The Structure of the Earth and Plate Tectonics

Structure of the Earth

The Earth is made up 3 main layers: core, mantle, crust

CRUST

-is where we live

The Earth’s crust is made of:

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

-Thick (10-7km) -Thin (-7km)

-buoyant (less dense than oceanic crust) -dense (sinks under continental crust)

-mostly old -young

How do we know what the Earth is made of?

-Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics, electrical, geodesy

-Acquisition: land, air, sea, and satellite

-Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines

What is Plate Tectonics?

If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the continents could fit together like
pieces of a puzzle.
Plate Tectonics

-the Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates which are moves in various directions.

-the plates collide, pill apart, or scrape against each other.

-each motion causes different types of features on the Earth’s crust.

-tectonic- refers to changes in the crust because of plate interaction.

What are tectonic plates made of?

-Plates are made of rigid lithosphere.

-The Lithosphere is made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.

What lies beneath the tectonic plate?

-Below the lithosphere (which makes up the tectonic plates) is the asthenosphere.

Plate Movement

“Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells.
Divergent Boundaries

Spreading Ridges- as plates move apart magma fills up the gap

Iceland: an example of continental rifting

-Iceland has a divergent plate boundary running through its middle

Convergent Boundaries

There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries

-Continent-continent collision, forms mountains ex. European alps, Himalayas

-Continent-oceanic crust collision (called subduction), ocean plates subducts underneath the continental
plate, Oceanic plate heats and melts, the melt rises forming volcanoes, ex. The Andes

-Ocean-ocean collision, when two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other which causes it to sink
into the mantle forming a subduction zone. The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep
depression in the ocean floor called trench. The world’s deepest part of the ocean are found along
trenches. Ex. Mariana Trench is 11km deep.
Transform Boundaries

Where plates slide past each other

Ex. San Andreas transform fault

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics. What is the connection?

Volcanism is mostly focused at plate margins

Volcanoes are formed by: Subduction. Rifting, Hotspots

What are Hotspot Volcanoes

-Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a tectonic plate, the Hawaiian Island Chain
are examples of hotspot volcanoes

The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot forming a chain of volcanoes, the volcanoes get younger
from one end to the other.

Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics, what the connection?

-as with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe

-at the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes
them to break, earthquakes occur.
Plate Tectonics Summary

-The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust).

-On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe.

-Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere)

-There are 2 types of plates (oceanic and continental).

-There are 3 types of plate boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform).

-Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely linked to margins of the tectonic plates.

Chapter 5: Earth Materials and Processes

ENDOGENIC PROCESS- process that is formed or occurring beneath the surface of the Earth.

Magma- a mixture of molten rock, minerals and gases. This mixture is usually made up of a hot liquid
base called the melt, minerals crystallized by the melt, solid rocks incorporated into the melt from the
surrounding confines and dissolved gases. Originates in the lower part of the Earth’s crust and in the
upper portion of the mantle knows as asthenosphere.

How are magmas formed?

At about 30 to 65 km below the earth’s surface, the temperature is high enough to melt rocks into
magma. The reason why it is difficult to drill holes deep into the crust is that the temperature rises about
30 degrees for every kilometer.

The asthenosphere which is between 100 to 350 km deep is so hot that most of the rock is melted. The
melt flows very slowly because it is under intense pressure. Magma reaches temperatures between 60
degrees 140 degree Celsius.

Gases in Magma

-Deep in the Earth, nearly all magmas contain gas dissolved in the liquid, as magma rises at the surface
of the Earth, pressure is decreased and the gas forms a separate vapor phase. This is somewhat similar
to carbonated beverages which are bottled at high pressure. When magma emerges on the surface of
the Earth, it is called lava. Lava spilling over or erupting from craters is usually bubbly, a sign that gases
are escaping.

Viscosity of Magma

-Viscosity is the resistance to flow (an antonym for fluidity). Magma with higher silica content has higher
viscosity. Viscosity increases with increasing g silica concentration in the magma. Magma with low
temperature has higher viscosity than those with high temperature. Viscosity decreases with increasing
temperature of the magma.

Magma Escape Routes

-Magma leaves the confines of the asthenosphere and crust in two major ways; an intrusion or
extrusion. Magma can intrude into low-density area of another geologic form such as sedimentary rock.
When it cools and hardens, this intrusion develops into a pluton commonly known as an igneous
intrusive rock. Magma rises towards the Earth’s surface where are less dense surrounding rocks and
when a structural zone allows movement.

Extrusive Igneous Rock Formation- naa sa gawas

Intrusive Igneous Rock Formation- naa sa sulod

Magma Chamber

-Magma develops within the upper mantle and crust where the crust where the temperature and
pressure conditions favor the molten state. Magma collects in area called magma chamber.

-There pool of magma in a magma chamber is layered. The least dense magma rises to the top. The
densest magma sinks at the bottom of the chamber.

-During an eruption, gases, ash and light colored rocks are emitted from the least dense top layer
magma chamber. Dark. Dense volcanic rock from the lower part of chamber may be release later.

Ways to Generate Magma

1. Decompression Melting- involves the upward movement of the Earth’s mostly solid mantle. This hot
material rises to an area of lower pressure through the process of convection.

2. Transfer of Heat- happens when hot, liquid rock intrudes into the Earth’s crust. As the liquid rock
solidifies, it loses this heat and transfers it to the surrounding crust. This is similar to a hot fudge poured
over cold ice cream.

Volcano erupting rhyolitic melt. Volcano erupting basaltic melt

3. Flux Melting- it occurs when water or carbon dioxide added on rocks these affects the melting point
of rock when added with water beneath the earth it generates magma.

Volatiles are released from the crust; overlying asthenosphere melts.

Types of Magma

1. Felsic magma (Fel-Feldspar, Si-silica) type of magma has viscosity level there has low in iron but high
in potassium and sodium this form makes granite rocks.

2. Intermediate Magma- this normally found in volcano that erupts, after the eruption it releases a lava
that has silica and very viscous/ it commonly produced Andesite Rock.

Mafic Magma (Ma-magnesium “fe”-iron)- Mafic magma has relatively low silica content but high in iron
and magnesium. This magma has a low gas content and low viscosity. Mafic magma has high average
temperature which contributes to its low velocity. Low velocity means that mafic magma is the most
fluid of all magma types. Ex. Basalt.

Ultramafic Magma- today our planet is to cool, for ultramafic magma to form. This is probably a good
thing, since ultramafic magma would be the hottest and fastest flowing magma.

Rock Deformation

1. Stress- the force that could create deformation on rocks in their shape and volume. Great forces from
several directions may act on the lithospheric plates causing them to move. Although this crustal plates
are elastic solid, they are subjected to great forces such as pulling, pushing or squeezing.

Kinds of Stress
 1. Lithostatic stress- rock beneath the Earth’s surface experiences equal pressure exerted on it
from all directions because the weight of the overlying rock. It is like the hydrostatic (water
pressure) that a person feels pressing all over his body when diving down deep in the water.

2. Differential stress- stress on rock that are caused by an additional due to unequal stress due
to tectonic forces. # kinds are a. Tensional stress (stretching) b. Compressional stress (squeezing)
c. Shear stress.
Types of Differential Stress

a) Tensional stress (stretching). This is when rock is stretched apart or pulled apart. Where
crustal plates diverge, rocks are pulled apart.

b) Compressional stress (squeezing). This is when rock is pressed, squeezed or pushed

together. It's like a car caught in the middle of a long pile up on the highway. Where crustal plates
collide, rocks are compressed or pushed.

c) Shear stress which results in slippage and translation. With shear stress, the rock is being.top
of the stack is moved relative to the bottom.

2. Strain- the ability of a rick material to handle stress depends on the elasticity of the rock.

Types of Deformation

a) Elastic deformation- for small differential stresses, less than the yield strength, rock deforms
like a spring. It changes in shape by a very small amount in response to the stress. The
deformation is not permanent. This deformation is reversable. The rock can return to its original
shape.

b) Brittle deformation or Fracture- near the Earth's surface rock behave in its familiar brittle
fashion. If a differential stress is applied that is greater than the rock's yield strength, the rock
fractures. Fracture is an is an irreversable strain wherein the rock breaks.

3. Joints- fractures in rocks that show little or no movement at all.

4. Faults- are extremely long and deep break or large crack in a rock. A result of continuous pulling and
pushing

Types of Faults

1. Dip-slip fault (Normal fault)- occurs when brittle rocks are stretched-tectonic tensional forces
are involved and the movement of blocks or rock is mainly in the vertical direction (sinking and
rising). For dip-slip faults, the block lying on the top of the fault surface is referred to as the
hanging wall while the one below is referred to as the footwall. Normal fault tends to dip about
600. The hanging wall has moved downward relative to the footwall. Normal faults are the chief
structural components of many sedimentary rift basins like the North Sea where they have
major significance for hydrocarbon exploration.

2. Strike-slip fault- occurs when brittle rocks are sheared (the opposing tectonic forces are at
right angles to compression and tension directions) and the movement of blocks of rock is
 chiefly in the horizontal direction. If the far side of the fault moves to the left relative to an
observer it is called "sinistral strike- slip fault" (left-lateral).

3. Reverse (or thrust) fault- occur when brittle rocks are pushed (the tectonic forces are
compressional).
Philippines has many faults. One of this is the Marikina Valley Fault System that contains two major
segments: The West Valley Fault and the East Valley Fault. The West Valley Fault which is believed to
impact as the BIG ONE is a dominantly strike-slip fault that extends from Dingalan, Aurora in the North
and runs through the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Bulacan (Dona Rosario Trinidad, Norzagaray, San Jose
del Monte), Rodriguez, Rizal and the cities of Metro Manila which include Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig,
Makati, Parañaque, Taguig and Muntinlupa and the provinces of Laguna (San Pedro, Biñan, Sta. Rosa,
Cabuyao, Calamba) and Cavite (Carmona, Gen. Mariano Alvarez, Silang) that ends in Tagaytay. The
eastern segment known as the East Valley Fault moves in an oblique dextral motion. It affects the area of
Rodriguez and San Mateo Rizal.

Deformation- rocks buried deep within the Earth's crust behave differently when subjected to differential
stress. It is impossible to produce fracture in rocks the way it is at the Earth's surface. Rocks become
thicker under compressional stress and thinner under tensional stress. Rock layers tend to bend and go
out of shape. The high temperature condition makes a rock softer, less brittle and more ductile.

Folds- promoted by high temperature and pressure at great depth. When rocks deform in a ductile
manner, instead of fracturing to form faults or joints, they may bend or fold and the resulting structures are
called folds.

Kinds of folds:

1. Monoclines- are the simplest types of folds. Monoclines occur when the horizontal layers are
bent upward so that two limbs of the fold are still horizontal.

2. Synclines- are folds’ structures when the original rock layers have been folded downward and
the two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.

3. Anticlines- are fold structures formed when the originally rock layers have been folded upward
and the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold.

Synclines and anticlines usually occur together such that the limb of a syncline is also the limb of an
anticline. The anticline may form mountains, hills or ridges while the syncline may from valleys. Faults and
folds are geological structure that result from the response of rocks to tectonic stresses induced by plate
movements.