vehicle.

3. How the hydraulic braking system functions

a. When the driver presses the brake pedal, hydraulic

pressure builds in the master cylinder.

b. Hydraulic pressure travels through the brake lines and

valves to various brake activators — either the wheel
cylinders or calipers.

c. The wheel cylinders or calipers convert the hydraulic

pressure into mechanical force.

d. In drum brake systems, hydraulic pressure causes a wheel

cylinder to press the brake shoe against the brake drum.

e. In disc brake systems, hydraulic pressure causes a caliper

to press a brake pad against a rotating disc. Therefore, in
both systems, the action of one component pressing
against another creates friction and slows the vehicle.

NOTE: Wheel cylinders and calipers are discussed in

more detail later in this module.

f. When the brake releases, various devices move the brake

shoes or brake pads away from the drums or discs.

NOTE: A cable or some other mechanical linkage — not

the hydraulic system — activates the parking brake.

V. Factors associated with controlled stopping of the vehicle

A. Vehicle weight

1. The more weight a moving vehicle has, the more kinetic energy
it possesses. Brake systems must convert kinetic energy into
heat; therefore, any increase in vehicle weight puts more
demand on the brakes.

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2. If a vehicle’s weight doubles, the amount of kinetic energy that
the brakes must convert into heat doubles. The amount of
heat energy resulting from the conversion also doubles. Brakes
on an overloaded vehicle may therefore become ineffective due
to overheating.

B. Vehicle speed

1. When the speed of a vehicle doubles, the brakes must convert

four times the amount of kinetic energy into heat. Speed
greatly increases the demand on a vehicle’s brakes.

2. A combination of high speed and excessive weight may push a

vehicle’s brakes beyond their performance limit, resulting in a
serious loss of stopping power.

C. Friction between tire and road

1. The point where a vehicle’s tire contacts the road is called the
tire footprint. Changes in the tire footprint affect a vehicle’s
ability to stop. Below is a discussion of the factors affecting
the tire footprint.

a. The larger a tire’s diameter is, the larger its footprint is.

• The larger the tire footprint is, the more stopping

power can be applied at the tire’s contact point with the
road.

• However, it is important to realize that the greater a

tire’s diameter is, the more braking power is needed to
stop the vehicle.

NOTE: A general rule is that the larger a tire’s diameter

is, the more braking power is required.

b. The greater the width of a tire is, the larger the tire
footprint is.

• The larger the tire footprint is, the more stopping

power can be applied at the tire’s contact point with the
road.

• However, it is important to realize that the greater a

tire’s width is, the more braking power is needed to stop
the vehicle.

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NOTE: A general rule is that wide tires require large
brakes.

c. Excessive vehicle weight can distort tire tread and

thereby reduce the tire’s hold on the road. Tires that
cannot hold the road reduce the vehicle’s ability to stop.

d. High vehicle speed can aerodynamically lift a vehicle as it

moves. This lifting reduces the tire’s hold on the road
and reduces the vehicle’s ability to stop.

NOTE: Aerodynamic lift merely adds to the stopping

problems that high speed creates. Remember that every
time a vehicle’s speed doubles, the vehicle’s required
stopping power quadruples, even if there is no
aerodynamic lift.

NOTE: To control the vehicle, friction must occur at the

tire footprint. If this friction is lost, the vehicle is out of
control.

e. Tires grip the road more securely and can stop better if
the wheels are moving. Therefore, the stopping power
decreases if the brakes lock up the wheels.

• Automotive engineers carefully avoid designing brake

systems that are too powerful for the cars in which they
are installed.

• If a brake system locks up the wheels too easily, this

significantly reduces stopping power and vehicle control.

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