Classical vs.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (R  SRF)
• A voluntary response (R) is followed by a reinforcing stimulus (SRF)
• The voluntary response is more likely to be emitted by the organism.
• A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior
• To be a reinforcer stimuli must immediately follow the response and must be perceived as contingent upon the response
Classical conditioning (S  R)
• An involuntary response (UCR) is preceded by a stimuli (UCS), or
• A stimulus (UCS) automatically triggers an involuntary response (UCR)
• A neutral stimulus (NS) associated with UCS automatically triggers a conditioned response.
• The NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).

A teacher reported that she had been giving her students points on the chalkboard whenever their group was the
most quiet and attentive. Eventually, her students learned to become quiet and attentive whenever the teacher
approached the chalkboard. What type of conditioning is at work here? What is the role of the teacher by the
chalkboard?

Even though there is a S  R connection between the teacher standing by the chalkboard and students becoming quiet and
attentive, this stimulus is an antecedent (or discriminative) stimulus (not a CS). This is an example of stimulus control
in operant conditioning.
In operant conditioning, the antecedent stimulus does not directly elicit the response, as it does in classical conditioning.
Instead, the stimulus sets the occasion for a response to be reinforced. When an antecedent stimulus influences the likelihood
that a response will occur, we call that stimulus a discriminative stimulus ... and say that the response is under stimulus
control (Ormrod, 1999, pp. 56-57).
The teacher by the chalkboard does not directly elicit an involuntary response. Rather, a voluntary response (being quite
and attentive) is strengthened by a reinforcing stimulus. The teacher by the chalkboard (S+) is a cue, a signal, or a
signpost telling students that if they behave (R) in a certain way, a specific consequence is likely to follow (SRF). [ (S+) R
 SRF]

Stimulus (S+)
Discriminative Response (R) Reinforcing Stimulus
(SRF)
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Teacher by the chalkboard Being quiet and attentive Points on chalkboard

Teacher by the chalkboard is an antecedent telling students if they are quiet and attentive there is a probability that they
will earn points on board. This type of stimulus is a cue or a reminder, not an automatic trigger. Also, note that similar
stimuli (e.g., teacher standing anywhere in the classroom) may also cue (S+) behavior (R). This is known as stimulus
generalization. The more similar the stimulus is (e.g., teacher standing close to the chalkboard vs. standing away from the
chalkboard) the more likely it is to generalize (generalization gradient). Conversely, students can learn that a certain response may
be reinforced in one situation (S+), but not in another (S-). For example, students may learn that they only are reinforced (R) when
the teacher is out of her seat (S+) and not when she is sitting at her desk (S-). This is known as stimulus discrimination: [(S-) R
 (nothing)].

However, classical conditioning may be playing a role here. The teacher by the chalkboard, because of its association
with a reward, may begin to elicit a conditioned response (a happy feeling). This "feeling" may help to remind children to
behave in a certain way. It may help to make the antecedent a more powerful (or automatic) behavioral cue.

Stimulus Response Stimulus Response

Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Teacher by the chalkboard Being quiet and attentive Reward Pleasure

NS  UCS  UCR
 
CS   CR
 Behavioral Explanations of PTSD Symptoms
Manifestations of Acute Distress

Symptoms
Type of
Reaction Re-experience Avoidance and Numbing Increased Arousal
Somatic • Reactivity to reminders (e.g., • Sensory numbing • Abdominal distress
sweating, rapid heart beat, • Hot flashes or chills
nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, • Frequent urination
difficulty breathing) • Trouble swallowing
Behavioral • Insomnia • Avoidance of trauma reminders • Insomnia
• Increased activity (e.g., activities, locations, • Exaggerated startle
• Aggression conversations, people, things)
• Act as if trauma were recurring • Decrease interest in significant
activities
• social withdrawal
Cognitive • Intrusive recall • Amnesia • Poor concentration
• Flashbacks • Hypervigilance
• Trauma nightmares.
Emotional • Psychological distress with • Emotional numbing • Irritability
exposure to reminders (e.g., • Outburst of anger
anxiety, anger, guilt, shame,
hopelessness)

Classical conditioning = Symptoms of Reexperiencing

NS + UCS = UCR
(e.g., a setting) (a trauma) (acute distress)

NS>CS = CR
(e.g., a setting) (acute distress)

Operant conditioning = Symptoms of Escape and Avoidance

Voluntary Response = Reinforcing Stimuli

(Escape/Avoidance) = (Negative Reinforcement)

Classical conditioning = Symptoms of Arousal

NS + UCS = UCR
(e.g., a setting) (a trauma) (fight or flight)

NS>CS = CR
(e.g., a setting) (acute distress)
 Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning
Concept Definition
Free Operant Level Natural level of behavior (or baseline).

Terminal Behavior Desired frequency of a behavior at the

end of a planned reinforcement.

Extinction Reinforcing stimulus no longer follows

a response and the response is less
frequent.

Superstitious “Guesses” as to how one can to obtain

Behavior reinforcement.

Shaping When the free operant level of a

behavior is very low (or absent),
reinforcement is offered for successive
approximations of the target behavior
 Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcers increase the frequency of a response
Primary Satisfies basic needs.

Secondary Becomes reinforcing via learned associations (classical

conditioning) with primary reinforcers.

Positive Presentation of something desired (e.g., tangibles, attention,

control, internal good feeling without external
contingency).

Negative Termination of something that is undesired. Stopping an

aversive stimuli (escape). Learning to stay away from an
aversive stimuli (avoidance).

Primary Secondary
Automatic reinforcers Learned reinforcers
Positive • Physical pleasure • Money
Obtaining desired • •
stimuli • •
• •
Negative • Physical pain • School
Escape/avoid undesired • •
stimuli • •
• •

Types of Punishers
Punishers decrease the frequency of a response
Punishment I PI (or positive punishment) = presentation of an aversive.

Punishment II PII (or negative punishment) = removal of a pleasant

stimulus
 Factors Affecting
Reinforcement Effectiveness

Timing of reinforcement

Magnitude and appeal

Consistency
 Three Types of Reinforcement Schedules
Schedule Description
Ratio Reinforcement given after a specified number of
responses.

Fixed Ratio Specifies a consistent number of responses before

reinforcement is offered.

Variable Ratio Specifies a changing number of responses before

reinforcement is offered.

Interval Reinforcement given after the first response

emitted after a certain time period has elapsed.

Fixed Interval Reinforcement given after the first response emitted

after a fixed time period has elapsed.

Variable Interval Reinforcement given after the first response emitted

after changing time periods have elapsed.
Differential Reinforcement following a specified number of
responses within a specified time period.

DRH Frequent responses within a specific time period

required for reinforcement.

DRL Waiting before responding, for a specific time

period, required for reinforcement.

DRO Performing anything but the specified response for a

specific time period.

“Continuous reinforcement is clearly the most effective way of teaching a new response. Once
the terminal behavior has been reached, however, … intermittent reinforcement schedules –
ratio, interval, and differential – can be beneficial both in preventing extinction … and in
controlling the frequency and pattern of that response” (Ormrod, p.56).
 Eliminating Undesired Behaviors

Extinguishing Removal of the reinforcer.

Responses

Reinforcing Other Reinforcement for not displaying

Behaviors a behavior/response.

Reinforcing Reinforcement for displaying a

Incompatible behavior that an incompatible
Behaviors behavior.

NOTE: When these prove ineffective a form of

punishment will need to be considered.
Explaining the Failure of a
Reinforcement System
• The “reinforcer” is not reinforcing

• Reinforcement is inconsistent

• The response is not worthwhile

• Shaping takes place too rapidly

 Contingency Contracts
• An agreement between a student and a teacher that
specifies certain expectations for the student (the
terminal behavior) and the consequences of the
student’s meeting those expectations (the reinforcer).

• The contact should specify the desired behavior of

the student and the consequence (reinforcer) that will
be contingent on that behavior.

• Early contracts should require small tasks that a

student can accomplish within a short period of time.

• A criterion for judging the quality of the desired

behavior should be specified.

(Ormrod, 1999, pp. 80-81)

 Understanding Children’s' Behavior:
As Simple as ABC
Stephen E. Brock, Ph.D.
Lodi Unified School District

The behavior management technique known as behavior analysis provides a strategy for better understanding
children’s' behavior. Through this understanding it is hoped that parents and teachers can create environments where all
children can experience success. The most important assumption of behavior analysis is that all behavior is learned.
Children behave as they do because they have learned to do so. Further, children can learn either adaptive or maladaptive
ways of behaving.

The second major assumption of behavior analysis is that the child's environment provides cues telling children
how to behave. Theses cues are referred to as antecedents. Antecedents can be thought of as signposts telling a child
what to do. They set children up to behave in a certain way. Anything in the child's environment, which occurs before a
given behavior, is a potential antecedent.

Antecedents  Behavior
antecedents cue behaviors

Examples of antecedents include school bells (which tell children to line up), the presence of a substitute teacher
(which may tell children that it is time to goof off), a teacher giving direction (which may tell children to do school work),
parents arguing (which may tell children to behave in a way that distracts their parents' fight), etc.

Another set of events, which behavior analysts call consequents, occur after the child exhibits a given behavior
and serve to either increase or decrease the frequency of the behavior. An event such as a parent yelling at a child for
misbehavior is an example of a consequent. If the parents yelling decrease the occurrence of the misbehavior the
consequent would be considered a punisher. On the other hand, if the parental yelling increased the occurrence of the
behavior (it gave the child wanted attention) the consequent would be considered a reinforcer.

Antecedents  Behavior  Consequents

antecedents cue behaviors
consequents are punishers or reinforcers

An example of the ABC approach to understanding behavior can be found in the scenario of a family where the
parents constantly fight. This fighting is very disturbing the couple’s child who does whatever it takes to stop parental
arguments. As soon as an argument begins the child starts to misbehave. The child throws violent temper tantrums. This
in turn angers the child's parents to the point that they stop their own fight to punish the child. In this scenario the parent’s
argument is an antecedent to the child's temper tantrum behaviors. The argument serves as a cue for the child to do
something to stop the fight. The child's temper tantrum results in the parents stopping the argument to scold their child.
Here the stopping of the parental fight and the parents scolding the child serve as the consequents. Because the child
wants the parents to stop fighting this consequent acts as a reinforcer. It increases the likelihood that the child will throw
a temper tantrum the next time his parents fight.

The last major assumption of behavior analysis is that a child's behavior can be changed by changing the
environment. Any environment whether at home or at school, can be restructured to teach children new more adaptive
behaviors. Desired behaviors occur in response to cues in the child's environment. The cues can be either auditory or
visual, or might consist of models provided by others. Similarly, the desired behavior will be sustained when it is
followed immediately by events that are reinforcing to the student, and when inappropriate behavior not reinforced and/or
punished. For example, if the parents in the above scenario learn new ways to resolve their differences they not only
remove a visual and auditory cue for their child's temper tantrums, but also provide the child with a model of how to
appropriately gain someone attention. By ignoring temper tantrums when the do occur these same parents will show their
child that they will not change their activities simply because he chooses to act out.

It is important to keep in mind that whenever we want to change a child's behavior we must first look closely at
the environment in which the undesired behavior occurs. Behavior analysts argue that we can always find reasons for
behavior in the environment an that by changing the environment we can change the behavior
 BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS WORKSHEET
CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS CHART CHECKLIST*

ANTECEDENT BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE

3 1 2
What environment cues the undesirable behavior? Excess Behavior What is the result(s) of the behavior?
(undesirable behavior) What is the student's goal(s)
What is the subject matter and activity?

What is the teacher doing? Behaviorally define the undesirable behavior. What are typical responses of the teacher to the behavior?

What are the students doing? This definition should allow all observers to What are typical responses of other students?
agree when the excess behavior is occurring.
What time of day (period) is it? What effect does the target behavior have upon the assigned task?

When during the lesson is the behavior most apt to occur? Are any other events typically seen to follow this behavior?

What is the social context? Behavior goals include the following:

a) Positive reinforcement: control, attention, privileges (or things)
What is the student(s) current level of achievement in this area? b) Negative reinforcement: escape, avoidance.

5 4 6

What environment cues the desirable behavior? Deficit Behavior What is the result(s) of the behavior?
(desirable behavior)
What is the subject matter and activity? What are typical responses of the teacher to the behavior?

What is the teacher doing? Select a behavior that will take the place of the What are typical responses of other students?
undesirable or excess behavior.
What are the students doing? What effect does the target behavior have upon the assigned task?
This behavior should be incompatible with the
What time of day (period) is it? excess behavior. Are any other events typically seen to follow this behavior?

When during the lesson is the behavior most apt to occur? This behavior should provide for a more Do the consequences of the behavior allow the student to obtain his or her goal
appropriate way for obtaining the goal(s) (i.e., positive, negative, and/or self reinforcement)?
What is the social context? specified in step 2

What is the student(s) current level of achievement in this area? Does the Deficit behavior exist?
Yes or No
If "Yes" go to step 5
If "No" go to step 7

9 1 10

Develop a plan for responding to the undesirable behavior Excess Behavior Implement a plan for responding to the undesirable
(undesirable behavior) behavior.
What is the goal of the student's behavior?
Behaviorally define the undesirable behavior. When the undesired behavior occurs and the signal (or warning) is disregarded by
What plan can be developed for ensuring that the goal of the student's behavior is the student, what is the student to do?
not obtained. This definition should allow all observers to
agree when the excess behavior is occurring. What is done if the student disregards the final signal?
What rule can be explained to the student telling him or her the consequences of
engaging in the behavior? Make sure that the consequence for the undesired behavior does not allow the goal
of the student's behavior to be obtained!!!
What signal can be used to indicate that the rule has been broken, (a) as a warning,
and (b) to inform the student that a consequence has been given.

Is it appropriate to role play the steps of the plan?

7 4 8

Develop a plan for facilitating the desirable behavior Deficit Behavior Implement a plan for responding to the desirable
(desirable behavior) behavior.
What new skills or behaviors need to be taught?
Select a behavior that will take the place of the How will the child be allowed to obtain their goal(s) (i.e., attention, control,
What subject matter and activity changes can be made? undesirable or excess behavior. privileges, escape, avoidance) for the desirable behavior?
What social context changes can be made? This behavior should be incompatible with the What rewards will be given and how will they be delivered (on what schedule and
excess behavior. for what criterion)?
What plans for reinforcing the desired behavior can be made and explained to the
student? This behavior should provide for a more What arrangements are made for updating selection and scheduling of rewards?
appropriate way for obtaining the goal(s)
What steps can or should be role played? specified in step 2
 Punishment Options

Time Out

Response Cost

Verbal Reprimand

Restitution and Overcorrect ion