MAKALAH

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY

WORDS AND RELATED TERMS

Dosen pengampu: Fadilaturrahmah, S.Pd., M.Hum

Disusun oleh
Kelompok 2:

SEVENTRI
DELTA HERLIANI
FIJU JUPITER

SEKOLAH TINGGI KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

(STKIP) MUHAMMADIYAH KOTA PAGARALAM
JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS
TAHUN AJARAN 2023/2024
 PREFACE
Praise the presence of Almighty God for giving the author the opportunity to complete this
paper. It is by His grace and guidance that the author was able to complete the paper entitled
WORDS AND RELATED TERMS on time.

The paper (Derivational Morphology) was prepared to fulfill the assignment (English
Morphology). Apart from that, the author also hopes that this paper can add insight to readers.

The author would like to express his deepest gratitude to Mrs. Fadilafaturrahmah, S.Pd., M.Hum
as the teaching lecturer. This assignment has been given to increase knowledge and insight
regarding the field the author is working in. The author also would like to thank all parties who
have helped in the process of preparing this paper.

The author realizes that this paper is still far from perfect. Therefore, the author will accept
constructive criticism and suggestions for the perfection of this paper.

Writer's name

SDF
Learning Objectives:
Student Are Expected to be able distinguish word form, word token, and lexeme.

Indicators:
1. Define word
2. Define word form, word token and lexeme
3. Differentiate word form, word token and lexeme.
 CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION
A. What is a word?

Words are familiar terms we hear and say everyday language. We used the term sometimes
without fully notice what is the definition of words or because we never think that this could be
a problematic notion. For some people, the basic definition of words is a group of letters that is
procedded by a blank space and followed either by blank space or a punction mark (Bauer, 2003)
and has a meaning. Some others may say that words are parts of sentence or something which
build a sentence.”Word” is difficult to define in a clear cut manner which can differentiate the
definition of word with other notion similar to it. Part of the difficulty is that, as an element of
the English Language, the word can be used to denote thingsh which are conceotually very
different from each other, and that we need a better classification and more precise terminology
is widely accepted. These characteristics or ways to define the words are different between
morphologists.

Bauer(2019) argued that the word could be defibed in four other ways: She summarized that
there are four properties of words:

1. Words are
B. Word Classes and Conversion

Word classes refer to grammatical categories used to group words based on their function in
sentences. Word classes help us understand the role of words in sentences and how they interact
with other words. Some examples of common word classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, and so on.

Conversion is the process in which a word changes word class or grammatical role in a sentence
without adding an affix. This is an interesting linguistic phenomenon because the same word
can function as different classes of words depending on the context in which it is used.

A large portion of this chapter will be devoted to the study of how adjectives may be derived
from nouns, and nouns can be derived from verbs, and so on. In order to correctly understand
word classes such as "adjective," "noun,' and "verb," it is critical that the terminology used to
describe them be properly understood(What I have just described as word classes is the same as
what is referred to as parts of speech in traditional terminology and what many contemporary
linguists refer to as lexical categories in their work.) It may be appropriate for readers who are
confident in their ability to recognize a noun or a verb when they encounter one to skip ahead to
the next section. For their part, I suppose that many of these self-assured readers believe that
the word class to which a lexeme belongs is mostly decided by the meaning of the lexeme. That
assumption is wrong.

You may recall hearing in elementary school that verbs are 'doing words,' while nouns are thing
words,and adjectives are 'describing words,' respectively. There's a problem with these meaning-
based definitions in that, if one takes them seriously, they demand us to group lexemes that have
very distinct grammatical behaviour from one another, and to discriminate between ones that
have very similar grammatical behaviour from one anotherLet's take another look at the word
perform, which appears like the classic "doing word" and denotes something that actors and
musicians do on stage or in the studio. Without a doubt, the lexeme PERFORMANCE refers to
the same activity. Does this imply that the words PERFORM and PERFORMANCE are
members of the same word class? Since they occur in such different syntactic situations, and
since their inflectional behaviour is so varied, this cannot possibly be correct: PERFORM has
the four forms performs, performed, performing, and perform, while PERFORMANCE has the
two forms performance (singular) and performances (plural). According to the definitions we've
read, PERFORMANCE is a noun and PERFORM is a verb. It is possible to classify things
entirely on the basis of their syntactic and inflectional behaviour, with no reference to their
meaning and indeed, the notion of "meaning" may be deceptive, given that performance is not
plainly a "thing."
C. Adverbs Derived from Adjectives

Adverbs Derived from Adjectives are a form of morphological derivation in language that is
used to change adjectives into adverbs. This allows us to provide additional information about
how, when, where, or to what extent an action or state occurred.

The process of forming adverbs from adjectives generally involves adding the suffix "-ly" to the
adjective. However, not all adverbs follow this pattern, and there are some adverbs that do not
have the "-ly" ending but are still derived from adjectives. Here are some examples and
explanations:

1. Common Pattern: Adverbs with the ending "-ly"

 Adjective: slow (slow)

 Adverb: slowly (slowly)
 Example Sentence: She drives slowly to avoid accidents. (He drives slowly to
avoid accidents.)

2. Patterns of Not Using "-ly": Adverbs without the ending "-ly"

 Adjective: quick (fast)

 Adverb: quickly (quickly)
 Example Sentence: He finished the race quickly. (He finished the race quickly.)

3. Special Patterns: Adverbs with other changes in form

 Adjective: hard (hard)

 Adverb: hard (hard)
 Example Sentence: She works hard to achieve her goals. (He works hard to achieve
his goals.)

4. Irregular Pattern: Adverbs with irregular forms

 Adjective: good (good)

 Adverb: well (well)
 Example Sentence: She sings well. (He sings well.)

It should be noted that not all adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding the suffix "-ly."
There are some adverbs that have their own forms and do not follow the same derivation rules,
such as "well" and "fast", as shown in the example above. Adverbs derived from adjectives play
an important role in describing the way or conditions an action occurs, and they help us express
additional information in English communication.
D. Nouns Derived from Nouns

Nouns Derived from Nouns are a form of morphological derivation in language which is used to
form new nouns from existing nouns. It allows us to detail or determine the type, quality, or
nature of the object or entity represented by the noun from which it is derived. The process of
forming nouns from nouns usually involves adding a prefix or suffix to the existing noun. Here
are some examples and explanations:

1) -ess, -ine: 'female X'

waitress, heroine

(2) -ship, -hood: state of being X'

friendship, brotherhood

(3)-let, -ette, -ie: 'small X'

piglet, cigarette, kittie

(4)-er, -(i)an: state of being an X'

New Zealander, Canadian

(5)-ist, -ian: devotee of or expert on X 0

guitarist, Marxist, librarian.

If you think about it, you should conclude that all of them, or nearly all of them, must be
considered lexical items. There are a lot of words with unexpected meanings (e.g.,
"CIGARETTE" does not just mean "little cigar," and "BOOKLET" does not simply mean
"small book," and "BROTHERHOOD" does not simply mean "the state of being a brother," but
rather "secret or semi-secret society". Aside from that, the simple fact that some of these words
exist seems arbitrary. As a woman writer, why is there a term for ACTRESS but no word for
WRITRESS to denote a woman writer? In this section, I employ quotation marks to highlight
lexemes that are not real but may be imagined. Why do we have DROPLET but not
'GRAINLETor LUMPLET' as alternative spellings? It is just by chance that some of these terms
have gained widespread usage while others have not, and as a result, those that do exist must be
presented in alphabetical order. Because of this "gappiness," it is possible to demonstrate that
these affixes are derivational rather than inflectional (should such proof be required), even
though they do not affect the word class).
E. Nouns Derived from Members of Other Word Classes

We have discussed previously about Noun derived from Noun. So, in this sub-chapter, we are
going to discuss further how nouns are formed from other word classes such as adjectives and
verbs (which are very common). We begin the discussion by looking at suffixes used to
derive nouns from adjectives as follows:

(1) -ity, e.g. purity, equality, ferocity

(2)-ness, e.g. happiness, fierceness, sensitiveness

(3) -ism, e.g. conservatism, radicalism

All these three suffixes mean basically 'property of being X' where X is the base adjective. Of
the three, -ness is the most widely applicable, and the majority of nouns formed with it are not
lexical items.

Even more numerous are suffixes for deriving nouns from verbs. Here are just a

few: (4)-ance, -ence, e.g. performance, ignorance, reference, convergence

(5) -ment, e.g. announcement, commitment, development, engagement

(6) -ing, e.g. painting, singing, building, ignoring

(7) –((a)t)ion, e.g. denunciation, commission, organisation, modling

confusion (8-al, e.g. refusal, arrival, referral, committal

(9)-er, e.g. painter, singer, organiser, grinder

All of the suffixes in (4) - (9) perform essentially the same purpose (they combine to form an
abstract noun that denotes action or consequence of Xing'), but they are not interchangeable. The
suffix -er in (9) is the most commonly encountered in the formation of nouns expressing a
person who does the action denoted by the accompanying verb (agent nouns). However, it is not
the only agent suffix (others such as TYPIST and INFORMANT are used), nor is it the only
purpose of the suffix; for example, DIGGER is more likely to denote a piece of machinery than a
human, and we have already met -er with the meaning 'resident of (e.g. LONDONER).

While affixation is by far the most prevalent method of deriving lexemes in English, it is not the
only one, and it is important to remember this. The following are examples of non- affixal
methods of deriving abstract nouns (as opposed to conversion):

(10) A shift in the location of the stress.

(11) a shift in the last consonant, for example, nouns BELIEF, PROOF, and DEFENCE used
in conjunction with verbs BELIEVE, PROVE, and DEFEND.

(12) a change in the sound of a vowel, as in nouns SONG and SEAT next to verbs SING
and SIT.

In contrast to several other languages, however, the derivational use of vowel change in English
is quite insignificant compared to others. Members of the Semitic family, such as Arabic and
Hebrew, are among the languages that make extensive use of it.

F. Adjective derived from Adjective

Adjective Derived from Adjective is a form of morphological derivation in language that is used
to change or modify existing adjectives. In this case, one adjective is used to provide explanation
or intensify another adjective. This process allows us to express more specific or intensive
meanings or nuances. This pattern often involves using adjectives as prefixes to other adjectives.
Here are some examples and explanations:

1. Adjectives Using the Prefix "un-" (not):

 Adjective: happy (happy)

 Derived Adjective: unhappy (unhappy)
 Example Sentence: She felt unhappy about the situation. (He feels unhappy about
the situation.)

2. Adjectives Using the Prefix "in-" (not):

 Adjective: efficient (efficient)

 Derived Adjective: inefficient (not efficient)
 Example Sentence: The old computer is inefficient for the task. (Those old
computers were inefficient for the task.)

3. Adjectives Using the Prefix "dis-" (not):

 Adjective: pleased (happy)

 Derived Adjective: displeased (not happy)
 Example Sentence: He was displeased with the service he received. (He was
unhappy with the service he received.)

4. Adjectives Using the Prefixes "un-" and "re-" (re):

 Adjective: aware (aware)

 Derived Adjective: unaware (not aware)
  Example Sentence: She was unaware of the changes in the schedule. (He was
unaware about the change in schedule.)

Forming adjectives from other adjectives allows us to express more nuances or differences in
meaning, such as indicating the absence, opposite, or change in the trait. This is a useful way to
make language richer and more nuanced in expression.

G. Adjective derived from members of the Other Word Classes

Some of the processes in creating Adjectives from verbs are sometimes very much alike with
inflectional morphology by only looking at the suffixes used in the word such -ing, -ed, and -en,
and vowel change. Consider the example below:

(1) I buy an interesting book.

(2) He saw his father drunk last night.

(3) This fried rice should not be served with boiled eggs.

From the examples above, we can see that interesting, drunk, and boiled is not a verb, they are
adjectives. (We should notice that interesting in here does not reflect any action from 'I' but it
modifies book. As for drunk, its status as belonging to a distinct lexeme here is confirmed by its
special meaning ('intoxicated through drinking alcohol'), not predictable from the meaning of the
verb DRINK (swallow liquid').

Further suffixes that are commonly used to create adjectives from verbs are:

(4) -able (able to be Xed) ): loveable, breakable

(5) -ent, -ant (tending to X): repellent, expectant
(6) -ive (tending to X) : attractive, active
On the other hand, suffixes used to create adjectives from nouns are numerous, they are:
(7) –ful : beautiful, respectful, helpful

(8) –less : priceless, helpless, joyless

(9) –al : personal, normal, national
(10) –ish : childish, selfish, boyish
In general, adjectives ending in -ful and -less tend to be found in pairs, however, the correlation
is not perfect: we have SLOTHFUL but not 'SLOTHLESS', and PENNILESS but not
'PENNIFUL', among other examples. Once again, this demonstrates that, even though the
meaning of a possible term is easily guessable (for example, a 'slothlessperson would be
hardworking, while a 'penniful' person would be well off), the existence of the word cannot be
assured. This phenomenon is going to be discussed further in Chapter 7 about potential and
actual words.

H. Verbs derived from Verbs

The process of making verbs from verbs involve the use of prefixes only (yes, there is no
suffix in this process). The prefixes are re- (indicating repeated actions) and the negative of
'reversive' prefixes un-, de-, and dis- as in the following examples:

(1) watch, wash : rewatch, rewash

(2) tie, tangle :untie, untangle
(3) nominalize, compose : denominalize, decompose
(4) miss, charge: dismiss, discharge
The use of prefix re- is sometimes intertwined with the words with initial syllable re- but not all
of these words are polymorphemic some of them are created as they are (with the initial re- but
has nothing to do with the meaning of prefix re- for example repair. This word does not mean to
do pairing more than once. It is a monomorphemic repair and cannot be separated into smaller
units.

I. Verbs derived from Members of Other Word Classes

It is worth noting that the creation of verbs from nouns and adjectives are numerous. Some
affixes for deriving verbs from nouns are:

(1) de-, e.g. debug, deforest

(2) -ise, e.g. organise, patroniserab

(3) -fy, e.g. beautify

A meaning for de- at (1) is clearly identifiable, namely 'remove X from' (compare its function in
deriving verbs from verbs, e.g. DESENSITISE). However, neither -ise nor -ify has a clear-cut
meaning apart from its verb-forming function (ORGANISE) does not share any obvious
element of meaning with ORGAN, for example). The suffixes -ise and -ify can derive verbs
from adjectival bases too, as in NATIONALISE, INTENSIFY, URIFY. Hence, when the roots
to which they are attached are bound (e.g.SANITISE, SATISFY, MAGNIFY), it is often
impossible to decide whether these roots are fundamentally nominal or adjectivalThe suffix -ate
shows the same sort of ambivalence. Words such as GENERATE, ROTATE, and
REDUPLICATE clearly contain a root and a suffix, because the same roots crop up elsewhere
(e.g. in GENERAL, ROTOR, LOCAL). However, because most of the bases to which -ate is
attached are bound roots, it does not clearly favour either adjectival or nominal bases.
 CHAPTER III

CLOSING
A. CONCLUSION

a. Derivation is the process of creating a new lexeme from another lexeme.

b. Conversion is changing the class of a word into another class without adding any affixes or
changing the word.

c. Adverbs can be derived from adjectives by adding suffix - ly.

d. Nouns can be derived from nouns by adding affixes such as -ine, -ess, -ship, -hood, -let, -ette,
-ie, -er, -(i)an, -ist, and - ian.

e. ince. Nouns can be derived adjectives by adding affixes such as - hity, -ness, and -ism.

f. Nouns can be derived verbs by adding affixes such as - 16igance, -ence, -ment, -ing, -((a)t)ion,
-al, and -er.

g. Adjectives can be derived from adjectives by adding suffix –ish.

h. Adjectives can be derived from verbs by adding affixes such as -ing, -ed, and –en.

i. Adjectives can be derived from nouns by adding affixes such as-ful, -less, -al, and -ish.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lightner, T. M (2014). Introduction to English Derivational Morphology.

Paper Knowledge. Toward a Media History of Documents

Tyler, A., & Nagy, W. (1989). The acquisition of English derivational morphology.

Journal of memory and language, 28(6), 649-667.

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY module book (2023)