Abstract

Protection of a microgrid is one of the major decisive and daunting technical challenges for its
deployment into the power system and it must respond effectively to both internal faults and
external faults in both modes of operation. During the parallel operation, if there is any fault
occurs on the utility grid, then the desired response is to isolate microgrid from the utility grid to
protect the critical loads. Whereas, minimum possible section of the faulted feeder should be
isolated for any for any fault occurs inside the microgrid. The penetration of DERs not only
changes the power flow in the distribution system but also alters the level and direction of fault
currents because of dynamic characteristics and intermittent nature of the renewable energy
sources, which intensely affects the operation and co-ordination between the protection devices.
Since, most of the protection devices of the traditional distribution system like fuses, reclosers,
relays and circuit breakers are designed based on sensing of unidirectional fault current. Hence,
these traditional protective devices are incapable to provide proper protection for the reliable and
safety operation of microgrids.
In this report, the issues and coordination strategies of overcurrent protection of microgrid are
discussed apparently. Further, some research gaps have been found from the literature and some
research objectives are proposed for future work in this area.

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Chapter 1 Introduction
Due to continues increase in power demand and scarcity of fossil fuels, the distributed energy
resources (DERs) are attractive option for several advantages such as reduction in the peak
demand, CO2 emission, line cost and increases supply reliability. The penetration of these DERs
in to electric grid results a new grid paradigm known as microgrid. A microgrid is an aggregated
power system, which comprises a cluster of interconnected loads, various distributed energy
resources and energy storage devices. It can operate in both grid connected and islanded mode of
operation and provides all the needs of its local customers [1].
From the utility view, the microgrid is supposed to be a single controllable unit of the traditional
power system network, which retaliates very quickly to meet the requirements of the
transmission system. From the customer’s view, the microgrid is a specifically designed power
system which ensures local reliability, enhances the safety of power, decreases the emission,
increases the efficiency, improves quality in supply by reducing the voltage sags, and provides
most economical power to the customers. From the environmental view, microgrids reduce the
effects of greenhouse gases such as global warming, depletion of the Ozone layer and
environmental pollution by using suitable low carbon technologies [2].
The typical schematic diagram of a microgrid is depicted in Fig. 1 [3]. The microgrid as shown
in Fig. 1 comprises of three feeders such as feeder A, feeder B, and feeder C. The circuit
breakers CB1, CB2, and CB3 are provided for connection and disconnection of feeders A, B, and
C respectively, and the sub-sections of each feeder are protected by operating sectional circuit
breakers (SCBs). The feeders A and B are connected by micro-sources and storage devices
through microcontrollers (MCs) and loads those are connected to feeder A and B are assumed to
be priority loads and receive a continuous power supply. But, the loads connected to the feeder C
are assumed as non-priority loads and which will be curtailed when necessary. The entire
microgrid is coupled with the macrogrid through a circuit breaker available at a point of common
coupling (PCC) and the breaker can be operated for connection and disconnection of microgrid.
The main objective of the MC is to control the power-flow and voltage-profile of DERs in
accordance with the load variations and various disturbances. The CC performs the overall
operation and protection of microgrid with help of microcontrollers.
In general, the microgrid has the ability to operate in two modes of operation, such as grid-
connected and islanded modes of operation. In grid-connected mode, the microgrid operates in
parallel with microgrid and it receives or sends the power from or to the macro-grid. Whereas in
the case of any abnormal conditions occur inside the macrogrid, the microgrid will be transferred
to islanded mode of operation. This will be attained by following three different cases [4]:
Case 1: The entire microgrid can be isolated by operating the circuit breaker available at the
PCC and both the critical loads and non-critical loads are supplied by micro-sources those are
connected to feeder A and feeder B.

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Case 2: The feeders A and B are isolated together by using static switch (SS) and the priority
loads will receive power from micro-sources. Whereas, the non-critical loads connected to the
feeder C will be disconnected by opening CB3.
Case 3: The feeders A and B are isolated by operating the breakers CB1, and CB2, respectively.
The power will be supplied to critical loads of each feeder through the corresponding micro-
sources and the non-critical loads of feeder C are curtailed by opening the breaker CB3.

Fig. 1. The schematic diagram of microgrid [3]

Generally, the micro-sources are not preferable to connect directly with microgrid. Hence, these
micro-sources are equipped with either power electronic-based interfacing units or rotating
machine-based interfacing units and the characteristics of these interfacing units play a dominant
role in terms of protection, control, coordination of the microgrid in both modes of operation.
The gas turbine generator systems (low-speed), diesel generator units, and few types of wind

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turbine generator systems are adopted with the rotating machine-based coupling units. Whereas,
the electronically coupled units are adopted by the solar photovoltaic systems, gas turbine
generator systems (high and medium speed) and few types of wind turbine generator systems.
These systems are either dispatchable systems or non-dispatchable systems. In order to increase
the efficiency of non-dispatchable units like wind turbine units, solar photovoltaic units, these
are set to operate at maximum power by using the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT).
Also, every component of a microgrid is featured with the Plug-and-Play and Peer-to-Peer
capabilities. The Plug-and-Play functionality ensures that a unit can be connected to microgrid
at any point without altering the protection and control schemes of pre-existence units. The Peer-
to-Peer functionality implies that there is no requirement of any critical components like a master
controller or primary storage for the operation of the microgrid. Even though there is a loss of
any microsource or component, the microgrid insures its normal operation by adding an extra
source or component.

1.1 Protection issues of microgrid

The Protection of a microgrid is one of the major decisive and daunting technical challenges for
its deployment into the power system. The Protection system must be responded effectively for
both internal faults and external faults in both modes of operation. During the parallel operation
mode, if there is any fault occurs on the main grid, then the desired response is to disconnect the
microgrid from utility grid to protect the critical loads. Whereas, when an internal fault occurs
then it isolates a minimum possible section of microgrid feeder to clear the fault. Most of the
protection devices of the traditional distribution system like fuses, reclosers, relays and circuit
breakers are designed based on sensing of unidirectional fault current. The penetration of DERs
not only changes the power flow in the distribution system but also alters the level and direction
of fault currents because of dynamic characteristics and intermittent nature of the renewable
energy sources, which intensely affects the operation and co-ordination between the protection
devices [4]. Hence, the traditional protective devices are incapable to provide the reliability and
safety operation for Microgrids. In recent years, several researchers have been addressed many
issues regarding the protection of microgrids and among which the most significant issues are
discussed below [5-9]:
 Dynamics in level of fault currents
 Bi-directional fault current
 False tripping
 Blinding of protection

1.1.1 Dynamics in the level of fault current

The magnitude of fault current is altered based on configurations of microgrid. When any fault
happens in the grid-connected mode, then the fault current will be contributed by both utility grid
and DERs of the microgrid. But, in islanded mode, the fault current is contributed by only DERs
of microgrids. The DERs which are coupled with rotating machine-based interfacing units have
the capability to increase fault currents, but power electronic-based DERs cannot feed significant
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amount of fault currents and the capability of these sources to feed fault current is limited to 2
p.u. range. Most of the traditional over current protection devices cannot even sense this range of
fault currents and some relays will take more time to respond. Thus, the level of fault current will
change frequently, depending on the type, size, point of connection and number of DERs present
within the microgrid. Hence, it is very difficult to estimate fault current in both grid-connected
and islanded modes.
Consider a scenario, where an internal fault occurs on the microgrid during the grid connected
mode of operation as shown in Fig. 1.1. In this case, the contribution of fault current is not only
from utility grid but also DERs (G1 and G2) of Microgrid. i.e. If = IGf +Ig1f+Ig2f.
Whereas, during the islanded mode of operation, the fault current will be fed by only DERs (G1
and G2) of microgrid i.e. If =Ig1f+Ig2f as shown in Fig. 1.2. Hence, it is to be noted fault current
seen by the protection devices in grid-connected mode is much larger than in islanded mode of
operation.

Fig. 1.1. Magnitude of fault current during grid-connected mode

Fig. 1.2. Magnitude of fault current during islanded mode

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1.1.2 Bi-directional fault current
The power flow in the distribution system has been changed due to rapid growth in the number
of distributed energy sources incorporated into the network. The penetration of DERs not only
changes the power flow in the distribution system but also alters the level and direction of fault
currents because of dynamic characteristics and intermittent nature of the renewable energy
sources, which intensely affects the operation and coordination of the protection device. Hence,
the traditional protective devices like unidirectional over current relays and fuses are
incompatible to provide the reliability and safety operation for Microgrids. The principle of Bi-
directional fault current is illustrated in below Fig. 1.3. From the figure, it can be noticed that for
downstream fault the current flowing through the relay is in forward direction but whereas for
upstream fault the current sensed by the relay is in reverse direction.

Fig. 1.3. Bi-directional fault current in microgrid

1.1.3 False tripping
This is also named as sympathetic or spurious tripping. The issue of false tripping arises when a
DER is located near the substation, which supplies fault current to a fault that has occurred on a
neighboring feeder coupled to the same substation. Once this magnitude of fault current exceeds
pick up settings of the relay then it isolates the healthy feeder. This is explained in detail using
the Fig. 1.4. In this case, the distribution generator (G1) located in healthy feeder1 is contributing
fault current to a fault in feeder2. when fault current contribution of G1 exceeds current setting,
then relay1 will be tripped before the operation of faulted feeder relay2. As a result, the
unnecessary power interruption will occur for loads connected to healthy feeder1.

Fig. 1.4. False tripping in microgrid

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1.1.4 Blinding of protection
In a microgrid, during the occurrence of fault on any feeder at a distant from the substation, then
the contribution of maingrid to total fault current is decreased due to the presence of DERs. In
Fig. 1.5, the current sensed by the relay is I Gf, which is comparatively less than the actual current
at fault point i.e. If = IGf +Ig1f. This difference between maingrid contribution and the total fault
current will become higher as more number of DERs connected to a microgrid. Consequently,
the over current relay of the feeder in microgrid is incapable to detect the fault condition and
which leads to faulty operation of whole protection system. This mechanism is known as
blinding of protection and this arises mostly when synchronous generators present in the
microgrid. In order to analyze the effect of above mentioned issue, a radial feeder with a DER
connected at a distance ‘d’ has been considered and assume a fault incepted at far end of the
feeder i.e. at a distance ‘L’, which is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Fig. 1.5. Blinding of protection in microgrid

The equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.5 is depicted in the Fig. 1.6. Let us consider VG and Vg are
the voltages of main grid and distributed generator respectively, the fault currents contributed by
both grid and distribution generator are represented as I Gf and Igf respectively, Zs, ZL and Zg are the
impedances of the main grid, line, and DER respectively and ‘l’ is the distance parameter which
indicates the location of DER with respect to the total feeder length and this is defined as:

(1)

Fig. 1.6. Equivalent circuit of Fig. 1.5

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To obtain the expressions for currents I Gf and Igf, the Thevenin’s theorem is implemented on the
network shown in Fig. 1.6 and the equivalent Thevenin’s circuit is shown below Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7. Equivalent Thevenin’s circuit of Fig. 1.6

Thevenin impedance is given by:

(2)
In equation (2), Zs=jXs is impedance of the main grid, Z g=jXg is impedance of distribution
generator, ZL=RL+jXL is total impedance of the line, l is the relative location of the generator as
stated in equation 1. Now, the three-phase fault current is determined as:

(3)
By substituting the equation 2 in equation 3 yields:

(4)
By applying current division rule, the fault current contributed by grid is given by

(5)
The combination of equation and equation gives:

(6)
The total fault current, If,3ph, which is calculated by the equation 4 is non-linear. So, I Gf,
the grid contributed current, which is obtained from equation 6 is also non-linear in nature. So,
whenever fault occurs at lower end of microgrid’s feeder, the grid contribution to total short
circuit current reduces because the source impedance, Z s, is comparatively higher than the
generator impedance, Zg and also because of distribution generator contribution. So, the fault
current flowing through relay of feeder is less than pickup setting of the relay and as a result
feeder relay cannot detect the fault condition, which leads to inadequate operation of whole
protection system.

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To discuss the protection issues briefly, a 4-bus distribution network as shown in Fig. 1.8 with
grid, synchronous based DER (SBDER), Inverter based DER (IBDER) and having switches (S1-
S3) and relays (R1-R6) is considered. Each fault point in the network must has primary relay
(PR) and backup relay (BR) and the BR will operate after some pre-defined time when its
corresponding PR fails to operate.

Fig. 1.8. Flow of fault currents through relays in DN

For a fault ‘F’, the fault currents contributed by three sources are shown in figure. The fault
current contributed by SBDER is five times the rated current. So, fault current seen by the
relay R3 may be exceeded the pick-up current and which results in unnecessary isolation of
healthy section. Hence, directional overcurrent relays are employed to retain the selectivity. The
fault current flowing through relay R1 with presence of SBDER ( ) is decreased as fault
current contributed by both grid and SBDER. So, the relay R1 may not be detect the fault or it
will take more time to detect the fault. The maximum fault current flows through relay R6 is 2
times the rated current which will affect the sensitivity.
For fault point ‘F’, the R1 and R4 are backup relays to the primary relay R5. With the existence
of SBDER, the fault current ( ) flowing through relay R1 is less than the fault current (
) during the absence of SBDER. whereas, the fault current flowing through R5 is increased due
to presence DERs. Hence, the operation time of relays R1, R5 are increased and decreased
respectively. As a result, the protection co-ordination between the primary and backup relays are
affected due to presence of DERs in distributed networks.

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Chapter 2 Literature survey
In order to overcome the protection issues, several researchers have been proposed various
approaches, namely adaptive protection based overcurrent techniques, multiagent protection
schemes, sequence component based schemes, protection schemes based on fault current
limiters, protection schemes based on variables namely current samples, travelling wave based
approach, and local variables and protection coordination strategies such as optimization
methods, communication based, and other strategies are discussed in this section.

Fig. 2. Classification of microgrid protection

2.1 Disconnection of DERs

As discussed earlier, the penetration of DERs not only changes the power flow in the distribution
system but also alters the level and direction of fault currents. In [10], it is presented that

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whenever fault occurs the DERs connected to the distribution system are disconnected through
fast switches by sensing the fault current using current sensing device which is located at PCC.
It has some advantages such as the settings of protection devices need not to be changed and the
implementation cost is less. However, the disconnection of DERs is not appropriate because it
reduces the reliability of the system. Also, it prevents the operation of microgrid in islanded
mode.

2.2 Fault current limiters

The Fault Current Limiters (FCL) are series devices used to limit the fault current, flowing from
maingrid to microgrid and vice versa. The FCL should be in minimum position during normal
condition and in maximum position during the short circuit condition (to minimize the losses and
voltage drops).
The fault current limiters are classified as three types such as superconducting FCL,
electromagnetic FCL and solid-state FCL. In superconducting type FCL, the current will be
limited based on the non-linear response of these superconducting materials to temperature,
current and magnetic fields. So, during fault condition these parameters may be exceeded the
pre-defined value [11], in such conditions current limiting will be done. In Electromagnetic
FCL, the fault current limiting behavior is based upon the variations of magnetic fields. The
behavior of current limiting in solid state FCL will depend upon the ON/OFF states of the
semiconductor devices and the presence of semiconductor devices leads to switching losses in
network.
A hybrid superconducting fault current controller [12] is the combination of solid state FCL,
electromagnetic FCL and super conducting FCL. This is one of the effective methods for
limiting and controlling the fault current in microgrid.
Generally, whenever voltage sag occurs then high current will flow through the interconnection
impedance of the main grid and microgrid. As a result, high short circuit fault current should
flow in to the loads of microgrid which may damage the power electronic switches of inverters.
So, in order to limit the short-circuit current the voltage will be set to pre-fault voltage by using
shunt inverters.
Later, a series inverter is incorporated along with the shunt inverter to limit the fault current
during voltage sag. Whenever the voltage sag will occur at PCC, the voltage at the microgrid end
will be raised by introducing impedance in series through the series inverter, so that the fault
current will be limited properly [13].

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A unidirectional fault current limiter (UFCL) is installed between the main grid and microgrid. It
only limits the contribution of microgrid during a fault in the main grid. Whereas, during a fault
in the microgrid, the UFCL is inactive and allows a full contribution main grid. Hence, with this
approach the proposed UFCL can preserve the coordination of main grid overcurrent relays, and
also as an added advantage, alleviate deep voltage sags caused by the main grid faults [14].
In [15], FCL is used to address the protection coordination of DOCRs in microgrid system by
considering both grid connected and islanded mode of operation simultaneously. Genetic
algorithm has been used to find the optimal settings of the relays and obtained results are
compared with particle swarm optimization technique. It is observed that GA gives the better
solution with fast convergence rate and it is able to exit local minima than the Particle swarm
optimization (PSO) technique. The main advantage of the proposed method is that it gives a
single relay setting for both grid connected and islanded mode of operation. However, some
relays are experiencing higher operating times that is not recommendable for feasible operation
of the relays. Also, it does not consider neither fault ride through of synchronous generator nor
the presence of inverter-interfaced DGs and energy storage devices.
In [16], the fault current limiters concept has been used in used to find the single relay settings
for both grid connected and islanded mode operations of microgrids. The optimization
techniques such as cuckoo search and linear programming have been used to find the pickup
current and time dial settings respectively. However, the constraints regarding limits on
operating times of the relays are not considered. As a result, few relays have experienced higher
operating times.
To sum up, this is one of the effective approaches to reduce effect of high fault current in
distribution network and also minimizes the operation time of each relay, co-ordination time of
relays irrespective of microgrid configuration. However, the usage of FCLs results in extra cost
and it is applicable only to systems with certain number of DERs. Also, the location of FCL is
difficult to find due to the dynamic configuration of microgrid.

2.3 Adaptive protection schemes

In [17], an adaptive overcurrent coordination scheme is proposed to improve the sensitivity of
relays in the presence of distributed generation in smart grids. The proposed scheme requires
centralized server to perform load flows, fault and contingency analysis during any topological
and operational changes in the system. These changes in the system are identified using
substation control and data acquisition (SCADA) and a Differential evolution algorithm has been
used to find the optimal settings of DOCRs. The advantages of the proposed scheme are
automatic co-ordination of DOCR, the selectivity and sensitivity of relay are improved.
However, it completely depends on central processor and doesn’t discuss about the failure of
communication and more complex. However, it completely depends on central processor and
doesn’t discuss about the failure of communication and more complex.

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In [18], an adaptive protection co-ordination scheme using DOCRs is proposed for effective
relay co-ordination under the variations of loads, outages of any lines and distributed generation.
An AMPL based IPOPT solver is used to find the optimal settings and the obtained results are
compared with GAMS based SNOPT solver, MATLAB based IPOPT solver, MATLAB based
interior point method, GA and DE.
In [19], an adaptive protection scheme is proposed to solve the protection co-ordination problem
in distribution networks with penetration of distributed generations. The proposed protection
scheme is having three layers such as execution layer, co-ordination layer, and management
layer to calculate the relay settings during any changes in the system. The proposed scheme has
been implemented on Hardware-in-loop test bed to validate its effectiveness using real time
digital simulator.
In [20], an adaptive protection approach has been proposed to solve directional relay co-
ordination in distribution system with distributed generation. The optimum relay settings have
been determined using ant colony optimization algorithm and compared with genetic algorithm.
The proposed approach has been successfully tested for topological changes of network,
contingencies such as line, generator outages, and load demand variations. However, finding the
optimal solution using optimization algorithm should take more time for any changes in the
network.
In [21], an adaptive multi-agent scheme has been proposed for co-ordination of relays in
distribution system with distributed generation. The proposed scheme consists of three agents
namely relay, equipment and DG. All these agents must communicate with each to share the
data. The proposed scheme does not require any central data processor and voltage transformers
result in the reduction of cost. Also, it works effectively for all types of faults including HIFs.
However, it requires the high-speed communication structure for reliable operation and there
could be uncertainties for proper operation of agents.
In [22], sequence currents based adaptive protection approach is proposed for the protection of
distribution network with the presence of DERs. Each relay of the distribution network is
provided with two settings for particular fault point and the selection of these settings is based on
the operation of relay (Primary or Backup). The positive sequence based directional over current
relay module will be selected for primary operation and negative sequence based directional over
current relay module is chosen for the backup operation. The direction of fault current is
measured using phase angle between superimposed and pre-fault currents. Mostly, the inverse
definite minimum time relay characteristics will be used for finding the time of operation for
each relay.
In [23], a new adaptive DOCR based on superimposed components of positive sequence and
negative sequence currents is presented for the protection of microgrid. The proposed method is
tested in four different modes such as islanded mode of operation with only IBDER, islanded
mode of operation with both IBDER and SBDER, Grid-connected mode of operation, and
connection/disconnection of DERs depending up on requirement. An impact factor is considered

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based on these operations of microgrid. Depending on the mode of operation, this impact factor
is calculated using the pre-fault and fault currents seen by the relay.

2.4 Optimization base algorithms

In [24], a new scheme is proposed to find single optimal relay settings for both grid connected
and islanded modes of operation of microgrid by providing dual characteristics to DOCR. Each
relay is provided with four settings (two IP, two TDS) to achieve proper primary-backup relay
co-ordination. These optimal settings of relays are obtained using MATLAB built-in function
fmincon. However, the concept of dual setting is complicated and also it does not discuss what if
communication between primary and back up characteristics of relays fails and also it doesn’t
consider the dynamic changes of microgrid topology.
In [25], a communication assisted dual setting relay protection strategy is proposed for micro-
grids and is capable of handling microgrids in both modes of operation without the need for
adaptive features or the need for fault current limiters. The optimal settings of relays are obtained
using MATLAB built-in function fmincon (minimum constrained non-linear multivariable
function). The primary protection of the scheme is independent of the communication and the
backup protection is dependent on the communication link. The problem is formulated as a
nonlinear programming problem where the main objective is to minimize the overall relay
operating time. The two relays on the same line will need to communicate where the reverse
direction characteristic of each relay will communicate with the forward direction characteristic
of the other relay. However, it doesn’t consider the dynamic changes of microgrid topology and
the test system contains only synchronous generators.
In [26], a new optimization technique known as gravitational search algorithm (GSA) is used to
find the optimal settings of over current relays in distribution system with DGs. The obtained
results are compared with PSO and comparison revealed that proposed GSA has superiority than
PSO in terms of computational speed and solution efficacy. The impact due to different levels of
DG penetration, various types of faults on relay co-ordination has been studied. Further, the
obtained optimal settings are verified using the overcurrent relay simulated in RSCAD.
However, the proposed algorithm is not implanted on larger systems.
In [27], hybrid GA-LP algorithm has been implemented to solve protection co-ordination
problem in microgrid by considering N-1 contingencies such as line, DG and substation outages
in addition with to operation modes of microgrid. The relay co-ordination problem has been
formulated as mixed non-linear programming and is solved to find the optimal relay settings.
However, it is observed that many relays are experienced very high operating times and also it
does not consider the converter-based distribution generation in microgrids.
In [28], a novel method known as GA-NLP is used to find the optimal co-ordination of
directional overcurrent relays. The drawback of GA is, sometimes it gives non-feasible solutions
and if the initial choice is not good, then NLP may be struck at local minimum. To overcome

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drawback of both the methods, the initial solution of relay settings (PS and TDS) are determined
using GA and final optimum solution has calculated using NLP.
In [29], Biogeography-Based optimization (BBO) algorithm is applied to solve the directional
over current relay co-ordination problem. Further, a hybrid BBO with linear programing method
is proposed to enhance the performance of BBO. The proposed algorithm has been implemented
on five different systems and simulation results are compared with well known algorithms
available in recent literature. The results disclose that total operating time of relays has
minimized while using hybrid BBO.

In [30], a new seeker optimization algorithm has been implemented to find the optimal settings
of directional over current relays in multi loop systems. The co-ordination problem has been
converted into both linear (fixed IP, continues TDS) and mixed integer non-linear (discrete IP,
continues TDS) models and the results obtained in both the models are compared with simplex
method, GA, GA-LP, PSO and MINP standard branch and bound algorithm.

In [31], an adaptive differential evolution algorithm (ADE) is implemented to solve non-linear

coordination problem for DOCR. The proposed ADE algorithm has been implemented on three
test systems and performance is compared with few algorithms available in literature. The
comparison revealed that the proposed algorithm is robust and efficient in solving relay co-
radiation problem.
In [32], an adaptive modified firefly algorithm (AMFA) has been proposed to find optimal
coordination of overcurrent relays in radial system with distributed generation. The obtained
results are compared with conventional, FA, and MFA and it has revealed that the proposed
method is faster and decreases the overall operation time of relays. However, it does not
implement on any meshed network, where the complexity of coordination is high.
In [32], Adaptive modified firefly algorithm (AMFA) is proposed to obtained the optimized
coordination of OCRs when DGs are present in the system. It is noticed that the proposed AMFA
is able to achieve the optimized coordination of OCRs with fast convergence rate compared to
firefly (FA) and modified firefly (MFA) and the operation times of primary and backup OCRs
are also reduced. However, it is yet to be implemented on more large and complex systems.
In [33], a new objective function and time-current characteristics have been proposed to handle
the protection co-ordination problem for directional overcurrent relays. An auxiliary variable
(AV) has been added to normal operating time of each relay and all the AVs are considered as
operating constraints. As a result, there is a noticeable decrement in total operating times of all
the DOCRs compared to conventional strategy. The particle swarm optimization algorithm has
been implemented to find the optimal relay settings.

In [34], a two-stage analytical method depends on generalized Benders decomposition has been
used to find the optimal pick up current and time dial settings of directional over current relays.
The proposed method has been solved co-ordination problem by converting as multi integer
nonlinear programming problem. The obtained results are compared with two well known
MINLP solvers such as SBB and BARON.

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In [35], a new time–current–voltage tripping characteristic depends not only on current
magnitude but also on voltage magnitude is proposed to reduce the overall operation time of
DOCRs in meshed distribution networks. The protection coordination optimization (PCO) model
is solved to obtain the optimal settings for proper coordination of all DOCRs under LG, LLG,
LL, and three phase faults. The main objective of the PCO is to minimize the total operating time
of all the relays subjected to the constraints namely protection coordination, relay setting, and
relay operating time. The proposed scheme obtained significant reduction in operating time when
compared to conventional technique in both presence and absence of DERs. However, it doesn’t
consider the effect of dynamic changes in network topology of the system.
In [36], a novel approach capable of finding one optimal settings of the relay is proposed to plan
the proper coordination and that settings are feasible for all possible future installation of DGs.
Consequently, it provides to the utility planners one set of relay settings valid for different
capacities of DG units varying between zero and the maximal desired capacity. It is observed
that the relay settings are need not to be changed with change in penetration of DGs and the
coordination is preserved during the outages of the DGs. However, it doesn’t implement on any
hardware prototype and only synchronous generators are considered but no other DGs namely
solar and wind are not included in test system.

2.5 Communication-based strategies

In [37], a protection strategy is proposed using digital relays and communication for the
protection of microgrids. The differential protection is used as primary protection and if it fails
then a backup signal will be sent to adjacent relay on same bus. If either backup protection or the
communication link fail, the relays employ tertiary protection in the form of comparative voltage
protection. This scheme also detects high impedance faults (HIFs) from the measured differential
current for faults that occur in islanded MGs. The ability to cope with communication failures
increases the reliability of this scheme. However, placing relays and switching devices at each
end of the feeder sections is costly. It also assumes more advanced features in protective
switchgear such as faster tripping times than currently available.
In [38], a microprocessor-based communication-assisted protection strategy is proposed for the
protection of microgrid. Each microprocessor relay is provided with directional, grid-connected,
islanded, tripping, and interface modules. The proposed strategy uses a communication network
to connect a MG protection commander (MGPC) with the individual relays. The MGPC uses the
fault detection and directional signals from each relay to identify the faulted section. The primary
protection trip signals are then sent by the MGPC to the CBs and backup signal are sent to
adjacent CBs after some delay if primary protection fails. when either the backup protection or
communication fails, then time grading is applied to all CBs surrounding the faulted MG
subsection. This strategy works effectively for different fault levels and types, MG operating
modes, as well as different types, sizes, and locations of DGs.

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In [39], a multi-terminal hybrid protection strategy is proposed for MGs consisting of both
traditional differential and adaptive protection schemes. The centralized adaptive protection is
used to find settings of relay and traditional differential scheme is used in highly sensitive areas
which include transformers and sensitive loads in the MG and the adaptive protection is also
used as backup strategy when the differential scheme fails in highly sensitive areas of the MG.
The protection strategy is robust against communication failures and can protect its expensive
and sensitive equipment. However, the performance of this strategy is yet to be tested
experimentally.

2.6 Protection based on variables

The adequate protection for microgrid is also provided based on various variables namely
samples of current, travelling wave, and local variables which are explained briefly in below
section.
2.6.1 Current samples
In this approach, the spectral energy of two current samples which are obtained from the both the
ends of feeder have been computed. The trip signal will generate when the calculated spectral
energy exceeds the pre-set limit. The difference between the calculated and threshold spectral
will be set as 1 and -0.3 for grid connected and islanded mode of operations respectively [40].
This scheme evidently discriminates the faults in microgrid, means whether the fault is occurred
in grid connected or islanded mode, and also it responses effectively for High impedance faults
(HIF). However, the thresholds are not adaptive to the microgrid configurations. It is not
implemented on large scale microgrid and also on hardware prototype.
2.6.2 Protection based on travelling wave
In this protection scheme [41], the wave fronts are monitored by Intelligent Electronic Devices
(IED) which are located at each bus of microgrid. If these wave fronts exceed the threshold value
then it sends the information to Central IED which includes the time and polarity of first wave
form arrival, numbers of circuit and instrument transformer. The central IED utilizes the data
obtained from the local IEDs and then it detects and isolates the fault. whenever beyond two
lines are connected to any bus, then the line with dissimilar polarity than other lines should be
disconnected to clear the fault. whereas, the line with similar polarities at the far ends will be
tripped whenever only two lines will be connected to any bus. This scheme is working properly
for non-fault disturbances such as changes in modes of operation and topology of microgrid.
However, it is not executed on the hardware model and it could not examine the multiple fault
points.
2.6.3 Local variables
In this scheme, the protection will be provided using the local variables of all three phases
namely the root mean values of current and voltages, total harmonic distortion of voltage and

16
current, power angle, symmetrical components of voltage and current. These variables should be
computed in the relay and it will transfer to remaining all relays using communication system.
Then all the relays find the difference between local and remote variables and which will store in
new parameter Z. Lastly, based on the variable Z each relay will take the decision whether the
fault occurs or not by using statistical classifier. Hence, the fault should be detected and cleared
very easily using the statistical classifier [42]. This scheme provides reliable protection for all
types of faults and it has high classification accuracy. However, it is not adaptable to dynamic
changes of microgrid topology and it is worked for the only islanded mode.

Chapter 3 Research gaps and Objectives

In order to ensure secure and reliable operation of any power system network, the protection
devices are designed with some basic requirements such as selectivity, sensitivity, fast, and low
cost [43]. The selectivity is nothing but protective devices are able to isolate faulted area of the
network to avoid significance of abnormal condition. The ability to detect the fault condition that
exceeds threshold value is termed as sensitivity. The response of any protective device is very
fast to detect any abnormal condition so that system will be safe and stable and also the cost of
protective devices should be minimum.
A number of solutions are proposed to address the most common issues associated with
overcurrent protection of microgrid in both grid connected and islanded mode of operation,
which are discussed in previous chapters. The summary of those solutions along with their
advantages and disadvantages are presented in Table I
Table I merits and demerits of microgrid protection schemes.

Sl.No Protection scheme Advantages Disadvantages

Settings of relay need not be Reduces the reliability of
1 Disconnection of DERs
changed. system.
Implementation cost is less. Prevents the exploitation of
microgrid in islanded mode.

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 It provides one relay setting for Use of FCLs results in extra
2 Fault current limiters
both grid connected and islanded cost.
mode of operation. Applicable only to systems
One of the effective approaches with certain number of DERs.
to decrease the effect of high
The location of FCL is
fault currents in DNs.
difficult to find due to
No need for communication and
dynamic configuration of
central controller
microgrid.

Works efficiently in both grid- Needs the former information

3 Adaptive over current
connected and islanded mode. of all possible configurations
protection scheme
of microgrid.
It is fast and selective due to
The presently using
usage of high speed
protective devices are needed
communication structure.
to be upgrade.
The requirement of large
memory to store the offline
calculations and high
communication structure
make this scheme more
expensive.
Does not require any central data It requires the high-speed
4 Adaptive multi agent
processor and voltage communication structure for
scheme
transformers result in the reliable operation.
reduction of cost.
There could be uncertainties
Also, it works effectively for all for proper operation of
types of faults including HIFs. agents.
voltage information is not Multiple settings are used for
5 Adaptive sequence
required to implement the the relay co-ordination leads
component-based
protection scheme. to more complex in the
protection scheme
scheme.
Implementation cost is
comparatively less than the Communication is necessary
adaptive overcurrent protection. . between the relays and
central controller of
microgrid.

6 Communication It improves the reliability in all Placing relays and switching

assisted relays the modes of operation. devices at each end of the
feeder sections is costly.
It also assumes more
advanced features in
protective switchgear such as
faster tripping times than
currently available

7 Optimization based It provides best optimal solutions Heuristic methods take more

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 for effective operation of time not suited for online
microgrids. operation of power system.

3.5 Conclusions
The protection is one of the major technical challenges in microgrid and it has to respond to both
internal and external faults for the adequate operation. However, by virtue of intermittent nature
of DERs and different configurations of microgrid result in several protection issues such as
dynamics in fault currents, bi-directional fault currents, spurious disconnection and blinding of
protection. To overcome these issues, several researchers have been proposed various
approaches, namely adaptive protection based overcurrent techniques, multiagent protection
schemes, sequence component based schemes, protection schemes based on fault current limiters
protection schemes based on variables namely current samples, travelling wave based approach,
and local variables and protection coordination strategies such as optimization methods,
communication based, and other strategies are discussed briefly along with their merits and
demerits. The research on microgrid protection is being in developed stage. There is need to
develop a better protection algorithm which will overcome all protection issues for reliable and
effective operation of microgrid.

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