Big Data in Agriculture - A Challenge For The Future
Big Data in Agriculture - A Challenge For The Future
Big Data in Agriculture - A Challenge For The Future
doi:10.1093/aepp/ppx056
Submitted Article
Big Data in Agriculture: A Challenge for the
Future
Keith H. Coble*, Ashok K. Mishra, Shannon Ferrell, and
Terry Griffin
Abstract This article examines the challenge and opportunities of Big Data, and
concludes that these technologies will lead to relevant analysis at every stage of the
agricultural value chain. Big Data is defined by several characteristics beyond size,
particularly, the volume, velocity, variety, and veracity of the data. We discuss a set
of analytical techniques that are increasingly relevant to our profession as one
addresses these issues. Ultimately, we resolve that agricultural and applied econo-
mists are uniquely positioned to contribute to the research and outreach agenda on
Big Data. We believe there are relevant policy, farm management, supply chain,
consumer demand, and sustainability issues where our profession can make major
contributions. The authors are thankful to the anonymous reviewers and editor
Craig Gundersen for helpful comments. Support was provided by the Mississippi
Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station Special Research Initiative.
Key words: Big Data, precision agriculture, analytical methods.
JEL codes: K11, Q12, Q16, Q18.
C The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Agricultural and Applied
V
Economics Association. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]
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Big Data in Agriculture: A Challenge for the Future
Percent of farms 80
60
40
20
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
farm data community lifecycle, data service providers may entice farmers,
especially given the nonhomogeneous characteristics of farm data and farm-
ers. This lack of homogeneity may result from farms with varying levels of
data quality, for example, some farmers are known to calibrate yield moni-
tors properly while other farmers may not correctly tag corn hybrids to
fields. Further, some farms may be able to provide quality data from sub-
stantially larger acreages while other farms may have limited acreage that
precision agriculture sensors were utilized. In addition to quantity and qual-
ity concerns, some farms may be perceived as local leaders. When these lo-
cal leaders join the data community, other farmers are likely to follow.
However, it should be noted that only a few exceptions fit the above criteria;
and the overwhelming majority of farms are likely to voluntarily join the
system with most even paying a fee. Essentially, data service providers are
vying to become what is expected to be a natural monopoly. In the long run,
the group that controls the data system enjoys the majority of the value
(Mayer-Schönberger and Cukier 2014). Therefore, the next wave of farm
management education is likely to focus on farm data issues and whether
farms should relinquish control of farm data to third parties.
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Machine Learning
Machine learning, a branch of computer science and one of the major
areas of artificial intelligence, can be used to construct algorithms to exploit
the potential value of Big Data.1 Note that for machines to become intelli-
gent like humans, they must learn like humans; human minds learn from
past data and experiences and then applies this learning to future decisions.
Machine learning is a two-step process. First, the machine has to learn the
input data; secondly, the machine has to interpret it and analyze the input
and output data to create machine algorithms. The algorithms can then con-
struct a system model, which is used to predict future values. Machine
learning methods are more flexible than conventional statistical methods be-
cause they do not rely on user-specified models. Instead, they self-improvise
using the available volume of data.
There are three types of machine learning algorithms: Supervised learning
(SL): If the output variables are provided, then the learning becomes super-
vised. In SL, the algorithm is given some training examples and the machine
studies input and corresponding outputs.2 Therefore, popular SL algorithms
include artificial neural networks (Kaul et al. 2005; Uno 2005; Chen and
Mcnairn 2006; Khoshnevisan et al. 2014), decision trees (Veenadhari,
Mishra, and Singh 2011), K-means clustering (Shawe-Taylor and Cristianini
2004), support vector machines (Radhika and Shashi 2009), and Bayesian
networks (Bakker and Heskes 2003).3,4 The artificial neural network (ANN)
algorithm has been widely used in the agricultural field. ANN is an inter-
connected set of inputs and output units where weight is associated with
each connection (see Drummond, Sudduth, and Birrell 2008).5 The ANN has
an advantage over multiple regression because ANN can select an indepen-
dent variable in the data, learn complex relationships, and does not place
strict requirements a priori on a functional a functional form. The neural net-
work can discover more complex variables.
The second type of algorithm is unsupervised learning (UL): In UL, the al-
gorithm is not provided with outputs and learning helps us find interesting
information about our dataset solely looking at its features alone. Popular
UL algorithms are self-organizing maps (SOM), partial based clustering,
hierarchical clustering, K-means clustering, COBWEB, and density-based
spatial clustering.6,7 To date, these techniques have rarely been used in agri-
culture and economics field.
The third type of algorithm is reinforcement learning (RL): With RL, the
learning process works on the principle of feedback. The notion is that every
1
Applications of machine learning are multi-disciplinary.
2
See Mucherino et al. 2009.
3
See Cheng and Titterington (1994) and Warner and Misra (1996). On one hand, Cheng and
Titterington (1994) have reviewed the artificial neural network (ANN) methodology. On the other hand,
Warner ad Misra (1996) emphasize understanding ANN as a statistical tool. The accuracy of ANN
increases with the volume of data. The advantages of the ANN is that: (a) ANN are capable of adopting
their complexity without knowing the underlying principles; (b) ANN can derive relationships between
input and output on any process.
4
Bayesian networks focus on two issues: estimating the conditional probability tables from training data
when the structure of the network is known;and learning a network’s structure from training data.
5
The ANN can be used in flood forecasting, modeling rainfall, and run-off relationships.
6
See Moshou et al. 2006.
7
The COBWEB is an incremental and unsupervised clustering algorithm that produces a hierarchy of
classes:its incremental nature allows clustering of new data without having to repeat the existing cluster-
ing. See Fisher’s Cobweb (1987).
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Big Data in Agriculture: A Challenge for the Future
Conclusions
Given our assessment of the needs and opportunities arising from the Big
Data expansion, we come to a few significant conclusions for our profession
and those who draw upon our work. First, there is a unique and important
role for agricultural and applied economists in this changing technological
environment. We see an opportunity for our profession to stand at the hub
of work within multi-disciplinary teams. Our profession is trained to handle
and draw valid inferences from non-experimental data. Further, most ap-
plied economists are trained and comfortable with unstructured, messy
data. Many in our discipline have already engaged in some form of big data
analysis and we understand the important distinctions between causation
and simple predictive models. Having noted some comparative advantages
of our profession, we also challenge agricultural and applied economists to
prepare a next generation of our profession with training in geo-spatial anal-
ysis and analytical techniques described in this paper. Furthermore, we
need to be the champions for the merit of research with these type of data,
and advocate for non-experimental data access and research funding.
We perceive an important role for academic researchers and land grant
personnel in this venue. First, there is a need for basic and applied multi-
disciplinary research that provides objective third-party analysis. Ground
truthing seed varieties may morph into ground truthing software and other
roles. There is also a clear role for extension to help train and educate pro-
ducers and agri-business professionals how to manage new tools and data.
Clearly, educational topics like data ownership and evaluation of precision
agriculture investment will be in demand.
Finally, we have touched upon several looming policy issues, which is not
surprising as many policy debates are stimulated by technological change.
First, there is room for discussion regarding data ownership of these data.
The returns and development of these technologies depend on the owner-
ship rules in place. Second, we find that infrastructure needs such as rural
broadband are potentially limiting the use of these technologies, as rural
broadband access provides a critical bridge between small data and Big
Data. Thus, to the extent that access to these technology provides a compar-
ative advantage to certain areas, largely rural areas are disadvantaged.
Third, we perceive opportunities and threats to public objective data collec-
tion and government program data. Ultimately, we advocate for a reimagin-
ing of agricultural data collection such that the greatest synergism can be
obtained from integrating private data, government program data, and spe-
cific data collection surveys meant to complement other available tools.
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