Activity Theory Components

H. Shellae Versey Activity theory is a homeostatic model that

Rutgers University, USA presumes that aging well is facilitated through
the primary mechanism of activity. Three
additional concepts—equilibrium, role loss
Activity theory maintains that a continuing
adaptation, and life satisfaction—comprise its
level of activity and social interaction is essen- central tenets. Activity theory is founded upon
tial to well-being and healthy aging. Originally the notion that activity, defined as any regular
theorized by Havighurst (1961) and colleagues, action or pursuit, predicts patterns of lifestyle
activity theory emerged in contrast to other behaviors that confer some level of benefit.
theories describing a gradual disengagement While changes in activities occur, as is often
from social roles in later life (i.e., disengage- the case over the life course, activity theory
ment theory; Cumming & Henry, 1961). Also emphasizes the utility of adapting to those
known as the implicit theory of aging or the changes by substituting lost roles or activities
normal theory of aging, activity theory sug- with other alternatives. The context that has
gests that engagement in activity is a primary received the most attention in this regard is
the period of transition between work and
pathway to healthy aging.
retirement. Whereas one might expect to lose
As a means to describe aging, and how to
one role at retirement, the transition between
age well, multiple theories were developed to work and nonwork presents the opportunity
better understand the aging process. Docu- to continue a productive lifestyle by substi-
menting the conventional thinking of the day, tuting work with other activities. Equilibrium
Havighurst (1961; Havighurst, Neugarten, & refers to activity stability in the transition
Tobin, 1963) first claimed that the needs of between midlife and older age. Any disruption
older people were essentially the same as those in equilibrium that is not restored is expected
of middle-aged people. Havighurst and his to result in lower life satisfaction. Therefore,
colleagues further suggested that the optimally stability in activities becomes the central mech-
aging person is one who remains engaged with anism through which adaptive processes are
the world and maintains the activities of middle maintained.
In considering the question of how activity
age as long as possible. In contrast, Cumming
facilitates adaptation and desirable outcomes,
and Henry (1961) argued that successful aging Lemon, Bengtson, and Peterson (1972) propose
involved replacing midlife roles with a new sys- the intermediary process of social interaction.
tem that placed emphasis on interests central Essentially, higher activity levels facilitate
to later life, rather than continuing activities of higher life satisfaction through role engage-
middle age. Disengaging from society in this ment. Role engagement refers to the level
way was taken to mean a lower investment in of involvement in society, institutions, or a
social relations and a gradual withdrawal from community through social roles. Roles may
society in order to allow space to reflect on provide social support and positive feedback
life experiences as well as personal meanings. about role performance. Thus a high level of
In contrast to activity theory, this perspective activity involvement creates the opportunity
for multiple roles, as well as the potential to
has fallen into disuse among psychologists and
construct a sense of identity and receive social
gerontologists.

The Encyclopedia of Adulthood and Aging, First Edition. Edited by Susan Krauss Whitbourne.
© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118528921.wbeaa096
2 ACTIVITY THEORY

support from multiple sources. Finally, social salient predictor of healthy aging. Lemon
engagement can shape a positive self-concept and colleagues found that any level of activ-
and, ultimately, greater life satisfaction. ity corresponded to higher mean levels of
At the same time, role loss could lead to life satisfaction, while the absence of activity
fewer opportunities for role support, trigger- altogether resulted in a significant decline in
ing a variety of deleterious effects including life satisfaction. Later research concluded that
decreased activity, isolation, depression, lower not only the type of activity but the meaning
life satisfaction and lower self-esteem. The attached to it is a significant mediator in the
loss of a partner, for example, could create relationship between activity and life satisfac-
difficulties in redefining a long-held role as tion (Longino & Kart, 1982; Menec, 2003).
spouse. According to activity theory, when For example, in a study of older adults and
role loss does occur, lost roles and activities solitary activity, solitude was a major part of
should be replaced in an effort to maintain daily life. However, this was not a universally
continuity in engagement. To the extent that negative experience; the majority of older
midlife activity is sustained, life satisfaction adults responded that they did not perceive
should remain high. This reasoning aligns with being alone to be harmful. Instead, free time
a body of research that supports the notion was used to engage in challenging yet enjoyable
that interactions with others are a central activities, such as reading, crossword puzzles,
feature of sustaining the social self and satis- and so on (Larson, Zuzanek, & Mannell, 1985).
faction with life. Havighurst and colleagues In this way, being alone is viewed as a positive
conceptualized life satisfaction as a global feature. Additional research finds that the
measure of well-being comprised of resolution, link between activities and life satisfaction is
zest, enthusiasm, a feeling of accomplishment, the result of several linked factors including
self-esteem, and optimism. Life satisfaction was accessibility of activities, level of commitment,
then, and remains now, a significant indicator freedom of choice, and the quality of activities.
of aging well and psychological adaptation. When these conditions are met, engagement
A second feature of Lemon and colleagues’ in activities is likely to create meaning, life
(1972) social interactionist hypothesis posits satisfaction, and sustained engagement.
that activities can be designated to three cat- Besides highlighting the interplay between
egories: informal, formal, or solitary. Formal the self and role engagement, an additional
activity refers to participation in social or subtext of the interactionist version of activity
formal voluntary organizations. Informal theory focuses on frequency. Engagement in
activity describes interpersonal interaction a variety of networks and roles may result in
with friends, relatives, or members of a com- fewer equilibrium disruptions. Multiple role
munity. Finally, solitary activity includes involvement can function as a buffer during
pursuits that can be done alone, such as listen- role change or loss that allows for continued
ing to the radio, reading, watching television, or maintenance of self-concept and life satisfac-
certain hobbies. Of the three, solitary activity tion. However, it remains unclear whether mul-
provides the least opportunity for role support, tiple role engagement sustains health benefits.
compared to formal and informal activity. The quality of relationships, versus quantity,
Informal activity has the greatest potential may provide more consistent opportunities for
for role support due to the intimate nature social support and adaptive processes.
of interpersonal activity with relatives and
friends. In this way, informal activity may be a
Limitations
particularly useful resource in dealing with the
challenges of everyday life and aging. Although several features of activity theory
Yet empirical evidence has generated mixed seem to be correlated with healthy aging,
support for the claim that activity type is a important unanswered questions remain. First,
 ACTIVITY THEORY 3

activity is not always correlated with life satis- language of activity theory confers a certain
faction or indicators of healthy aging. In fact, a level of exclusion toward disabled persons.
counternarrative suggests that constant activity
postretirement can obstruct more meaningful Conclusions
activities, such as life reflection, relaxation,
and spirituality. In this way, activity may be In spite of these limitations, activity theory
more reflective of excessive busyness, and not continues to be a primary theme of older
regarded as a health benefit. Further, some adulthood. Taken together, the constructs
inactive adults still maintain relatively high that describe activity theory provided the
levels of life satisfaction and quality of life in foundation for related theoretical extensions
older age. What accounts for this? Individual such as continuity theory (Atchley, 1989)
differences are likely to contribute to patterns and successful aging (Rowe & Kahn, 1987).
of activity over the lifespan as well as during activity theory has been expanded upon
the transition postretirement. In other words, due, in part, to its simplicity. Activity alone
if individuals are active early in life, the pattern does not account for individual differences
is likely to continue. New research attempts or opportunities for meaning-making—both
to clarify how engagement in specific types of significant motivators for activities undertaken
activities promotes health behaviors and health during later life. Research now focuses on
outcomes. the interpretation of activities for older adults
Second, it has not been clear what activ- to potentially enhance health and provide a
ities are most important, and how or whether sense of life satisfaction. In many instances,
formal and informal forms of activity confer active involvement continues to be inversely
any differential benefit. Examining specific associated with feelings of loneliness or depres-
forms of activity, as well as more precise sion. Activities that are more social in nature
health outcomes that might be associated or that provide meaningful benefit are often
with activity—psychological, behavioral, and cited as contributing to continued activity and
physiological—may further refine activity the- engagement.
ory. Some research, for example, has focused The notion that interpersonal interaction
on the role of volunteerism as a type of formal and support are facilitated through activ-
activity that improves the likelihood of social ity prevails in healthy aging research. For
interaction and benefits health. instance, applications of activity theory are
Third, although activity theory has gener- used to frame studies of leisure and produc-
ated great scholarly interest and has been well tive activities among older adults. Activity
received by the aging population, some critics theory has been expanded upon in several
question the emphasis placed on activity as reformulated theories of aging and its basis is
a prerequisite for aging well. Activity theory embedded in theories of productive and vital
may, for example, ignore the functional limi- aging. Research continues to expand, as activity
tations and adaptations of disabled adults, and theory contributes to a larger body of research
may discount the experiences of those without focused on the health benefits of social engage-
the aptitude to be active. Individuals unable to ment and the significance of social networks
participate in formal or informal activities have across the lifespan. Current research testing
the potential to become further marginalized. the interactionist framework concludes that
In sum, a primary concern related to activity the relationship between individuals, roles, and
theory is to what extent the framework applies social interactions is complex and should be
equally to all adults, and whether expectations considered in tandem with social context and
for sustained activity in older adulthood varies life course antecedents.
as function of culture, gender or race/ethnicity. In the past decade, activity theory has been
Further, debate continues about whether the integrated into biomedical models to explain
4 ACTIVITY THEORY

how activity—both social and physical— satisfaction in the later years. In P. F. Hansen
contributes to public health outcomes, such (Ed.), Age with a future (pp. 419–425).
as mobility and cognitive functioning. New Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard.
advancements suggest that regular partici- Larson, R., Zuzanek, J., & Mannell, R. (1985). Being
alone versus being with people: Disengagement
pation in social activities predicts certain
in the daily experience of older adults. Journal of
functional outcomes and health, while social
Gerontology, 40, 375–381. doi: 10.1093/geronj/
disengagement is associated with age-related 40.3.375
cognitive decline. As more people live longer Lemon, B. W., Bengtson, V. L., & Peterson, J. A.
lives, researchers attempt to define (or redefine) (1972). An exploration of the activity theory of
the state of being that characterizes aging. In aging: Activity types and life satisfaction among
that process, the mechanism that links activity in-movers to a retirement community. Journal of
undergoes further refinement. Activity theory Gerontology, 27(4), 511–523. doi: 10.1093/
essentially remains one element of a larger geronj/27.4.511
paradigm that emphasizes activity as a central Longino, C. F., Jr., & Kart, C. S. (1982). Explicating
contributor to healthy aging. activity theory: A formal replication. Journal of
Gerontology, 37, 713–722. doi: 10.1093/geronj/
SEE ALSO: Continuity Theory; Goal Adjustment 37.6.713
Theory; Successful Aging Menec, V. H. (2003). The relation between everyday
activities and successful aging: A 6-year-long
References study. Journals of Gerontology Series B:
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Cumming, E., & Henry, W. E. (1961). Growing old: doi: 10.1126/science.3299702
The process of disengagement. New York, NY:
Basic Books. Further Reading
Havighurst, R. J. (1961). Successful aging. The
Gerontologist, 1, 8–13. doi: 10.1093/geront/ Maddox, G. L. (1963). Activity and morale: A
longitudinal study of selected elderly subjects.
1.1.8
Social Forces, 42(2), 195–204. doi:
Havighurst, R. J., Neugarten, B. L., & Tobin, S. S.
(1963). Disengagement, personality and life 10.1093/sf/42.2.195