1 s2.0 S0038092X23006321 Main

Solar Energy 264 (2023) 111998
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener
Review
State-of-the-art in solar water heating (SWH) systems for sustainable solar

energy utilization: A comprehensive review
Md. Rashid Al-Mamun a, b, 1, Hridoy Roy c, 1, Md. Shahinoor Islam c, d, *, Md. Romzan Ali a,
Md. Ikram Hossain a, Mohamed Aly Saad Aly e, Md. Zaved Hossain Khan a, *, Hadi M. Marwani f, g,
Aminul Islam h, Enamul Haque i, Mohammed M. Rahman f, g, Md. Rabiul Awual j, k, l, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 1H9, Alberta, Canada
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
d
Department of Textile Engineering, Daffodil International University, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
e
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering(ECE), Georgia Tech Shenzhen Institute (GTSI), Tianjin University, Guangdong 518055, China
f
Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
g
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
h
Department of Petroleum and Mining Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore-7408, Bangladesh
i
School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria 3000, Australia
j
Materials Science and Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), Hyogo 679-5148, Japan
k
Dhaka Institute for Materials Science (DIMS), University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
l
Western Australian School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, GPO Box U 1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The solar water-heating (SWH) system is one of the most convenient applications of solar energy, which is
Solar-energy considered an available, economical, and environmentally friendly energy source to fulfill the energy demands of
Solar water heater the world. In this review, existing SWH systems and design aspects of major components e.g., solar thermal
Thermal collector
collector, storage tank, heat exchanger, heat transferring fluid, absorber plate, etc. were extensively studied.
Nanofluids
Sustainable development
Recent research to further improve SWH systems and potential practical applications are critically reviewed.
Moreover, a relatively new concept in SWH systems, which is using nanofluids in solar collectors as heat transfer
fluid has been studied in terms of design criteria for the development of SWH systems. Stationary flat plate
collector (FPC) and single-axis tracking compound parabolic collector (CPC) exhibit thermal efficiencies of 45–60
% (operating range: 25–100 ◦ C) and 30–50 % (operating range: 60–300 ◦ C), respectively. The use of thermal
stratification structures e.g., diffusers, baffles, membranes, fabrics, etc. is an effective tool to reduce heat losses
from the storage tank as well as to harvest the highest energy from the solar collector. Coating of nanomaterials
e.g., nickel, copper, etc. was found to reduce the backside heat loss in SWJ systems which eventually increases
the thermal performance of the system. Nanofluids consisting of multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and
Al2O3 increased the effectiveness of FPC by 28.3 and 35 %, respectively. Moreover, using CuO nanofluids, the
collector efficiency of a typical evacuated tube collector (ETC) was increased by up to 12.4 %. Several potential
future recommendations for improving the performance of the SWH system were stated.
1. Introduction renewable energy sources because of the increasing demand and price of
non-renewable energy sources e.g., crude oil, coal, fuel oil, natural gas,
The whole world is now moving towards the application of etc. [1,2]. The forecasted global energy demand will be approximately
* Corresponding authors at: Materials Science and Research Center, Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA), Hyogo 679-5148, Japan (M.R. Awual); Department of
Chemical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh (M.S. Islam); Department of Chemical Engineering, Jashore
University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408, Bangladesh (M Z. Hossain Khan).
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Md.S. Islam), [email protected] (Md.Z. Hossain Khan), [email protected], rawual76@yahoo.
com, [email protected] (Md.R. Awual).
1
Equal contribution.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2023.111998
Received 13 June 2023; Received in revised form 2 August 2023; Accepted 3 September 2023
Available online 30 September 2023
0038-092X/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Solar Energy Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Md.R. Al-Mamun et al. Solar Energy 264 (2023) 111998
46 and 30 terawatt-hours (TWh) by 2100 and 2150, respectively [3,4]. nanofluids) size by several reports [24]. In recent, there are several
Literature reported that the current petroleum consumption is 105 times developments of nanoparticles–based solar–powered desalination pro
faster than renewable energy production and thus, it can be predicted cesses (SPDP), which states the enhancement of thermal performance by
that the world’s fossil fuel reserve will be diminished by 2050 [3]. incorporating nano particles [25]. Moreover, it was reported that the
Therefore, the utilization of renewable energy sources is considered one use of carbon nanotube (CNT) based nanofluids enhanced the thermal
of the most promising solutions for reducing global warming and efficiency of the solar collectors by reducing both environmental impact
achieving sustainable energy use. Among the sources of renewable en and cooperating cost [26]. A similar trend was observed using silver
ergy e.g., solar energy, hydropower, wave energy, wind energy, (Ag), copper(Cu), gold(Au), and carbon-based nanofluids containing
geothermal energy, biomass, bio-energy, etc.; solar energy has been lower volume fractions (0.001 vol%) of nanoparticles [27]. Some limi
considered the most sustainable ones due to its extensive domestic and tations of using nanofluids in the SWH systems are associated with the
industrial applications such as the supply of hot water, drying, distilla high cost of nanomaterials, low stability, and pressure drop in the col
tion, refrigeration, washing, desalination, etc. [5–7]. Solar energy-based lector. These difficulties can be overcome by incorporating phase change
applications can conveniently be utilized in the temperature range of materials within the PV/T system [28,29].
60–280 ◦ C, out of which solar water heating (SWH) systems have In this review, we have summarized the effects of solar collector
become popular in recent decades [8]. technology in terms of the performance of the SWH systems. An in-depth
Solar water heating (SWH) systems are very commonly used and interpretation of the efficiency of the three currently wide-spread solar-
extensively utilized in many countries for having potential solar radia collectors (i.e., FPC, ETC, and CPC) with their design, structural devel
tion, which can be differentiated based on use [9]. Normally, for taking opment, and energy hybridization was performed to obtain valuable
baths, washing clothes and utensils, a small amount of water is required, prospects of SWH systems. In addition, this review investigated different
while a large amount of water is required in hotels, restaurants, hostels, features of heat storage tank, heat exchanger with transferring fluid, an
hospitals, and industries including food processing, textiles, paper, and absorber plates with absorbing materials to find out the variation in the
dairy products, etc., [10,11]. Typically, SWH is a non-complicated, less efficiency of the solar-energy systems. The impacts of different types of
expensive, and efficient method of using solar energy that may supply nanofluids were critically evaluated based on their thermal perfor
hot water for houses in any climate [12,13]. In the SWH system, an mances. The review paper will be helpful to acquire in-depth knowledge
incident solar energy is inverted to thermal energy and sent to a trans on various types of solar collectors based on their design, performance,
mission media like water, air, glycol, hydrocarbon, and other nanofluids and applications for future research work.
which act as a working fluid [14]. The solar thermal collector, heat
storage tank, absorber plate with absorbing materials, and heat 2. Solar water heating (SWH) system
exchanger with heat transferring fluid are the critical components of
SWH systems [15]. Several types of solar collectors e.g., flat plate col The SWH system is widely applied for residential, hydraulic space
lectors (FPC), compound parabolic collector (CPC), evacuated tube heating installations, solar space heating, commercial and industrial
collector (ETC), photovoltaic-thermal collectors (PVTC), and direct ab applications [30]. However, some limitations have been introduced by
sorption solar collectors (DASC) are available in the market. For do using SWH systems. Greenhouse gas emission (GHG) is one of the major
mestic water heating purposes, FPC, and ETC are generally used because problems in energy generation from the household sector. The total
of their simple design and ease of maintenance [8,16]. The FPCs with household GHG emission was found in Spain at 20.4% while in the EU
rectangular absorber plate function below 100 ◦ C, whereas ETCs with and USA was 7.5% and 20% in 2014, respectively. Therefore, the choice
concentric glass tubes perform at temperatures above 150 ◦ C [17]. ETCs of an appropriate household water heating system can widely reduce
have become relatively inexpensive and represent greater efficiency total energy consumption, and operating and maintenance costs, and
than FPCs due to high production volumes of all-glass types [16,18,19]. save the environment from GHG emissions [31,32]. Currently, 84% of
During unfavorable weather (cloudy, cold, and windy days), ETCs show the energy requirement for heating and cooling applications of water
greater performance than traditional FTCs due to having vacuum en comes from fossil fuel and the remaining 16% comes from renewable
velopes that decrease the conduction and convection losses [16]. energy [33,34]. In-home applications, SWH often replaces fossil fuels
Recently, research has been undergone to improve the performance and electricity. It is the most economical and acceptable model of solar
of major key components of SWH systems [7]. Researchers have con energy catchment. The system is appropriate for low-temperature ap
ducted several research on the improvement of absorber plate qualities, plications that are below 80 ◦ C for its few elements, low investment, and
up-gradation of storage tank stratification, numerical modeling, and operation costs [35]. Fig. 1A represents the typical thermosiphon line
advancement of design parameters, etc. [20]. Other current research has diagram of an SWH system [4]. It is known as natural convection when
been performed widely on augmenting the solar thermal system with the water is heated that circulates water through the storage tank and
superior absorbing materials, use of thermal heat pumps, optimization the solar collector. In this case, if the hot water removal pattern is
of heat storage tank size, use of single/double type absorbers, and the changed, a thermosiphon stimulated current is generated for the solar
addition of phase change materials into the solar collectors [21]. Several radiation. It was reported that the thermosiphon SWH system uses a
studies have carried out modeling approaches such as computational fuzzy model to estimate the temperature of the outlet water [36].
fluid dynamics (CFDs) by using simulation software [22]. The utilization Additionally, several SWH systems are reviewed and categorized based
of nano-fluid is considered a potential heat transfer method to increase on the modifications and designs. [37]. Fig. 1B describes an uncompli
the thermal performance of the SWH system. The heat transfer charac cated representation of a classic solar plate system utilizing a storage-
teristics of the fluid enhance after replacing the working fluid with container FPC [38].
nanofluids [23]. Nanofluids are used as an absorber to improve the heat The position/angle of a solar collector can be changed to absorb
transfer performance of the SWH system. There are several advantages sunlight for a longer time. The solar collector should be covered by dark
of using nanofluids e.g., higher surface area, better optical characteris paint to absorb more sunshine once it is exposed to the sun. The glass
tics, higher thermal conductivity, good stability, higher absorption and cover is built of low iron tempered glass that is placed over the absorber
extinction coefficients. Several types e.g., metal, semiconductor crystal, [39].
metal oxides, and carbon-based nanofluids were utilized as heat trans
ferring fluid in solar collectors. The novel thermal characteristics of 3. Major components of the SWH system
nanofluids have reported a strengthened thermal conductivity in solar
thermal collector and direct solar distillation. A strong relationship be As previously stated, there is main four parts of a SWH system, e.g., i)
tween the increase of thermal conductivity and the nano grain (in solar thermal collector, ii) heat storage tank, iii) heat exchanger with
2
color in the front face. It was reported that the increase of angle from 15◦
to 25◦ , improved the thermal performance of the collector from 27% to
30%. Furthermore, thermal efficiency was decreased from 30% to 20%
by accumulating dust particles on the collector at a tilt angle of 25◦ [32].
The dark-painted surface was covered with glass and all other sides of
the container were blocked with 5.0 cm of styrofoam sheets as shown in
Fig. 3A [43]. A thermal diode was connected in parallel to the coated
surface made of plexiglass with a strip of insulation because water can
pass through it. Additionally, the thermal diode was utilized to avoid
any reverse circulation of water current overnight. Santbergen et al.,
2010 reported that the energy produced in just 14 s (s) by exposing
sunshine which was equivalent to the energy captured by the Earth over
1000 years [44]. The use of photovoltaic thermal (PVT) system in
household hot water heating is considered a promising technology due
to having the analogous layout of a classic system as depicted in Fig. 3B
[44]. Several efforts have been put to investigate the quality of
absorbing solar radiation towards the efficiency of solar collectors.
Direct-absorption solar collector (DASC) is another type of solar- col
lector where the heat transfer fluid was utilized as the absorbing media
for the solar emission as an alternative to the absorber plate [45]. In
DASC (Fig. 3C), working liquid stream between the base and the glass
sheet are located at the top surface [45]. The thermal effectiveness of
solar collectors (FPC, ETC, and CPC) is vital in evaluating the perfor
mance of a SWH system. A study that focuses on the design simplicity,
fabrication, and effectiveness of all solar collectors is presented in
Table 2.
3.1.1. Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

FPCs are the most familiar, as the cost of fabrication, maintenance,
and installation is very low. Generally, there are five major parts of the
FPCs namely temperature rising tube, absorber plate, insulation, fluid
flow system, and the outer box. The rising tubes that are attached to the
header tube are located under the absorber plate, transparent glazing
cover, a black solar absorption surface, and an insulated metal or
wooden box [71]. The absorber plate is made of highly selective mate
rials so that they can absorb heat from the radiations. The fluid flow
network indicates the number of rising tubes and headers which can
Fig. 1. (A) Typical thermosiphon SWH system. Reproduced with permission heat the storage tank by transferring heat energy from the absorber
from [4] copyright, 2016 Elsevier, License number: 5596640004177, and (B) A plate. The insulated and weatherproof box is located below the dark
typical solar-energy collection system. Reproduced with permission from [38] absorber plate in order to avoid heat loss [7]. A small space is main
copyright, 2011 Elsevier, License number: 5596640591319.
tained between the absorber plate and the glass cover so that it can
gather both diffused and direct emissions [72]. In FPC, a cover glass
transferring fluid, and iv) nan absorber plate with absorbing materials insulates the front part of the collector which is indicated as ‘glazed’
which has been discussed briefly based on thermal performance (Fig. 2). (working fluid production at 50–100 ◦ C), while is not insulated is known
Additionally, various components such as a pump, piping unit, and as unglazed (working fluid production at 25–50 ◦ C). The principle
auxiliary heating units are required for operating the SWH. The poten procedure of a FPCs is that the solar energy goes through the glass before
tial design and modification of major parts have been reported in the absorber plate and hits the flat dark-painted surface of the absorber
respective subsections. plate at which the solar energy is captured as a form of heat by raising
the inner energy [73]. In an FPC, the incident solar emission is reverted
3.1. Solar thermal collector (STC) into heat and then transferred to a transport media such as water [74]. It
was reported that around 80% of the sunshine was captured in FPC.
The STC is considered one of the most important elements of the Additionally, the reflected radiant heat and the heat losses in the col
SWH system that absorb sunlight through the passing of a working fluid. lector surface were about 10–35% [38]. The mechanism of producing
STCs contain concentrating and non-concentrating collectors and are hot air or heating the water by flat-plate collectors was intensively
differentiated by the rate of sun motion and their operating temperature. investigated at temperatures less than 80 ◦ C [75].
These collectors are mainly relying on the intercept of the sun radiation Recently, most of the researchers have focused on the progress,
and take up the sun irradiation in the smaller receiving area. Thus, the development, and design of FPCs. The structure of the collector is crucial
utilization of solar thermal energy and its application mainly depends on factor for a SWH system [76]. The performance of FPC has been studied
solar collectors [40]. The comparison of several types of STCs based on under steady-state and quasi-dynamic test conditions [10]. Tripa
overall performance is given in Table 1. nagnostopoulos et al., 2000 investigated the impact of fin attached in
It was reported that the design factors including volume fraction (φ), FTC [77]. The authors claimed that higher absorption and heat transfer
density (ρ), specific heat, thermal conductivity, specific mass, dynamic coefficient was observed when the thermal energy transmits from one
viscosity, heat removal factors (FR ) and effectiveness (F’) were consid plate to another [77]. The impact of core components of the absorber
erably reducing the empiricism related to the design of the solar- plate in considering materials properties based on thermal effectiveness
collector [42]. Generally, the solar-collector was inclined at a 37◦ was evaluated [78]. Fig. 4A shows the operation of an FPC in a combi
angle based on a cross-sectional design that contains the matte dark nation alternating heat pipe (closed-end), which provides a practically
3
Fig. 2. Major parts of the SWH system.
effective and cost-efficient technique by using a closed-ended alter (inner tubes and outer tubes) which are made of pyrex glass [18,19]. The
nating heat pipe (CEOHP) [79]. A novel FPC containing selective coating loss of heat energy was declined by evacuating the layer between the
on the micro heat pipe and attached much closer to the absorber plate outer and inner tubes in DT SWH system. Some drawbacks that have
was studied. The thermal performances based on three different seasons originated in ETCs are the difficulty of extraction of heat from the nar
were evaluated. It can be seen that the heat gains for the three seasons row, long, and single-ended absorber tube. To address these limitations,
were 7.42, 11.05, and 13.43 MJ/m2, corresponding to thermal effi two designs are introduced: one is the heat pipe ETC and the other is the
ciencies of 50.49%, 64.25%, and 71.05% [80]. The glazing and the dark- U tube ETC [81]. Omar bait et. al. (2017) investigated the performance
colored absorber plate are the most important parts of a classic FPC as enhances of classical distillation unit by tubular solar-energy collector
depicted in Fig. 4B [4]. integration. It was reported that the tubular collectors can perform
against a flat plat collector with lower heat loss [81]. Moreover, tubular
3.1.2. Evacuated-tube collectors (ETCs) collector-based assisted solar still was suggested for desalting saline
ETCs are widely used STC because these can achieve higher tem water more conveniently than conventional solar distillation unit
peratures, thermal efficiency (~84 % higher compared to FPC) and regarding energy, environ–economic and economic perspectives [6].
minimize heat losses in comparison to FPC [18]. Instantaneous gas However, research is intensified on the design aspects of the ETC in
heaters, solar pre-heaters, and integrated single solar tank systems are the last few decades. One of the significant design criteria for the glass
some examples of ETCs [18,19]. The production cost of evacuated tube ETC is its shape. For instance, about 16% more energy is absorbed by
collectors has considerably higher and gives higher efficiency than FPC using semi-cylindrical-shaped absorber tubes in ETC than FPC [82]. The
because of their high initial costs. Besides, excellent thermal perfor thermal efficiency of filled type ETC of a U-shaped tube design was
mance is observed in ETCs, and therefore, it represents easy trans studied. In this case, diverse filling substances such as graphite and air
portability and installation that makes it comfortable [18,19]. were used. The outcomes revealed that the thermal effectiveness of the
Generally, it consists of copper (Cu) heat pipes for rapid heat transport, filling kind ETC was comparably higher by using graphite. The thermal
evacuated tubes to reduce heat dissipation, and an aluminum (Al) casing conductivity of the filling layer was about 0.01 kW/m-K (Kilowatt per
to supply robustness and structural integrity to the system. In this type, meter-kelvin), while if the filling substance was graphite (0.1 kW/m-K)
heat can be transported into the working fluid from the evacuated tube increased thermal efficiency up to 12% as depicted in Fig. 5A [83]. In
(metal-based). When the radiation falls on the outer tube of ETCs, it is this ETC, each tube contains a metal absorber and a glass outer tube that
transferred into the fluid flowing into the tube by absorbing radiation was attached to a fin which absorbed the solar energy and inhibited
heat transfer. Generally, heat dissipation is occurred because of con radioactive heat losses [83]. Hazami et al., 2013 investigated the ther
vection and emission [7,38]. mal performance of ETCs using water as a working fluid and compared it
ETCs are available in broad types, e.g., i) single-walled glass evac with the FPC. It can be seen that the proposed ETCs show a higher solar
uated tube (SWGE) (widely used in Europe) and ii) dewar tube (DT). M. fraction (84%) than the use of FPCs (68%) [84]. The authors also re
A. Sabiha et al., 2015 reported the SWGE incorporated with a direct flow ported that more energy was generated (9%) than FPCs [84]. The heat
type coaxial piping system and the Dewar tube with two bandles of tubes losses coefficient and the heat effectiveness factor were evaluated by
4
Table 1
Comparisons of different of solar heat collectors [10,40,41].
Motion Collector Absorber Conc. Temp. Technological Land Average Average Advantage Disadvantage
type type ratio (◦ C) maturity requirement Efficiency Efficiency
solar to solar to
thermal, % electricity,
%
Stationary FPC Flat 1 25–100 High Low 45–60 N/A -Low cost -Easy to
-Large-scale damage
applications
ETC Flat 1 50–200 High Low 30–60 N/A -Higher -Higher
efficiency installment cost
-Higher -overheating
operating
temperatures
Single-axis LFC Tubular 15–45 60–250 Medium Medium 60–80 8–10 -Higher -Rarely used
tracking efficiency -Used in small
-Low cost operational
project
Parabolic Tubular 15–45 60–300 High High 60–80 14–16 -Low cost -Periodic
Trough -Light cleaning
Collector structures required
(PTC) -Higher loss of
transmittance
CPC Tubular 10–50 60–300 High Low 30–50 N/A -High -Higher
efficiency reflector area
–No tracking -Smaller conc.
system ratio
required
Two-axis Parabolic Point 100–2000 100–1500 Low Low N/A 20–30 -Easy -Storage of
tracking Dish manufacture thermal energy
Reflector - Higher not permitted
(PDR) conversion -Higher cost
efficiency
Heliostat Point 100–1500 150–2000 Medium High 50–70 12–18 -Higher -Relatively
Field conversion higher cost-
Collector efficiency Larger area
(HFC) - Capacity > (floor)
10 MW required
utilizing a 1 D (one dimensional) logical solution. The investigation by reducing the convection heat losses that results in the increased
reported on the effect of the air layer on the heating effectiveness and receiver temperature [89]. Some drawbacks have been employed in CPC
noticed 10% thermal effectiveness with increasing the air layer thick such as the larger height of aperture and lower concentration ratio. To
ness. Additionally, the temperature of the liquid was increased by 16% overcome these limitations, the geometrical design of CPC collectors and
with containing resistivity (0.4 kW/m-K). Fig. 5B shows a very widely reflectors has to be redesigned. A modified design with two parabolic
used ETC solar collector system in the current time. This is a very effi sections based in a common focus has been proposed, where the axes
cient way to heat water from the heat absorbed from the sun, however, it were inclined and angle was captured through their reflection as shown
is costly to set up the system [85]. Teles found the highest efficiency of in Fig. 6B [88].
42 % with a ETC made of copper and claimed the absorber temperature Kalogirou et al., 2004 reported the design of CPCs, where the lower
was maintained by the reflector at a constant level [86]. part of the reflector is circular-shaped and the upper part is dome-shaped
[90]. In recent years, other kinds of non-optical concentrators were
3.1.3. Compound-parabolic concentrators (CPCs) developed. An original type of compound parabolic concentrator which
Compound parabolic concentrators (CPC) have been extensively composes of several rounded surfaces that can supply forward bouncing
studied by industrial developers and academic researchers. An optical and optical light rays have been developed recently. Similarly, Kaiyan
instrument interposed between the absorber and radiation source of CPC et al. (2011) investigated the diagram of this developed system that
to release higher temperature. FPCs and EPCs are extensively utilized in consists of dome-shaped and flat contours are known as optical
solar thermal applications mostly to supply low to intermediate tem concentrating parabolic collectors [91]. In this system, the bouncing
perature ranges (20 ◦ C to 120 ◦ C). However, concentrators/reflectors beam was transferred forward from the entry opening to the exit
have to be implemented to make the best use of the incident emission opening as an alternative to being transmitted in the opposite direction,
and thus, produce high-temperature values. Several advantages of CPCs as the case in the traditional parabolic concentrator. This new type of
have been formulated and a maximum working temperature of 150⁰C is CPC has increased the concentration ratio and decreased the height and
obtained due to the maximum concentration ratio [87]. angle [91]. The design of the receiver and reflector was modified so that
The first concept of CPC was introduced as a non-imaging type of these can be used as storage devices in the CPC. In this case, the reflector
concentrator. The non-imaging concentrators are the parabolic (dome- and receiver consist of three parts as a horizontal axis, a vertical axis,
like) concentrators geometrically that are capable to bounce the ma and a concave, and contain two concentric cylinders [92]. Recently, 3D
jority of the incident emission back to the absorber [88]. CPC consists of CPC was gained more attention in the SWH system. It was reported that
two parabolic sections. The geometrical concentration of CPCs with the impacts of 3D/2D CPC with spherical receiver containing geomet
their different position is shown in Fig. 6A [88]. CPCs can be combined rical concentration ratio (1.8) were studied, and the 3D CPC performed
with other exiting collectors, which makes CPC an excellent secondary superiorly [88]. Dai et al., (2011) compared the 3D CPC with a single DC
concentrator for SWH systems [87]. For industrial process heat appli (dish concentrator) and two-stage solar formulated DC [93]. The impact
cation, the CPC incorporated with ETC exhibited superior performance of the air gap between the reflector outer surfaces of the absorber was
5
introduced in CPC to suppress the heat loss from the sidewalls of the
SWH. A comparative study was conducted with a similar model but the
air gap has revealed greater performance. The highest temperature
difference of water was found at 29 ◦ C and 14 ◦ C for with and without air
gaps, respectively. The average thermal collector efficiency was
increased by about 24.6% for applying air gap on the side walls of the
CPC was studied [94].
3.2. Solar heat storage container and its effectiveness
Solar heat storage container is an important part of the SWH system,

as it does the main function of assessing the system’s effectiveness
[40,95]. The temperature change of the heat storage medium (liquid or
solid) is the measurement of the sensible heat storage in a SWH system.
The liquid state heat storage medium (25⁰C to 850⁰C) materials are oil,
molten salts, water, and liquid metal, whereas solid-state (200⁰C to
1200⁰C) materials are usually concrete, sand-rock minerals, and fire
bricks [96]. Moreover, heat can be stored chemically in chemical sub
stances through exothermal and endodermal reactions, whereas melting
or gasifying phase change material (PCM) offers the possibility to store
the latent heat through the reconstitution of PCM to internal phase
structures [97]. However, some drawbacks have been formulated in
three heat storage technologies (sensible, chemical and latent). The
lower heat capacities of the materials and safety issues of the oil-based
working fluid cause complexities in sensible heat storage. The PCMs
with latent heat storage are required to adjust some advanced heat
transfer strategies due to lower thermal conductivity. Besides, heat
storage of chemicals, selection of chemical reactor, maintenance of the
stability, and reversibility are required in the chemical heat storage
system [40]. Generally, it is constructed using concrete, steel, plastic,
fiberglass, or other suitable materials that are suitable for storing hot
water. Steel is the most commonly employed material among the
aforementioned materials because steel containers are easy to install
[38]. Heat loss is the major problem employed in heat storage tanks
because of mixing cold and hot fluid. The use of thermal stratification
structures (such as diffusers, baffles, membranes, and fabrics) is an
effective tool to reduce such losses as well as to harvest the highest
energy from the solar collector [7].
Recently, design of the storage tank in the SWH system has been
revolutionized by different advanced technologies. Diverse inlet designs
of the storage container were put forward to enhance stratification. A
schematic of the cross-sectional view of an improved design of the
storage tank is shown in Fig. 7 [7]. The consequence of 12 diverse ob
structions on the thermal stratification in a cylinder-shaped storage
container by forecasting the heat allocation inside the container was
studied. Additionally, the geometry of the 12 different obstacles was also
evaluated. It can be seen that putting an obstruction in the container
improved the thermal distribution compared to having no obstruction.
The obstructions that have a space in the center (number 7, 8, and 11)
also enhanced thermal distribution than those that had a space close to
the container wall. In terms of hot water supply, the study concluded
that obstruction 11 offered the greatest thermal distribution in the
container [95]. The development of a storage tank was studied in the
SWH system based on phase-changing materials (PCMs) [98]. Various
types of PCMs are used in heat storage systems. It was observed that the
paraffin wax-containing aluminum container gives the benefit of 13/
14 ◦ C to the water in the storage tank [7].
The effect of the depth of the storage container was carried (collector
Fig. 3. (A) Schematic of the thermal diode integrated solar-collector-storage-
container system. Reproduced with permission from [43] copyright, 2016
area/volume) in 120 days using 60 mm and 80 mm heaters. The lowest
Elsevier, License number: 5596641069497, (B) PVT system for household hot and utmost temperatures that were collected for the 60 mm heater were
water. Reproduced with permission from [44] copyright, 2010 Elsevier, License 46 and 76 ◦ C, respectively, as the equivalent temperatures for the 80 mm
number: 5596641436987, and (C) A DASC setup. Reproduced with permission heater were 41 and 70 ◦ C, correspondingly. The average daytime utmost
from [45] copyright, 2015 Elsevier, License number: 5596650242783. efficiencies of the 60 mm and 80 mm heaters were 65 and 73%, corre
spondingly, with a dissimilarity of 8–10% during the surveillance time
[99]. Nam et al. (2014) investigated the effect of thermal loads in multi-
use heat pump based SWH with control apparatus [100]. The on/off
6
Table 2
Different studies on the design, operation, and thermal performance of solar-collectors.
Location Operational design Working Outlet Area of Mass flow Title Solar Collector Main findings/ Ref.
fluid Temp., Collector, rate angle, irradiation, Efficiency, outcomes
(◦ C) m2 W/m2 (%)
Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

Salem, -V-cut and square-cut Water 40 1.0 2.6 m/s 12◦ 1000 8.86% -Heat transfer [46]
Tamilnadu, twisted tape. increased of V
India -Black coated through the collector
absorber plate. was 20.1% due to
-Two reflector plates fluid flow.
are fixed at 120◦ -Thermal
inclination. performance was
increased 1.35 times
higher as
conventional one.
Gangcha, China -Contains of three Water 50 2.0 0.03 kg/s 45◦ 800 4.07% -Collectror [47]
major parts: heat dimensions linearly
collector, heat increases the thermal
storage, and cooler. performance
-Cotton was used as -The collector
insulating materials. efficiency was found
-A water pump was 4.07%, 3.56%, and
connected with the 3.27% at constant
water tank. solar radiation
Yekaterinburg, -Prototype FPC is Water 70 1.3 1.2 l/min 35◦ 1022 6.5% -The temperature [48]
Russia made of a wooden difference was
structure. reduced after 1.0 pm
-Galvanized steel is due to decrease of
used as an absorber solar irradiation
plate. intensity.
- Top FPCs are -The highest
covered by clear efficiency (66.0%)
glass. was found in 17 July
2019.
China -FPC with V- Water 69 N/A 0.1–5.3 m/s 9-53◦ 79.6–849.7 1.1% -The heat gain of V- [49]
corrugated absorber. corrugated absorber
-Aluminum, Mineral plate was 64.9%.
wool, and -The results indicated
polycarbonate was that long-term
used as an absorber, thermal performance
insulating materials, of V-corrugated FPC
and glazing was similar in
materials. accuracy level.
N/A -FPC with helically Water N/A 0.5824 2–4 m/s 45◦ 800–1100 61.59% - The highest thermal [50]
corrugated tubes. efficiency of FPC with
-A copper absorber corrugated tubes was
with black carbon- 62 %.
coated. - The increase in
-The absorber was friction factor was
connected with 64.5 % and Reynolds
bottom and top number was 5153.
headers
Nanjing, China -The FPC was Water 65 N/A 1.9 m/s 30◦ 1000 69% -The maximum [51]
fabricated with heat and thermal and
pipe, absorber plate 45◦ instantaneous
(copper), an efficiency was 69%
insulating layer (rock and 58.1%
wool), glass cover, respectively.
cross-flow heat - Increase in absorber
exchanger, etc. thickness increased
the heat efficiency.
Lanzhou, China -FPC with duel Water/ 60.4, N/A 0.024 and 36◦ 300–1100 73.45% - The efficiency was [52]
function as the water Air and 59.8 0.13 kg/s and found about 73.45 for
and air heater. 55◦ for water/air heating,
-Rock wool and 51.3 for air heating,
tempered glass was 51.4 for water
used as insulating heating.
and glass cover -The lowest
materials. temperature
differency was
observed in water/air
heating operation.
Beirut, Lebanon -An array of Water 63.2 0.6 0.014–0.02 45◦ 900 16.1% -Thermal and [53]
minichannel was kg/s instantaneous
placed in the efficiency was rose by
absorber plate The 16.1%,and 20.4%
(continued on next page)
7
Table 2 (continued )
(◦ C) m2 W/m2 (%)
FPC consists of an compared to the old

array minichannels FPC.
-Thermal loss was
obtained due to space
between glass and
absorber plate.
Padua, Italy -A prototype FPC at Water 88 1.81 0.02 kg/s 60◦ 700–1000 N/A -Roll band absorber [54]
roll band absorber showed superior
with selective thermal efficiency
coating. than conventional
-Collector was black shell and tube
coated. absorber.
-Attached with a -Furthermore, the
hydraulic loop. thermal efficiency can
be increased based on
numerical model.
Evacuated tube collectors (ETCs)
London -ETC with flood Water 85 N/A N/A 45◦ 1000 56% -The heat transfer [55]
design formation. coefficient decreased
-Black chrome (7.43 to 3.65 W/m2K),
plating was chosen and the thermal
for selective efficiency increased
absorbing coating. (36% to 56%).
–No contact between -Heat losses were 9%
the pillars and of the predicted level
absorber. between the absorber
and glass.
Assam, India Pump, tube, Water 38 1.8 6–24 ml/s 45◦ 740–820 72% − 72% of thermal [56]
manifolds, storage efficiency and 6.1 %
tanks were used temperature
difference was found
-Within 5.45 min, the
highest thermal
performance was
achieved
Melbourne, -ETC with diffuse flat Water 70 3.0 N/A 1000 27.9% -The maximum [57]
Australia reflector and consists thermal collector
of two parts. efficiency was
observed 27.9% in
Melbourne.
-A comprehensive
model was developed
for annual energy
savings, and found
95.8% for first zone.
Silchar, India –Co-axial ETC with Water 80 6.4 78 kg/m2hr N/A 1000 80% -In sunny days, the [58]
PCMs. thermal efficiency
- TiNox welding was exceeded 80%, and
used to coat the fallen at noon.
absorber plate -The temperature
profile of working
fluid was non-linear.
China -ETC with integrated Water 60 7.6 N/A 23◦ N/A 80% -The total collector [59]
bottom mirror efficiency was
reflectors. increased from 60 to
-The model is 80% using mirrors.
compatible with the -Around 20% of
operation in cold overheating can be
weather. minimized by using
an obtuse angle in hot
seasons.
Katra, India -PCMs integrated Water 67 0.752 N/A 45◦ 918–982 87.8% -The daily efficiency [60]
heat pipe ETC. was increased upto
-The Al fins were 87.80% using PCM,
fixed with pipes. while 32–37% was
found in without
PCM.
− 20 l/h flow rate was
optimum
Jiaxing, China . Water 80 4.97 1.6 kg/s N/A 0–2000 59.9% -The modified [61]
-The round orifices in collector efficiency
water tank were was increased upto
attached with the 5% than conventional
first connecting tube. one.
8
(◦ C) m2 W/m2 (%)
-The suitable inserted

tube diameter 32 nm
for a glass envelope.
Katra, India -PCM integrated ETC Water 83 0.75 16 l/hr 45◦ 320–993 53.4% - Incorporation of [62]
-Each evacuated tube PCM exhibited 53.5 %
was filled with of thermal efficiency
stearic acid (SA) of -The proposed model
2.1 kg. was economically
-Each collector feasible
consists of 10 heat
pipes.
Dalian, China -ETC is filled with Water 75 N/A 0.006 kg/s 45◦ 900 77% -Double U-tube was [63]
double U-tubes. 4% more efficient
-The U-tube was than single U-tube.
attached with the -The thermal
delivery pipe. conductivity was
found 100 W/mK
Coleraine, -Heat pipe with Water 80 0.34 0.009 kg/s 60◦ 800 73.8% -The minimum loss [64]
Northern direct flow was observed ETC
Ireland augmented solar assisted concentrator
collector. as 2.47 Wm-2 K-1.
-The ETC with a CPC -The heat pipe
reflector was absorber had superior
constructed and can performance
be used as a compared to direct
concentrator flow absorber.
augment.
Compound parabolic collectors (CPCs)
Merida, -CPC was designed Water 57 1.0 0.05 l/s 45◦ 1000 43% -Collector energy and [65]
Mexico with a tracking thermal efficiency
system. was obtained 22%.,
-The CPC was and 43% respectively.
composed of two -The proposed model
identical curved was found to be
reflecting surfaces. economically feasible.
Tianjin, -The CPC was Water 85 1.53 0–0.8 kg/s 30◦ 360–835 60% -Thermal collector [52]
China attached with the efficiency was
tube receiver. obtained by 60%.
-Double glazing -Most of the diffuse
vacuum plates radiation was
covered the shape of exploited.
serpentine on the -High suitable in cold
insulation layer. climate conditions.
Hefei, China -CPC with a U-pipe. Water 95 2.0 N/A 36◦ 671–704 49% -The thermal and [66]
-It consists of one energetic efficiency of
circulating pump, collector was
storage tank, and obtained by 49%, and
other components. 4.62% respectively,
-Storage tank was with maximum outlet
wrapped in temperature of 95 ◦ C.
polyurethane foam.
Merced, -CPC with a non- Water 80 4.56 0.075 kg/s 40◦ 720–1000 62% -At optimum [67]
USA imaging reflector. conditions, 50%
-The CPC consists of (thermal), and 62%
an evacuated tube (optical)
receiver which was performances were
selectively coated. obtained respectively.
-The geometric
efficiency was
observed at 93%
compared to an ideal
CPC.
Mexicali, -CPC attached with a Water 72 0.58 0.021 kg/s 32◦ 900–1000 10% -About 10% efficiency [68]
Mexico tracking system. was increased by
- Tempered glass using proposed
cover, and structure and outlet
polystyrene based temperature
insulator was used in increased 4◦ than
the CPC simple simple
receiver.
Sendai, -The glass tube Water N/A 0.158 N/A 22◦ 800–1000 47.8% − 47.8 % of thermal [69]
Japan thickness was efficiency was
assumed to be thick. obtained.
-Better performance
9
(◦ C) m2 W/m2 (%)
was found in modified

CPC than
conventional CPC.
Mumbai, -CPC with the Water 62.2 5.88 45 l/min 45◦ 205 39% -About 39% thermal [70]
India aluminum absorber. efficiency was
obtained
-Flow rate and solar
intensity directly
increased the
efficiency
Generally, it is fabricated from excellent high corrosion-resistant mate

rials and thermal conductivity including copper, steel, stainless steel,
aluminum, cast iron, bronze, etc. Copper is commonly utilized in the
SWH system which ensures high-quality thermal conductivity and
corrosion immunity. For indirect-water-heating storage containers,
several configurations of heat exchangers e.g., coil-in-container, mantle
thermal energy exchangers, etc. have been designed [108]. Numerous
designs of the coil-in-container heat exchanger were investigated and
the performance of an original distributed (Container A), and the two
typical containers (Container B and C) were examined as depicted in
Fig. 8 [79].
In this system, an improved inner storage design for an originally
distributed storage container (A) was selected and contrasted with the
widely utilized designs B and C. The thermal energy exchanger contains
container B which was twisted from the bottom to the top of the
container. While container C which contains the heat exchanger was
twisted from the bottom to the top of the container and then U-turned
downwards the bottom of the container. Finally, the distributed
container was improved by 32% more when contrasted to the
commercially obtainable container [79]. Tse et al. (2015) designed the
conventional water heater into a ring-type heat exchanger to reduce the
frictional loss for the improvement of the efficiency of the SWH system
[109]. The impact of single and double-row heat exchangers with
different lengths in SWH has been investigated. The thermal efficiency
of double-row heat exchanger is not better than the single-row heat
exchanger. Additionally, no impact of collector tilt angle based on the
performance of the heat exchanger was evaluated [110].
To accumulate the thermal energy from the collector and then
transport it to the storage container is performed either directly by
utilizing a heat transfer liquid or with the help of a heat exchanger. In
SWH, heat-transferring fluid sends the heat through the thermal energy
exchanger to the water in the storage container by absorbing the energy
Fig. 4. (A) Closed-end oscillating heat pipe. Reproduced with permission from
[79] copyright, 2013 Elsevier, License number: 5596650977331, and (B) A from the collector [111]. The heat transfer fluid must have an elevated
typical liquid flat plate collector. Reproduced with permission from [4] copy thermal conductivity, high specific heat capacity, high precise thermal
right, 2016 Elsevier, License number: 5596651217430. energy capacity, low thermal expansion coefficient, low viscosity, anti-
corrosion property, low thermal growth factor, and cost-efficient in
control decreased power consumption about 11.2% by reducing the heat concerning higher effectiveness of the SWH system [4]. Several exam
pump operation (12.2%) and variable flow rates outperformed the ples of heat transfer fluids can be identified such as water, silicone oil,
constant flow rate [100]. The investigation of molten salt mixtures for methanol, ammonia, water mixture/glycol, acetone, hydrocarbon oils,
high-temperature thermal energy storage systems was studied. The air, and refrigerants/phase-change liquids are the common heat transfer
temperature had risen to 700 ◦ C by using low-cost storage materials of fluids. Among those, water is the most widely used fluid in the SWH
NaCl-KCl-MgCl2 [101]. The detail of a study that focuses on the design, systems because of its cost-efficient, low-viscous, non-toxic, non-corro
fabrication, and efficiency of the storage containers is provided in sive, easily obtainable, and thermally competent liquid [112,113]. Some
Table 3 [102–107]. drawbacks have been formulated at high temperatures, water possesses
difficulty in the configuration of collector plumbing and tubing, because
of its corrosive nature as well as scaling and freezing issues [4]. Another
3.3. Heat-exchanger and transfer fluid heat transfer fluid air is advantageous over water because of its corrosive
immunity and has no freezing/boiling issues. It is not utilized for
The heat exchanger is the major part of the SWH system. Typically, in household water-heating applications; since it has an extremely low
a heat exchanger mechanism, the captured solar thermal energy from thermal energy capacity and is very limited for applications operating at
the working liquid in the storage tank works as a heat transfer tool that is low temperatures. Alternatively, glycol is utilized with water to function
utilized to transport heat for the indirect- type of SWH system.
10
Fig. 5. (A) The filled-type evacuated tube solar-collector. Reproduced with permission from [83] copyright, 2020 Elsevier, License number: 5596651476314, and (B)
Evacuated tube solar water heater collectors. Reproduced with permission from [85] copyright, 2016 Elsevier, License number: 5596750701640.
as antifreeze to overcome high freezing points relatively. In heat pumps, using bright/black nickel-coated absorber. Furthermore, the backside
air conditioners, and refrigerators, refrigerants are generally utilized as heat loss was minimized due to nickel coating that indicates maximum
thermal energy transfer liquids. Several research groups investigated the heat utilization [118]. However, Al is alternatively utilized, because it is
possibility of introducing a two-phase heat transfer process as an effort comparatively less expensive (in comparison to Cu) and has a high-
to enhance the operating conditions of SWF systems. The basic thermal quality adhesion to other materials, although it has low joinability.
effectiveness of two thermosiphon solar collectors with the assistance of Furthermore, high thermal performance and lower heat loss were
acetone and benzene (pet ether) was investigated [4,114,115]. The observed with the thickness (0.005 m) of aluminum [119]. Three
effectiveness of solar-assisted heat pump was investigated both in different collector types of absorber materials (copper, selective
theoretical and practical manners. The coefficients of the heat pump and absorber, and galvanized sheet) were compared. The prices of galva
the inclusive system performance, the thermal energy transport rates of nized absorber, copper, and selective types of heating systems in Turkey
the condenser and the evaporator, and the collector performance are were USD 490.89, 615.69, and 740.49 per MT, respectively [120]. The
computed for diverse container temperatures. The experimental result absorber plate is sheltered by a dark coating using carbon powder. The
demonstrated that the evaporation temperature was changed between coating has to be an excellent conductor and have an uneven surface to
5.2 and 20.7 ◦ C, while the container temperature changed between 9 bounce the beams that are not captured. The schematic structure of a
and 35 ◦ C. It was observed that the evaporation temperature increased conventional solar collector with absorbing plates is shown in Fig. 9 [3].
with the increase in container temperature and showed a linear change Several factors that influence the performance of an absorber plate
in progress. As a result, the authors suggested not allowing higher were studied. It was reported that the optimal size of the absorber cover
temperatures (more than 35 ◦ C) of the container since the compressor and the best value of the mass current rate of the passing air should be
can be damaged by operating beyond. The inclusive coefficient of the determined for achieving the best effectiveness of the SWH system. The
performance, theoretical and experimental values of the enhanced sys variety of lengths (L) and widths (b) of the dark-colored coated absorber
tem with the vapor-state temperature obtained an utmost value at 5.56, cover was carried out in terms of several values of mass flow rate (mf).
6.33, and 6.38, correspondingly. The coefficient of performance was Fig. 10A depicted that the outlet temperature was increased with the
enhanced with the increase in evaporation temperatures. The finding increase of L and b of the absorber plate. Furthermore, the effect of
might be the higher heat transfer rate in the evaporator than that of utilizing specific covering absorbers with their mathematical calculation
using a condenser. Furthermore, the practically achieved heat transfer was evaluated based on heater effectiveness [121]. The variations in the
rates in the evaporator and condenser were 4.95 and 5.87 kW, corre temperature of the absorber cover plate temperature (Tp) per hour with
spondingly, and the effectiveness of the evacuated tubular solar- constant mf (5 g/s) for diverse chosen covering materials on a hot day
collector changes between 0.807 and 0.728. This is probably caused were performed and are shown in Fig. 10B [121]. Several types of
by an increase in the mass flow rates and the enthalpy variations be absorbing materials were used in the absorber plates such as black paint,
tween the evaporator’s inlet and exit. Therefore, a good-agreement was copper oxide (CuO), chromium oxide (Cr-Cr2O3), nickel-tin (Ni-Sn), and
shown between the experimental and theoretical results [116]. cobalt oxide (CoO). It can be seen that the nickel-tin (Ni-Sn) containing
absorber plate exhibited a higher outlet temperature (160 ◦ C). The
3.4. Absorber plate and absorbing materials chosen materials have improved values of plate absorptivity (αp) and a
lower heat transfer rate through the emission from the absorber cover to
A coating (selective or non-selective) layer is applied to the exterior the bottom glass sheet. It was observed that the everyday average values
of the absorber sheet to boost the heat captured capability and decrease of Tp were 120.88, 110.89, 107.18, 96.78, and 80.83 ◦ C for Ni-Sn, CoO,
the radiation from the plate. The selective coatings have very high Cr2O3, CuO, and dark paint, respectively. It was found that the thermal
absorbance in the solar radiation range and very low emittance in the efficiency was increasing steadily with time. On a daily basis, the
long-wave range, whereas the non-selective coatings show an inverse average values of thermal efficiency were observed to be 0.46%, 0.45%,
relation to the selective coatings. The purpose of the absorber is to 0.44%, 0.37%, and 0.33% for Ni-Sn, CoO, Cr2O3, CuO, and the dark
enhance the solar heating capabilities and thus be considered a high- painted, respectively [121]. Fig. 10C depicts the outcomes of the outlet
quality thermal conductor [117]. Typically, the absorber plate (collec temperature of the solar collector. Several coated collectors were used
tor plate) is made of Cu, Al, galvanized iron, nickel, or mild steel. Copper such as copper coated collector, aluminum coated collector, blue-coated
is considered the most suitable material for the absorber plate, because collector, dark black coated collector, and evacuated-tube collector. The
of its high thermal conductivity, however it is costly. Lizama-Tzec et al. water outlet temperatures were increased throughout the test period due
(2019) reported that a higher thermal performance was observed by to capturing the quantity of energy from the sun. Consequently, the
11
Fig. 6. (A) The geometrical components of CPC. (1)

Parabola A, (2) focus of parabola A, (FA) (3) axis of
parabola A, (4) truncated part of parabola A, (5)
parabola B, (6) Focus of parabola B (FB), (7) axis of
parabola (B), (8) truncated part of parabola B, (9) axis
of CPC, (10) aperture of CPC (d1), (11) receiver
opening (d2), and (12) acceptance angle (2α).
Reproduced with permission from [88] copyright,
2013 Elsevier, License number: 5596750922127, and
(B) Solar radiation incident between an acceptance
angle of CPC. (1) sunray, (2) acceptance angle (2α),
(3) parabola (p), (4) axis of parabola (Ap), (5)
parabola (q), (6) axis of parabola (Aq), and (7) axis of
symmetry of CPC. Reproduced with permission from
[88] copyright, 2013 Elsevier, License number:
5596750922127.
outlet water temperature started to decrease due to lower radiation (2017) [123]. The sol–gel synthesized selective absorber can withstand
energy. It was observed that the utmost water temperature (92 ◦ C) was 89.46% of the solar absorptance without corrosion. Additionally, the
found in the evacuated-tube collector, while lower in the copper col absorber can provide higher thermal performance even without a glass
lector (70 ◦ C) at 3.00 pm. In the evacuated-tube collector, the temper cover [123]. It was reported that the impact of concrete and sand as an
ature of the water at the outlet was almost 15–20% superior to that of absorber for household purposes. It can be seen that the attained average
the copper collector [122]. The instant collector efficiencies for the five temperature of sand and concrete was 76◦ , and 72◦ , respectively, which
collectors are shown in Fig. 10D. It was observed that the ETCs showed indicates the concrete absorber has more outlet temperature than the
the highest thermal effectiveness than that use of black, copper, sand absorber [32].
aluminum, and blue-coated absorbing materials. Moreover, the lowest
effectiveness was observed when the useful heat was the lowest. At 3:00 4. Application of nano-fluids in the SWH system
pm, the utmost efficiencies occur and their values were 71.3%, 77.0%,
78.7%, 80.1%, and 93.5% for a copper-coated collector, aluminum Recently, nanofluids have been comprehensively introduced into the
coated collector, blue-coated collector, dark black coated collector, and SWH system. There are several advantages of using nanofluids in the
evacuated-tube collector, respectively [122]. The special type of SWH systems such as higher thermal properties, higher optical proper
absorber coating called superhydrophobic was studied by Zhu et al. ties, reduce required heat transfer area, smaller size, and larger surface
12
Fig. 7. Schematic illustration of a cross-sectional view of a storage tank. Reproduced with permission from [7] copyright, 2017 Elsevier, License number:
5596751044126.
Table 3
Thermal performance study of storage tank based on design, and fabrication.
Serial Design Temperature Efficiency, η Advantages Disadvantages Ref.
No Tank, T (◦ C) (%)
1. -A pipe with an opening was used as the 51 ◦ C 92% -Flow rate is 5–8 l/min - There required optimization of design for [102]
stratified with flaps. which is the most efficient. identifying the proper positioning of the
-Flaps serve as non-return valves. -Flaps reduce unwanted partition device.
-Rectangular glass tank. flow into the stratified.
2. -Standard mantle glass tank. 45–50 ◦ C N/A -Increased solar collector - Through the lowest hole the fluid is [102]
- There were two draws off levels. efficiency. pumped into the stratifier.
-Two cross-linked polyethylene pipes -Better thermal -It was also act as a mixer than as a
were used as the stratified for draw-off at performance. stratifying device because mixed fluid enters
the top and middle of the tank. the tank through the top opening.
3. -Transparent tank with 5 mm flexi glass 42 ◦ C 70% -Energy is higher for an -The quality of energy is minimized with [103]
walls. ideal draw-off conditions. poor inlet design.
-Variable inlet design.
-Unstructural meshes.
-Small hemispherical baffle plate.
4. -Thermally stratified horizontal 42 ◦ C 55–65% -Cost effective in both the -Limited to integrated collector storage tank [104]
cylindrical tank. construction and water heating systems.
-Divergent conical tubes as the inlet operational phases. -Susceptible to degradation of thermal
nozzle. stratification.
5. -Horizontal divider plate with a hole in 35 ◦ C 15% -High extraction rate. -Limited to only medium temperature [105]
the center. conditions (60–70 ◦ C)
-Counter flow.
-Novel portioned stratified tank with
lower half being preheated.
− 4 cm thick glass wool insulation.
6. -Horizontal annular mantle heat storage. 27–50 ◦ C N/A -Large heat storage surface -Thermal stratification declined, so [106]
-Cross flow. area. repositioning the inlet at a higher position is
-Simple design. important to improve thermal satisfaction.
-Good overall heat transfer. - the connection between the collector and
the tank is not effective
7. -Heat storage with spiral groove tube 75–80 ◦ C 70–80% -Superior shell-side heat - auxiliary heating necessary auxiliary [107]
bundle. transfer per unit length. heating during cloudy days.
-Cross flow. -Low weight.
-Baffle plates. -Low manufacturing cost.
-Fibre glass insulation -Pressure drop comparable
to the smooth tube bundle.
-Considerable increase in
flow rate.
13
Fig. 8. Schematic designs of the coiled container heat exchanger A, B, and C. Reproduced with permission from [79] copyright, 2013 Elsevier, License number:
5596650977331.
nanoparticles can be enhanced by adding the surfactant in the nanofluid.

Another point that should be considered in using nanofluids SWH sys
tem is the cost of the nanofluids which is comparatively higher because
of its preparing process [45]. The impact of thermo-physical properties
of various nanofluids with respect to nanoparticles temperature and
volume concentration (0.25–2.0 wt%) was studied. It was observed that
nanoparticles concentration has a potential impact on the increase of
thermal conductivity as shown in Fig. 11A [129]. It can also be seen that
the viscosity of nanofluids was increased with the increased weight
fraction of nanoparticles is shown in Fig. 11B [129]. This observation
was obtained due to an increase in frictional resistance between the
layer of the base fluid and the nanoparticles. The densities of nanofluids
have a great impact on heat transfer performance. Similarly, another
important key factor of nanofluid is the specific heat that is used to
Fig. 9. Hybrid collector with absorbing plate of (A)wires, (B) wave shaped, (C)
characterize the nanofluid. The density of nanofluids is dependent on
fin type (rectangular), and (D) V-shaped. Reproduced with permission from [3]
nanomaterials’ concentration, which increases with increasing the
concentration which is shown in Fig. 11C [129]. Furthermore, it can be
seen that the specific heat of nanofluids enhanced as the concetration of
area [83]. Nanofluids application in FTCs, ETCs, CPCs, and DASCs are
nanomaterials which is necessary for achieving higher absorption and
described briefly in this section.
convective heat transfer coefficient of nanofluids is shown in Fig. 11D
[129].
4.1. Nano-fluids in SWH system Therefore, nanofluid was used to transport the utmost quantity of
thermal energy from the absorber plate to the end-users by the means of
In recent times, the impact of different working fluid on the SWH enhancing the thermal properties of the working fluid which results in
system has become an interest for many engineer(s) and researchers. improving the thermal effectiveness of the solar collectors [88,130,131].
Extensive studies were performed to correlate the relation between the A summary of thermal performance that was reported on the use of
working fluid properties and system performance [124]. The incorpo nano-fluids in FPCs, ETCs, DASCs, and CPCs is provided in Table 4.
ration of nanofluids into the absorber instead of general fluid (water) has
been reported as a successful pathway to improve the characteristics of 4.1.1. Thermal performance of FPCs using nanofluid
the solar collectors [18,19]. The nanofluids consist of nanomaterials and Numerous studies have investigated the theoretical and experi
base liquid with some thermophysical and optical properties e.g., ther mental effects of utilizing aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanofluid and other
mal diffusivity, conductivity, transmittance, convective heat transfer carbon-based nanofluids in FPCs [159]. The influence of particle volume
coefficient, and extinction coefficients [88]. It can be seen that the fraction and mass flow rate on collector’s effectiveness have also been
thermal conductivity of nanoparticles was increased due to some rea studied. The consequences showed the increase of the thermal effec
sons including fluid motion, nanofluids interface, size of nanoparticles, tiveness by utilizing the 1.5 % of particle volume fraction (Al2O3
and concentration of nanoparticles. Some key nanomaterials that have nanofluid) in contrast with water as working liquid by 31.64%. It was
to be considered for higher effectiveness are aluminum oxide or alumina concluded that using nanofluids enhanced thermal energy transport
(Al2O3), silver (Ag), silicon dioxide or silica (SiO2), copper oxide (CuO), from solar collectors to storage containers and increased the energy
titanium dioxide (TiO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), cerium oxide (CeO2), density [159]. It was also believed that the effectiveness of FPCs was
and the key base liquid has higher effectiveness are heat-transferring increased by utilizing the nano-fluids in lieu of classic heat transport
liquid in FPCs, ETCs, CPCs, and DASCs which must be given substan liquids [145]. The impact of various nanofluids (MWCNT, CuO, TiO2,
tial concentration [6]. The first consideration is the synthesis of nano SiO2, alumina, and graphene) in FPCs were investigated [160]. The ef
fluids. Moreover, the thermal conductivity of nanofluid can be greatly fect of nanofluids based on concentration and mass flow rates was per
influenced by various key factors such as the size and shape of nano formed as shown in Fig. 12 [160]. Mass flow rate from 0.01 to 0.05 kg/s
materials, which and what amount of nanoparticles are used, type of the enhanced the efficiency of the collector (Fig. 12A). However, an oppo
base fluid, and annealing temperature [125]. As suspending solid nano- site trend was observed for energy efficiency (Fig. 12B). In Fig. 12C,
particles in the base liquid will not cause a simple mix, thoroughly the nanomaterials loading from 0.25 to 2.0 vol% increase the efficiency of
stability of nanofluid must be studied [26,126]. The stability of particles the collector, which required higher pumping power at higher nano
can be enhanced either by alkaline/acid covalent or non-covalent materials loading as shown in Fig. 12D. The authors reported 0.025 kg/s
interaction with the surfactant [127,128]. The stability of dispersed
14
Fig. 10. (A) Effect of width b of the dark painted absorber on outlet temperature, Tfo , (B) Diurnal changes of temperature (Tp ) for various selectively coated ab
sorbers. Reproduced with permission from [121] copyright, 2010 Elsevier, License number: 5596751443809, (C) Outlet water temperature (April), and (D) Effi
ciencies of the used collectors. Reproduced with permission from [122] copyright, 2013 Elsevier, License number: 5596760084992.
mass flow rate and 0.75 vol%, of nanomaterials loading to be optimum authors claimed that the efficiency was increased up to 10% and found 9
for that operation [160]. times higher incident radiation than a conventional FPCs [18,19].
An experimental study that focused on the influence of multiwall Literature reported the impact of graphene oxide (GO) nanofluids in
carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) Al2O3 water nanofluid on the effective FPCs. The GO nanofluids were synthesized with variable concentration
ness of the FPCs were reported. The results showed that the effectiveness ranging from 0.005 to 0.02 vol% and considered stable after 60 days of
was increased up to 28.3% and 35% correspondingly using Al2O3 and the experiment. The highest thermal efficiency of FPC was observed
MWCNTs nanofluids than using water as a working fluid [133,145]. In (7.3%) using GO nanofluids with constant loading (0.02 vol%) and mass
elevated flux solar-collectors, the applicability of nanofluids was flow rate (0.0167 kg/s), respectively [160].
investigated and it was observed that effectiveness was raised to 10%
which is likely relative to a classic liquid by choosing carefully the 4.1.2. Thermal performance of ETCs using nanofluid
operating conditions for 0.125% volume fraction of graphite [161]. The MWCN/water based nanofluid in ETC system with 4 % increase in
effectiveness of a 2 m2 FPC was studied practically by using the effect of collector’s efficiency was reported by Tong et al., (2015) [154]. The
(MWCNTs)/ water nano-fluid as the heat transport liquid [162–169]. feasibility of using CuO/water nanofluids was also investigated with an
The operating parameters of using MWCNT nanofluids were diameter increase in 12.4% of the efficiency by Lu et al., (2011) [142]. The CuO
(10–30 nm), weight fractions (0.2–0.4%), and Triton X-100 was chosen nanoparticle concentration showed highly influential to the thermal
as the surfactant [170]. The use of nanographene (20–30 nm) in solar performance and optimum mass concentration of 1.2 wt% was measured
collectors with 1000 W radiation source of halogen lamp provided [173]. The authors claimed that the CuO nanofluids have greater po
higher efficiency and stability than the base fluid under similar condi tential to improve the evaporation heat transfer coefficient by around
tions. The increased efficiency was observed more than 5.90% than the 30%. Furthermore, the surface temperature of the collector was reduced
base fluid [171]. The authors used a Cu absorber plate with a chosen because of using CuO nanofluid [173]. A similar trend was observed to
paint, an Al frame, Cu header, and riser tubes with 2.2 and 1 cm di study the ETCs by using water-based CuO nanofluid. It can be seen that
ameters, correspondingly, and 0.4 cm float glass sheet to construct the the thermal efficiency of ETCs has increased a maximum value (6.6%),
solar-collector. To mix the liquid in the forced-convection test setup, an as well as the mean value of collector efficiency, was also increased
electrical pump was used [23]. Another study reported the 0.05 wt% (12.4%) [173]. The TiO2 nanofluid was used to increase the thermal
Cu/water nanofluid in FPCs increased 24% of collector’s efficiency performance of ETCs as compared to water.
[172]. The thermal performances of FPCs were studied using nano The thermal performances of ETCs were determined theoretically by
particles including Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, and CuO. The thermal efficiency using different types of nanofluids. The nanofluids contains various
was obtained at 21.5%, 21.6%, 22.1%, and 25.6% for Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, concentrations in 20% propylene-glycol–water solution such as MWCNT
and CuO nanofluids, respectively and CuO is considered an optimum (0.1–0.2 vol%0, SiO2 (1–3 vol%), TiO2 (1–3 vol%), Al2O3 (1–3 vol%),
choice for achieving maximum efficiency [23]. Another researcher has and CuO (1–3 vol%), respectively. The improvement of thermal effi
studied the thermal performance of FPCs by using nanofluids. The ciency for the various nanofluids with temperature differences is shown
15
Fig. 11. Impact of thermophysical characteristics of different nanofluids with respect to nanoparticles volume concentration; (A) thermal conductivity (Wm/K) of
nanofluids, (B) viscosity (cp) of nanofluids, (C) density (kg/m3) of nanofluids, and (D) specific heat capacity (KJ/Kg.K) of nanofluids. Reproduced with permission
from [129] copyright, 2019 Elsevier, License number: 5596760277415.
in Fig. 13 [174]. geometrical concentrating ratio (7.36) than conventional CPC [80]. The
It can be seen that the highest thermal efficiency (62.8%) was ob impact of a solar adsorption refrigeration system with an increased
tained for 0.2 vol% of MWCNT nanofluid [174]. Iranmanesh et al. adsorbent bed was investigated. The developed absorbent bed consists
(2017) evaluated the thermal efficiency of the GNP/water nanofluid of four parallel finned tubes with their own CPC as shown in Fig. 14B
based ETC collector at several flow rates and volume concentrations of [178].
GNP/water nanofluid [175]. Around 90.7% collector efficiency was Kasaeian et al., (2015) examined the thermal reading of CPC of four
recorded by using GNP nanofluids with maximum concentration (0.1 wt types of receivers. The experimental result revealed that the black
%) [175]. To increase the thermal performance of ETCs, an SWCNT was chorme coated cupper tube absorber showed a higher absorption coef
incorporated as a nanofluid. The authors observed the maximum ther ficient (0.98) [190]. This observation was found due to lower convection
mal efficiency (66%) of ETCs by using 0.2% SWCNT nanofluid than that losses of absorber tubes [190]. The thermal performance of Cu/H2O
of using conventional ones, respectively. However, the study shows an nanofluid-coated CPC was studied. Various operating parameters
excellent heat transfer performance, but the authors did not present the including outlet temperature, thermal efficiency, and temperature dis
impact of nanofluid stability and the pumping power of the system tribution were performed and compared with the conventional one. It
[160]. Hussain et al., (2015) reported the impact ZrO2/water and Ag/ can be seen that the addition of nanoparticles to the base liquid was
water nanofluids in ETC [176]. It was observed that the thermal effi improved the radiation absorption capacity of CPC [191]. The applica
ciency was improved by using both nanofluids and base fluid (water). tion of Al2O3/synthetic oil nanofluid was studied to measure the thermal
performance of CPC. The authors reported the increase of particle con
4.1.3. Thermal performance of CPCs using nanofluid centration with the decrease of absorber plate size due to lower tem
Operating at 150–500 ◦ C, makes CPCs a mature technology for high perature gradients [192]. Khan et al., (2018) studied the thermal
temperature applications [177]. In CPC, a reflector was attached with a efficiency of CPC using Al2O3/oil nanofluid [193]. The experimental
closed-end pulsating heat pipe (PHP) that acts as an absorber as shown result showed that the collector efficiency was obtained of 23.83% by
in Fig. 14A [178]. In this case, a prototype of the collector was con using Al2O3/oil-based nanofluid [193]. Similarly, the addition of Al2O3/
structed. A novel CuO/oil based nanofluid was proposed and compared synthetic oil-based nanofluid improved the relative thermal efficiency
with its thermal performance of conventional CPC [179–189]. The ab up to 11% and reduced the maximum amount of heat loss than the
sorption and extinction coefficient of the oil was enhanced significantly conventional one [194].
by adding CuO nanofluid. Moreover, the proposed CPC showed a higher
16
Table 4
Thermal performance study of different solar-collectors using nanofluids.
Nanoparticles Base Area of Surfactant Type of Mass flow Title Outcomes/ Ref.
Type Method/ Concentration Size fluid Collector, Collector rate angle, findings
Disperse (nm) type m2
technique
Al2O3 Two-step/ 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 45, Water 0.22 Without FPC 1.2 l/min 30◦ - The thermal [132]
ZnO ultrasonication vol% 60, conductivity was
Fe2O3 and enhanced (upto
30, 6.7 %) using
resp. Al2O3 nanofluid
MWCNT) Two-step/ 0.2–0.4 wt% 10–30 Water 2.0 Triton X- FPC 0.0167–0.05 45◦ -Thermal [133]
ultrasonication 100 kg/s performance
was increased by
using 0.2 wt%
surfactant.
-Also, efficiency
was improved by
0.4 wt%
MWCNT
nanofluid than
conventional
one.
Al2O3 Two-step/ 0.001–0.05 vol% 20–30 Water 1.12 Without DASC 2 l/min 45◦ - Volume [134]
ultra- concentration
sonication increase in
nanofluid
enhanced the
collector
efficiency
SiO2 Two-step/ 1.0 wt% 12 Water 1.0 Without FPC 0.35–2.8 l/ 45◦ -Volume [135]
vertical mixing min concentration
and flow showed
positive impact
on efficiency
Temperature
gradient was
lower than pure
water.
Al2O3 Two-step/high 0.05–0.1 vol% 13 Water 1.84 Without FPC 0.5–1.5 kg/ 22◦ -Higher [136]
pressure and min efficiency
homogenizer EG/ (73.7%) was
water observed by
60:40 using smaller
nanoparticles
(13 nm) of
Al2O3.
-Additionally,
smaller
nanoparticles
perform
excellent in
point of thermal
conductivity,
stability, and
energy
formation.
Ag Two-step/ 5–40 mg/l 20 Water N/A TPABr DASC 2.5–10 m/ 30◦ -Around 58 % [137]
magnetic min thermal
stirring efficiency was
obtained.
CuO Two-step/ 0.4 vol% 40 Water 1.5 Without FPC 1–3 kg/min 17◦ -Overall [138]
ultra- collector
sonication performance
was increased
upto 16.7% by
using CuO/
water nanofluid.
-Maximum heat
absorption
coefficient was
recorded using
nanofluid.
TiO2 Two-step/ 0.3 vol% 30–50 Water 16.0 N/A ETC 2.0–3.5 LPM 8.2◦ Temperature [139]
ultrasonication increased
significantly in
nanofluid
17
technique
-An increase of
16.07% was
obtained with
0.3 vol% TiO2
nanofluid.
Cu Two-step/ 0.02–0.001 vol% 25, Water N/A SDBS DASC N/A 45◦ -Absorption [140]
magnetic and (solar) efficiency
stirring 50 enhanced by Cu
nanofluid.
-Cu nanofluid
sshowed
excellent
absorption
ability.
TiO2 Two step/ 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 20 Water 1.0 Triton X-100 FPC 0.6–1.8 l/ 55◦ − 15.7% [127]
homogenous wt% min increased
magnetic collector
stirring efficiency was
obtained.
- TiO2 based
nanofluid
exhibited the
highest heat
transfer
coefficient
MWCNT Two-step/ 0.25–2.0 vol% 7 Water 0.375 Triton X-100 FPC 0.025 kg/ N/A -Higher [141]
SiO2 mechanical 10 min erergetic
TiO2 mixing 44 (23.47%) and
Al2O3 45 exergetic
CuO 42 (29.32%)
efficiency found
for MWCNT
nanofluid
compared to
conventional
one.
-The surface
area of collector
was decreased
upto 19.11% for
using MWCNT
nanofluid.
CuO One-step/ 0.8–1.5 vol% 50 Water N/A Without ETC N/A 30◦ -Heat transfer [142]
ultrasonication properties were
influenced by
using CuO
nanofluid.
MWCNT Two-step/ 25–100 mg/l 10–20 Water 1.2 Without DASC 54, 72, and 45◦ - Volume [143]
magnetic and EG 90 l/h concentration
stirring (70:30) increased
collector(s)
efficiency
CuO Two-step/ 0.05 vol% 0.3 Water 2.18 SDBS FPC 0.1 kg/s 13◦ − 6.3% of [144]
magnetic and increase in
stirring 0.21 thermal
characteristics
was achieved
using CuO
nanofluid at
volume
concentration
(0.05%).
MWCNT Two-step/ 0.2 to 0.4 vol% 10–30 Water 1.51 Triton X-100 FPC 0.0167–0.05 45◦ − 0.2 wt% [145]
ultrasonication kg/s MWCNT
reduced the
efficiency in
absence of
surfactant.
SWCNT Two-step/high 0.05–0.2 vol% 1–2 Water N/A SDS ETC 0.008–0.025 N/A -Lower flow rate [18,19]
pressure kg/s enduced greater
ultrasonication temperature
difference
18
technique
SiC Two-step/ 0.01–0.06 wt% 30 Ionic N/A Without DASC N/A 45◦ -The [12]
ultrasonication liquid performance
was increased by
using SiC
nanofluid.
-SiC nanofluid
was effective
(medium high
temperature
system).
SWCNT Two-step/high 0.1 and 0.3 vol% 1–2 Water 1.84 SDS FPC 0.5–1.5 kg/ 22◦ -The thermal [146]
pressure min efficiency was
homogenizer increased about
95.12% using
nanofluid than
base fluid water
(42.07%).
- Highest
thermal
conductivity
(91.0%) was
obtained using
SWCNT for 0.3
vol% at 298 K.
MgO Two-step/high 0.25–1.5 vol% 40 Water 0.375 Cetyl FPC 0.5–2.5 lmp N/A - At 0.75% [147]
pressure Trimethyl volume
homogenizer Ammonium concentration,
Bromide 9.34 % collector
(s) efficiency
was increased.
SiO2 Two-step/ 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0 40 EG/ 1.59 Without FPC 0.018, 0.032, 45◦ -Increment of [114]
ultrasonication vol% water and 0.045 volume
1:1 kg/min concentration of
nanofluid
enhanced the
efficiency.
- Instability
problems were
addressed.
CNT Two-step/ 0.015 vol% 10–12 Water 1.84 N/A ETC 0.00125 kg/s 50◦ -The CNT [6]
ultrasonication nanofluid
showed better
performance at
0.015 vol%
concentration.
-Energy
efficiency was
increased at 50◦
tilt angle.
TiO2 Two-step/high 0.1 and 0.3 vol% 20 Water 1.84 PEG 400 FPC 0.5–1.5 kg/ 22◦ -Collector and [146]
pressure and min energy
homogenizer 40 efficiency was
increased using
TiO2 nanofluid.
− 76.6% energy
efficiency was
obtained for
TiO2 (0.1 vol%)
nanofluid.
− 6% increment
in thermal
conductivity.
Al2O3 Two-step/ 0.090696–0.1423 15 water 1.51 SDBS FPC 0.2 kg/s N/A -Exergy [148]
ultrasonication vol% efficiency was
increased about
0.72% using
nanoparticles
based
nanofluids.
MWCNT Two step/ 0.2–0.6 vol% 20–30 EG N/A GA N/A 0.08 kg/s 45◦ -Thermal [149]
sonication conductivity was
increased upto
30.59% using
19
technique
MWCNT at 0.6
vol%.
SiO2 N/A 1.0 vol% 12 water 10.5 N/A FPC 0.3 kg/s 30◦ - Lower heat [150]
and capacity of
16 nanofluid
caused higher
outlet
temperature
Al2O3 Two-step/ 0.03, and 0.06 vlo 40 Water 18.0 Triton X-100 ETC 20–60 l/h 45◦ -Thermal [151]
ultrasonication % efficiency was
increased about
58.65% at 0.06
vol% of
nanofluid
concentration.
-Collector
efficiency based
on temperature
was improved
with the increase
of volume
concentration.
CuO N/A 3.0 vol% N/A water 2.0 N/A FPC 1–3.8 l/min 45◦ -The FPC area [152]
Al2O3 was decreased
SiO2 by more than 20
TiO2 % for all
nanofluids.
- With CuO
nanofluid,
highest density
and lowest
specific heat was
found.
CuO Two-step/ultra 0.03–0.06 vol% N/A Water 18.0 SDBS ETC 20–60 l/h 45◦ -The average [153]
sonication output
temperature was
achieved upto
14% with CuO
nanofluid.
Al2O3 N/A 0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 15, water 2.0 N/A FPC 0.007 kg/s 45◦ -The thermal [154]
0.5 vol% 30, performance
60, was increased by
and 37.44% using
90 Al2O3 nanofluid
at volume
concentration of
0.5 vol%.
-The outlet
temperature was
found 55 ◦ C for
nanofluid at
fixed volume
concentration.
GnP Two step/ 0.0005, 0.001 and 2 water 3.6 without DASC 0.015 kg/s 35◦ − 83.24% of [155]
ultrasonication 0.005 vol% efficiency
improvement
using GnP than
base fluid.
- The maximum
zero-loss
efficiency was
observed.
Cu One step/ 2.0 vol% 5 water 1.8 without FPC N/A N/A - Heat transfer [156]
ultrasonication rate was
increased using
Cu nanofluids
than base fluid.
-Higher collector
efficiency was
observed by
using Cu
nanofluids.
20
technique
Ag Two-step/ 5–40 mg/l 20 Water 0.6 TPABr DASC 5–10 ml/min 45◦ - Thermal [157]
magnetic efficiency
mixing increased with
the incident flux.
Cu Two-step/ 0.01–0.2 wt% 25–50 water 2.0 SDBS FPC 140 l/h 45◦ -Maximum [158]
magnetic temperature was
stirring recorded by
using 0.1% Cu
nanoparticle and
heat energy
increased upto
24.52%.
-Good
absorption
ability was
observed at Cu
nanofluid.
*Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), Zinc oxide (ZnO), Iron oxide (Fe2O3), Multiwallcarbon nanotube (MWCNT), Titanium di-oxide (TiO2), Graphene nanoplatelates (GnP),
Copper oxide (CuO), Singlewall carbon nanotube (SWCNT), Silicon di-oxide (SiO2), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Carbon nanotube (CNT), Magnesium oxide (MgO), Silicon
carbaite (SiC), Sodium Dodecyl Benzene Sulfonate (SDBS), Gum Arabic (GA), Polyethylene Glycol 400 (PEG 400).
Fig. 12. Impact of mass flow and nanomaterials concentration, (A) Collector efficiency in respect of mass flow rate, (B) Energy efficiency in respect of mass flow rate,
(C) Collector efficiency in respect of nanomaterial concentration, and (D) Pumping power loss ratio in respect of nanomaterial concentration. Reproduced with
permission from [160] copyright, 2019 Elsevier, License number: 5596760581732.
21
Fig. 13. Thermal collector efficiency of ETCs with various nanofluids (A) Variation in solar collector efficiency at (Ti-Ta)/G = 0, and (B) at (Ti-Ta)/G = 0.15.
Reproduced with permission from [174] copyright, 2016 Elsevier, License number: 5596760777643.
Fig. 14. (A) CPC collector, and (B) Adsorbent with CPC reflector. Reproduced with permission from [178] copyright, 2020 Elsevier, License number:
5596760939898.
4.1.4. Thermal performance of DASCs using nanofluid mixing different ratios (Water:EG = 70:30) of water and ethylene glycol.
Recently, several researchers have focused on the nanofluid incor The nanofluid improved the collector efficiency by more than 10–29%
poration DASCs. The nanofluid-based DASC (Fig. 15A) where working than the base fluid (water) [143]. Shende et al., (2017) investigated the
fluid was contained the enclosed space introduced by the transmitted improvement of the thermal efficiency of DASC using reduced graphene
solar radiation. The nanoparticles were dispersed in nanofluids by oxide (RGO) as the absorbing medium [197]. The prepared nanofluid
exposing solar radiation. A small portion of solar radiation was reduced showed better absorption and extinction coefficient even at lower con
through scattering the glass cover while the major portion was absorbed centrations (0.005 vol%) of nanofluid [197]. The thermal properties of
by nanoparticles, and converted into useful heat [160]. gold/water and MWCNT/water nanofluids at different concentrations
The utilization of nanofluids was formed by various nanoparticles were studied by Beicker et al. (2018) [198]. The experimental result
such as graphite, silver, and carbon nanotube. It was reported that the exhibited better using nanofluids even at low concentrations than that of
collector efficiency increased up to 5% by using nanofluids as working conventional ones. The optimum concentration was calculated and
fluids. It can be seen that the use of nanofluids improved the absorbance found 0.001% and 0.002% for MWCNT and gold nanofluids, respec
and decreased the reflectance of the surface as shown in Fig. 15B [23]. tively. It was observed that MWCNT nanofluid revealed excellent pho
Hordy et al., (2015) investigated the use MWCNs as a working fluid in tothermal conversion ability in comparison to gold-based nanofluid
DASC [195]. The authors found excellent stability and absorbed almost [199]. Recently, RGO/water-EG nanofluid-based DASC was studied by
100% of the incident solar radiation with a very small amount of fluid Xu et al. (2019) and found to be 70 % efficient at 1000 W/m2 solar in
volume [195]. Luo et al. (2014) investigated the performance of a DASC tensity [200]. The author suggested that the RGO/water-EG nanofluid
using different nanofluids such as Al2O3, SiO2, Ag, Cu, graphite, and can replace the base fluid in DASC [201].
CNTs [196]. The experimental result revealed that the nanofluid-
containing collector shows greater performance than the conventional 5. Future perspective on SWH research
one. It can be seen that the thermal efficiency of graphite nanofluid was
about 122.7% for 0.01 vol% due to higher solar radiation absorption Recent developments in SWH systems concentrates on an effective
capacity [196]. Delfani et al., (2016) reported the numerical and design utilize solar energy more sustainably and efficiently for water-
experimental study of DASC using MWCNT nanofluid at different flow heating application; to address current challenges, and focuses on the
rates from 0.0150 to 0.025 kg/s [143]. The MWCNT was prepared by future research potentials. The most important points extracted from
22
Fig. 15. (A) Schematic of the nanofluid-based DASC. Reproduced with permission from [160] copyright, 2019 Elsevier, License number: 5596761159335, and (B)
Comparison and benefits of volumetric absorption of graphite and conventional nanofluid with area-based absorption. Reproduced with permission from [23]
this review can be applied for future research of SWH: However, despite being available in the market since 1970, SWH
systems have sustained a limited growth compared to its renewable
• A hybrid system can be developed in industrial applications for counterparts more specifically photovoltaic (PV) systems. An interesting
improving the overall efficiency by combining ETCs with CPCs that study based on Arizona, USA remarked that educational and economic
may concentrate the sunlight into a small area. status are highly linked with the penetration of SWH systems and other
• The feasibility of using several nanofluids including phase change renewable heating systems into the residential sectors [202]. Moreover,
materials should be investigated in the SWH system. the residential consumers are more likely to adopt the solar PV than
• Thermal conductivity and solar irradiation absorptivity of the SWHs. Scattered information, no/low structured cost comparison, and
working nanofluids are two crucial parameters for the efficient lower level of social and government awareness programs have created a
operation of SWH systems. vulnerable situation regarding the adoption of SWHs in residential
• The critical factors, e.g., cost, size, shape, surfactant, viscosity, sectors. Thus, only concentrating onto performance enhancement of
agglomeration, sedimentation, volume fraction, and stability of SWH systems may not satisfy the ultimate goal, therefore comprehensive
nanofluids should be considered for the large-scale applications of studies including cost, technology, usability, and lifetime comparison of
SWHs. SWH systems with conventional heaters and other renewable counter
• Advanced theoretical, and experimental research are required to parts have to be executed in different countries to get the in-depth
optimize the heat transfer mechanism in nanofluids to maximize the knowledge onto the overall market status of SWH systems.
thermal efficiency of the SWH system.
23
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dominates the overall efficiency of the systems. Several types of col base heat flux in irregular fins made of functionally graded materials. Int.
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Solar Energy 264 (2023) 111998

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

State-of-the-art in solar water heating (SWH) systems for sustainable solar

3.1.1. Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

Fig. 2. Major parts of the SWH system.

3.2. Solar heat storage container and its effectiveness

Solar heat storage container is an important part of the SWH system,

Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

FPC consists of an compared to the old

-The suitable inserted

was found in modified

Generally, it is fabricated from excellent high corrosion-resistant mate

Fig. 6. (A) The geometrical components of CPC. (1)

nanoparticles can be enhanced by adding the surfactant in the nanofluid.

You might also like

1 s2.0 S0038092X23006321 Main

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1 s2.0 S0038092X23006321 Main

Uploaded by

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Original Title

Copyright

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1 s2.0 S0038092X23006321 Main

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Solar Energy 264 (2023) 111998

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

State-of-the-art in solar water heating (SWH) systems for sustainable solar

3.1.1. Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

Fig. 2. Major parts of the SWH system.

3.2. Solar heat storage container and its effectiveness

Solar heat storage container is an important part of the SWH system,

Flat plate collectors (FPCs)

FPC consists of an compared to the old

-The suitable inserted

was found in modified

Generally, it is fabricated from excellent high corrosion-resistant mate­

Fig. 6. (A) The geometrical components of CPC. (1)

nanoparticles can be enhanced by adding the surfactant in the nanofluid.

You might also like

Generally, it is fabricated from excellent high corrosion-resistant mate