CEHDRA2

Lecture Topic:
Open Channel Flow

De La Salle University
Department of Civil Engineering
Term 1 AY2022-2023
Open Channel Flow Topics
◼ Open Channel Flow Concepts and
Definitions
◼ Classification of Free-Surface Flows
◼ Channel Geometry, Most Efficient Section
◼ Energy Concepts
◼ Momentum Concepts
◼ Rapidly Varied Flows and Gradually
Varied Flows
◼ Special Topics
 Hydraulic
Structures
 Water Hammering and Surges
Questions to ponder!
◼ What is your concept of open channel
flow?
◼ What are the characteristics of an open
channel flow?
◼ What are examples of open channel flow?
◼ Open Channel Flow is defined as fluid flow with
a free surface open to the atmosphere.
◼ Examples include streams, rivers and culverts
not flowing full.
◼ Open channel flow assumes that the pressure at
the surface is constant and the hydraulic grade
line is at the surface of the fluid
Classification of Free-Surface flows

◼ Steady and unsteady flow depend on

whether flow depth and velocity change
with time at a point.
◼ In general if the quantity of water entering
and leaving the reach does not change,
then the flow is considered steady.
◼ Steady flow in a channel can be either Uniform
or Non-uniform (varied).
◼ When the average velocities in successive cross
sections of a channel are the same, the flow is
uniform (occurs only when the cross section is
constant).
◼ Non-uniform flow results from gradual or sudden
changes in the cross sectional area.
◼ Uniform flow and varied flow describe the
changes in depth and velocity with respect
to distance.
◼ If the water surface is parallel to the
channel bottom flow is uniform and the
water surface is at normal depth.
◼ Varied flow or non-uniform flow occurs when
depth or velocity change over a distance, like in
a constriction or over a riffle.
◼ Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs when the
change is small, and rapidly varied flow (RVF)
occurs when the change is large, for example a
wave, waterfall, or the rapid transition from a
stream channel into the inlet of a culvert.
Classification of Free-Surface Flows
◼ The primary mechanism for sustaining flow in an
open channel is gravitational force.
◼ The parameter that represents this gravitational
effect is the Froude number,

If Fr >1, the flow possesses a relatively high velocity and

shallow depth (there is hydraulic jump). If Fr < 1, the velocity is
relatively low and the depth is relatively deep. If Fr = 1, the flow is
critical.
Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution
Open Channel Flow

Normal Flow
Channel Geometry
◼ Additional parameters for open channel
flow are;
 Wetted perimeter (P) – length of the line of
contact between the liquid and the channel
 Hydraulic radius (R) – cross-sectional area
divided by the wetted perimeter
 Free surface width (B)
◼ Rectangular section
◼ Trapezoidal section
◼ Circular cross section
Equation for Uniform Flow

 where S0 is the slope of the channel bottom and C is the Chezy

coefficient
 Using Manning’s relation on channel roughness (n) and
hydraulic radius (R);

where c1 = 1 for SI units

Uniform flow
Use Manning’s n = 0.012
 1
2

1 2/3 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0 Use Manning’s n = 0.012
𝑛

𝐴 = 12 + 8 = 20
𝐴 20 20
𝑅= = =
𝑃 6 + 2 20 6 + 4 5
1
𝑆0 =
500
2 1
1 2/3 1/2 1 20 3 1 2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0 = 20 = 90.52𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑛 0.012 6+4 5 500
Problem:
Problem:

1 2/3 1/2 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
𝐵 8
= ; 𝐵 = 96𝑐𝑚
12 1
 𝐵

1 2/3 1/2 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
𝐵 8
= ; 𝐵 = 96𝑐𝑚 = 0.96𝑚
12 1

𝐿= 𝑦02 + 𝐵2 = (0.12)2 +(0.96)2 = 0.96747𝑚

2/3
1 1/2 1 1 𝐴 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆0 = 𝐵𝑦0 𝑆0
𝑛 0.015 2 𝑃
2/3
(0.96)(0.12)
1 1 2
= (0.96)(0.12) 0.0005 1/2 = 0.01211𝑚3 /𝑠
0.015 2 (0.12) + (0.96747)
Problems:
◼ A rectangular channel 5m wide carries a discharge of 100
m3/s at normal depth. The channel is running on a slope of
0.005 m/m and has a Manning n value of 0.035. Determine
the normal depth for this situation.
◼ A 1m diameter circular channel culvert is laid on a slope of
0.005 m/m and carrying a discharge of 0.7 m3/s. If the
roughness coefficient of the culvert is 0.012, what is the
normal depth for this case?
◼ A trapezoidal channel is to be designed to carry a discharge
of 100 m3/s at a normal depth of 2m. Geotechnical
considerations require that the channel side slopes be no
steeper than 2H/1Vand the channel must be laid on a slope of
0.001 m/m. The estimated roughness coefficient is0.035.
What must be the bottom width of the channel to accomplish
this purpose?
A 1m diameter circular channel culvert is laid on a slope of 0.005 m/m
and carrying a discharge of 0.7 m3/s. If the roughness coefficient of
the culvert is 0.012, what is the normal depth for this case?

𝑚3
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝐷𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 = 1𝑚; 𝑆0 = 0.005 ; 𝑄 = 0.7 ; 𝑛 = 0.012
𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑: 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ ( 𝑦𝑛 )

1 2/3 1/2
𝑄= 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃;

1
𝐴= 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 ; 𝑃=𝛼
4
𝑚3
𝑆0 = 0.005 ; 𝑄 = 0.7 ; 𝑛 = 0.012
𝑠
2/3 2/3
1 1/2 1 𝐴 1/2 1 1 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅2/3 𝑆0 = 𝐴 𝑆0 = 𝐴5/3 𝑆0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑃 𝑛 𝑃
5/3 2/3
1 1 1 1/2
0.7 = 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 0.005
0.012 4 𝛼
 5/3 2/3
1 1 1 1/2
0.7 = 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 0.005
0.012 4 𝛼

𝛼 = 1.23 rad = 70.470

𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 1 − 2
𝑑

𝑑
𝑦= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 0.33𝑚
2
Online Resources
◼ Open Channel Flow
 https://youtu.be/BH3BIHkekgE
 https://youtu.be/l8w1osq8SJs
 https://youtu.be/c7ym2yiAHk0
 https://youtu.be/MahRDDbL5EA
Problem
◼ Determine the uniform depth yo, area A, and
wetted perimeter P for the following conditions;
(a) Trapezoidal channel, m1 =2.5, m2 =3.5, b =
4.5m, Q = 35m3/s, n = 0.015, So = 0.00035
(b) Circular channel, d = 2.1m, Q = 4.25m3/s, n =
0.012, So = 0.001
(c) Rectangular channel, b = 7.5m, Q = 33m3/s, n
= 0.020, So = 0.0004
Optimal shape of cross-section
Most-Efficient Section of Channels
Most efficient rectangular
section
𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝐴
= + 2𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑦

𝑑 𝐴
+ 2𝑦 = −𝐴𝑦 −2 + 2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑦

𝐴
− 2 + 2 = 0; 𝐴 = 2𝑦 2 ; ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦
𝑦

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠; 𝐴 = 2𝑦 2 = 𝐵𝑦; 𝐵 = 2𝑦
Most-Efficient Section of Channels
Problem 1

What are the most efficient dimensions (y

and b) for a rectangular brick channel
designed to carry 5 m3/sec of water in
uniform flow with S0 = 0.001, and n = 0.015?

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙, 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛; 𝑏 = 2𝑦

 1 2/3 1/2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0 𝐼𝑓 𝑏 = 2𝑦; 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑦 = 2𝑦(𝑦) = 2𝑦 2
𝑛 𝑃 = 2𝑦 + b = 2y + 2y = 4y
1 𝐴5/3 1/2
Q= 2/3
𝑆0
𝑛𝑃
1 2𝑦 2 5/3
5= 2/3
(0.001)1/2
0.015 4𝑦

1 (25/3 )[ 𝑦 2 5/3 ] 1/2

5= 2 (0.001)
0.015
(43 )[ 𝑦 2/3 ]
𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑘 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

𝑦 = 1.27𝑚 𝑏 = 2𝑦 = 2 1.27 = 2.54𝑚 𝐴 = 3.23 𝑚2

 Problem 2

For the same area in Problem 1, what

discharge a trapezoidal and circular channel
would carry. Use S0 = 0.001, and n = 0.015.

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚 1; 𝑄 = 5𝑚3/𝑠

𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑦 = 1.27𝑚, 𝑏 = 2.54𝑚
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 3.23 𝑚2
𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙

𝐴 = 3.23 𝑚2

𝑆0 = 0.001, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0.015.

𝐵 = 2𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛30 + 𝑏
𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛30

𝑦
𝑏
600
1 2/3 1/2 𝑏 = 1.155𝑦
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅 𝑆0
𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑏 + 𝑏 + 𝑏 = 3𝑏
1 𝐴5/3 1/2 1
Q= 2/3
𝑆0 𝐴 = 3.23 = (𝑏 + 𝐵)(𝑦)
𝑛𝑃 2
1 𝑏
3.23 = (𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛30 + 𝑏)( )
2 1.155

𝑏 = 1.58𝑚
 1 𝐴5/3 1/2 𝐴 = 3.23 𝑚2
Q= 2/3
𝑆0
𝑛𝑃
𝑆0 = 0.001, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0.015.

𝑏 = 1.58𝑚
𝑃 = 3𝑏 = 3 1.58 = 4.74𝑚

1 (3.23)5/3 1/2 = 5.27 𝑚3 /𝑠

Q= (0.001)
0.015 (4.74)2/3
𝑀𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 (𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒)

𝐴 = 3.23 𝑚2

𝑆0 = 0.001, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 0.015.

𝜋𝐷 2
𝐴= = 3.23; 𝐷 = 2.87𝑚
4(2)
1 𝐴5/3 1/2
Q= 𝑆0 𝐷
𝑛𝑃 2/3 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠; 𝑦 = = 1.435𝑚
2
𝐷
𝑃 = 𝜋𝑅 = 𝜋
2

1 (3.23)5/3 1/2 3
Q= 2/3
(0.001) = 5.45 𝑚 /𝑠
0.015 𝜋1.435
Problem 3

Calculate the best hydraulic rectangular

cross-section to convey Q=10 m3/sec
discharge with n= 0.02 and S0= 0.0009
canal characteristics.
Energy Concepts
Energy concepts

◼ The sum of the vertical distance to the channel

bottom from a horizontal datum (z), the depth of
flow (y), and the kinetic energy (v2/2g) defines
the energy grade line and is termed the total
energy H.
Specific Energy

◼ Specific energy (E) is the measurement of

energy relative to the bottom of the channel
Specific Energy

❑ For rectangular section, the specific energy can be

expressed as a function of the depth y. The specific
discharge q is defined as the total discharge divided by
the channel width, that is,
◼ Critical depth (yc) is the depth for which the
specific energy is a minimum

◼ Alternate depth are two depths of flow that are

possible for a given specific energy and
discharge
Fig. Variation of specific energy and specific discharge with depth
(a) E versus y for constant q; (b) q versus y for constant E
◼ Froude number in a rectangular channel
◼ For any depth greater than yc, the flow is
relatively slow or tranquil, Fr <1, such a state is
subcritical flow
◼ For a depth less than critical, the flow is
relatively rapid or shooting with Fr > 1, and the
regime of flow is supercritical
Generalized cross section

◼
Problem

◼ Water is flowing in a triangular channel with

m1=m2=1.0 at a discharge of 𝑄 = 3 𝑚3/𝑠. If the
water depth is 2.5m, determine the specific
energy, Froude number, hydraulic depth.
5𝑚

2.5𝑚 2.5𝑚

1
1 2.5𝑚
𝑚1
𝑚2

𝑄2 𝑉
𝐸 =𝑦+ 𝐹𝑟 = 𝐴
2𝑔𝐴2 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ =
𝐴 𝐵
𝑔
𝐵
 𝑄2 32
𝐸 =𝑦+ 2
= 2.5 + 2 = 2.51𝑚
2𝑔𝐴 2.5𝑥5
2𝑔
2

2.5𝑥5
𝐴
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ = = 2 = 1.25𝑚
𝐵 5

3
2.5𝑥5
𝑉 2
𝐹𝑟 = = = 0.14, 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐴 9.81𝑥1.25
𝑔
𝐵
Critical Flow Conditions

𝑑 𝐴−2 −2𝐴−2−1 𝑑𝐴
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−3
𝑑𝐴
= −2𝐴
𝑑𝑦
◼
◼
Problem

◼ A rectangular channel 5 ft wide carries a discharge of 50 ft3/s.

Find the critical depth and th minimum specific energy. If the
discharge is increased to 75 ft3/s, find the corresponding
critical depth.
◼ A 0.9m concrete circular pipe carries a discharge of
0.566m3/s. Find the critical deoth. If the discharge is
increased to 1.0 m3/s, what depth would give minimum
energy?
◼ A trapezoidal channel, with 3.0m bed width and 3:2 side
slope, carries a discharge of 10 m3/s. Find the critical depth
and the minimum required energy to transport the same flow?
◼ A trapezoidal channel, with 3.0m bed width and 3:2 side slope,
carries a discharge of 10 𝑚3/𝑠 . Find the critical depth and the
minimum required energy to transport the same flow?
𝐵
2 2
𝑦𝑐 𝑥
𝑦
3 𝑐
𝑦
3 𝑐
=
3 2
𝑦𝑐
3

3𝑚

𝑄2
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝐸 = 𝑦𝑐 + = 18.38𝑚
2𝑔𝐴 2
2𝑥2
𝑄2 𝐵 102 3 + 𝑦𝑐
=1= 3
𝑔𝐴3 4 𝑦
𝑔 3 + 𝑦𝑐 + 3 𝑐
3 2
𝑦𝑐 = 18.38𝑚
Momentum
Concepts
Momentum Equation in Open Channels

◼ Newton’s second law of motion states that for a

fluid in continuum, in which all the particles have
the same acceleration, the force should be equal
to the product of mass and acceleration.
◼ The change of momentum per unit time in the
body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the
resultant of all the external forces acting on that
body,
Momentum Conservation:
The Momentum Equation

◼ The law of momentum conservation states

that a body is motion cannot gain or lose
momentum unless some external force is
imposed.
◼ The force acting on an element is equal to
the rate of change if momentum
(momentum flux)
◼
◼
◼ Consider a stream tube.
◼
◼
◼
◼ Numerous problems in hydraulics are solved using
the momentum equation.
◼ Given the discharge and pressure in the pipe, the
momentum equation is used to evaluate the forces
on bends, divergent or convergent elements, and
supporting elements of the system.
◼ In many problems, both the momentum and
Bernoulli equations are applied to obtain a solution.
Momentum Equation in Open Channels

◼ Newton’s second law of motion states that for a

fluid in continuum, in which all the particles have
the same acceleration, the force should be equal
to the product of mass and acceleration.
◼ The change of momentum per unit time in the
body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the
resultant of all the external forces acting on that
body,
Momentum Conservation:
The Momentum Equation

◼ The law of momentum conservation states

that a body is motion cannot gain or lose
momentum unless some external force is
imposed.
◼ The force acting on an element is equal to
the rate of change if momentum
(momentum flux)
◼
◼
 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:

M1 and M2 are terms that contain the hydrostatic force and the
momentum flux at locations 1 and 2, respectively.
The quantity M is called the momentum function, and for a general
prismatic section it is given by
CEHDRA 2
Lecture Topic on
Non-Uniform Flows
(Rapidly Varied Flow)
De La Salle University
Department of Civil Engineering
Term 1 AY2022-2023
◼ Rapidly-varied flow is a significant change in
water depth over a short distance (a few times
water depth).
◼ It occurs where there is a local disturbance to
the balance between gravity and friction (e.g. at
a weir, venturi, sluice, free overfall, sudden
change in slope) or a mismatch between the
depths imposed by upstream and downstream
controls (hydraulic jump).
Hydraulic Jump (Standing Wave)

◼
Fig. 1 Different examples for the formation of the hydraulic jump
Practical Applications of Hydraulic Jump

1. Dissipation of energy of water flowing over dams and weirs and below gates or
through any other hydraulic structure to prevent possible destruction due to high
velocities and hence eliminate scouring process.
2. Raising water levels in canals to enhance irrigation practices and reduce pumping
heads.
3. Reducing uplift pressure under the foundations of hydraulic structures. This also
involves reducing the water above thickness of concrete aprons by increasing the
weight of the water above aprons.
4. Creating special flow conditions to meet certain needs at control sections for
example, gaging stations, flow measurement, and flow regulation.
5. Increasing discharges under gates by creating a bigger difference between water
levels just upstream and downstream of the gates.
6. Mixing of chemicals used for water purification and removing air pockets in water
supply systems to prevent air locking.
Conjugate or Sequent Depths

◼ Initial and final depths of a hydraulic jump are called

conjugate or sequent depths.

◼ A jump would only be stable if the sum of the momentum

and pressure forces is exactly the same at the two
conjugate depths, just upstream and downstream of the
jump.
Fig. 2 Momentum and conjugate depth relationships for the hydraulic jump
Fig. 3 (a) Hydraulic jump forced upstream, (b) Hydraulic jump occurring on a steep slope
Fig. 4 Different possibilities for jump location after a sluice gate
Illustrative Problem 1

◼ A trapezoidal channel with 3.0m bottom width and 1:1 side slope
carries a discharge of 10 m3/s at a slope of 12 cm/km. A hydraulic
jump is formed in the channel with an initial depth of 0.6m. Calculate
the momentum function, the critical depth, and the conjugate depth.

1 1

Fig. 5 Hydraulic jump and channel’s cross-section

Solution to Illustrative Problem 1
Given:
Channel bottom width, b = 3.0m
Side slope, 1:1
Bed slope, S0 = 12 cm/km
Discharge, Q = 10 m3/s
Initial depth, y1 = 0.6m

Required:
Momentum function, M
Critical depth, yc
Conjugate depth, y

Solution program:
1. Compute for the momentum function using the impulse-momentum equation
2. Solve for the critical depth using the appropriate equation for generalized cross-sectiom
3. Calculate for the minimum momentum function
4. Determine the conjugate depth, y2, corresponding to the initial depth, y1.
5. Construct the M-y diagram and verify Mmin, critical depth and conjugate depth
Table 1. Calculations for the M-y diagram

0.2 0.64 0.098 15.927 0.063 15.99

0.4 1.36 0.192 7.495 0.261 7.8756
0.6 2.16 0.283 4.72 0.612 5.332
0.8 3.04 0.372 3.35 1.13 4.48
1.0 4.0 0.458 2.55 1.832 4.382
1.2 5.04 0.543 2.02 2.736 4.756
1.5 6.75 0.667 1.51 4.50 6.01
2.0 10.0 0.867 1.02 8.67 9.69
2.5 13.75 1.061 0.74 14.583 15.32
Fig. 6 The M-y diagram
Conjugate Depths in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
Conjugate Depths in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
Conjugate Depths in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
Conjugate Depths in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
Conjugate Depths in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
◼
Illustrative Problem 1:

◼ A wide channel carries a specific discharge of

4.0 ft2/s. A hydraulic jump is formed with an
initial depth of 0.5 ft. Find the final depth.
Illustrative Problem 2:
◼ Water is stored behind a sluice gate to a depth of 10
feet. The downstream channel is a 10 ft wide rectangular
section running on a slope of 0.001 with a Manning n of
0.03. The depth in the vena contracted section after the
gate is 1 ft.
(a) Under these conditions, is the gate clear or submerged?
Will a hydraulic jump occur or be drowned?
(b) Sketch the situation on the M-y diagram.
(c) What is the minimum slope the channel can have for a
jump to occur?
(d) What is the minimum slope the channel can have for
the jump?
(a) Ideal case when the sequent depth (b) If y2 is less than y1’ , the jump moves
y1’ coincides with tail water depth y2 downstream, a rising curve will be formed after the
gate to allow for such a rise om the water surface

(c) If y2 is bigger than y1’ , the jump moves to the upstream and forms a submerged or
drowned jump

Different possibilities for jump location after a sluice gate

(b) M-y diagram

𝑦 A ℎ 𝑄2 𝑔𝐴 𝐴ℎ 𝑀
0.61 6.1 0.305 294.96 1.86 296.82
1.0 10 0.5 179.93 5.00 184.93
2.62 26.2 1.31 68.67 34.32 103.00
5.52 55.2 2.76 32.60 152.35 184.95
7.41 74.1 3.705 24.28 274.54 298.82
Energy Loss in Hydraulic Jump

◼
Energy Loss in Rectangular or Wide
Channels

◼
Height and Efficiency

◼
Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump
◼ Hydraulic jumps cause intensive scour at their
location.
◼ Stilling basins are constructed at the location of
the hydraulic jump to secure channel bed
against scouring.
◼ Apron length and height of the side walls of a
stilling basin are designed according to the
expected length and profile of the hydraulic jump
Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump

◼
Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump
◼ The jump profile through its length is important to determine the
weight of water over the floor of a stilling basin which counteracts the
uplift force if the basin is laid on a permeable foundation.
◼ Jump profiles for different approach Froude numbers are given in the
figure below.

Figure: Profile of jumps (after Bakhmetef and Matzke, 1936)

Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump

◼
Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump

Figure: Profile of jumps (after Bakhmetef and Matzke, 1936)

Length and Profile of the Hydraulic Jump

Figure: Profile of jumps (after Bakhmetef and Matzke, 1936)

Classification of Hydraulic Jumps
Practice Problem 1:
◼
Practice Problem 2:
◼ Based on the given data in Practice Problem 2,
determine the following;
1. height and efficiency of the hydraulic jump
2. length and profile of the jump using any of
the formulas described in the power point handout.
CEHDRA2
Lecture Topic on
Non-Uniform Flows
(Gradually Varied Flows)

De La Salle University
Department of Civil Engineering
Non-Uniform Flows
• Non-uniform flows:
►Rapidly varying flows
(RVF): The flow depth
changes considerably
over a relatively short
distance dy/dx~1.

►Gradually varying
flows (GVF): The flow
depth changes slowly
with distance dy/dx
<<1.
Rapidly Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied Flow (RFV)
• Rapidly varied flow
- flow depth changes occur over a relatively
short distance.

• Quite complex and difficult to analyze in a precise

fashion.

• Many approximate results can be obtained by

using a simple one-dimensional model along with
appropriate experimentally determined coefficients
when necessary. 133
Occurrence of Rapidly Varied Flow
• Flow depth changes significantly un a short distance:

The flow changes from a relatively shallow, high speed

condition into a relatively deep, low speed condition within
a horizontal distance of just a few channel depths.

Hydraulic
Jump

134
Occurrence of Rapidly Varied Flow
• Sudden change in the channel geometry such as the flow in
an expansion or contraction section of a channel.

Rapidly varied flow may occur

in a channel transition section.
135
Example of Rapidly Varied Flow
• The scouring of a river bottom in the neighborhood of a
bridge pier.

Responsible
for the
erosion near
the foot of the
bridge pier.

The complex three-dimensional flow structure around a

bridge pier.
136
Example of Rapidly Varied Flow

• Many open-channel flow-measuring devices are

based on principles associated with rapidly varied
flows.
• Broad-crested weirs
• Sharp-crested weirs
• Critical flow flumes
• Sluice gates

137
Gradually Varied
Flow
Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

• Open channel flows are classified as uniform depth,

gradually varying or rapidly varying.
• If the channel bottom slope (S0) is equal to the
slope of the energy line (Sf), S0=Sf, the flow depth
is constant, dy/dx=0.
• The loss in potential energy of the fluid as it
flows downhill is exactly balanced by the
dissipation of energy through viscous effects.
• If the bottom slope and the energy line slope are
not equal, the flow depth will vary along the
channel.
Fig. 1 Non-uniform gradually varied flow
Gradually Varied Flow

dy Sf −So
=
dx (1 − Fr )
2

The sign of dy/dx, that is, whether the flow

depth increase or decrease with distance along
the channel depend on Sf-So ad 1-Fr2
Water Surface
Profiles
Classification of Surface Shapes

• The character of a gradually varying flow is often

classified in terms of the actual channel slope, So,
compared with the slope required to produce
uniform critical flow, Soc.
• The character of a gradually varying flow depends
on whether the fluid depth is less than or greater
than the uniform normal depth, yn or y0.

12 possible surface
configurations
Classification of Surface Shapes
Example of Gradually Varying Flow
Backwater
curve

Drop-down profile

Typical surface configurations for nonuniform depth flow

with a mild slope. S0 < S0c.
Example of Gradually Varying Flow

Typical surface configurations for nonuniform depth flow

with a critical slope. S0 = S0c.
Example of Gradually Varying Flow

Typical surface
configurations for
nonuniform depth
flow with a steep
slope. S0 > S0c.

148
Example of Gradually Varying Flow

Typical surface configurations for nonuniform depth flow

with a horizontal slope. S0 =0.
149
Example of Gradually Varying Flow

Typical surface configurations for nonuniform depth flow

with a adverse slope. S0 <0.
150
◼
Fig. 2 Classification of channels according to bed slope
Graphical representation of GVF
◼
GVF Water Surface Profiles
◼
Controls and Critical Flow and
Profile Synthesis
◼ Identification of controls and their
interaction with the possible profiles is a
requirement for successful understanding
and correct design analysis of open-
channel flow
Fig. 3 Representative controls: (a) sluice gate; (b) change in slope
from mild slope (S01) to steep (S02); (c) entrance to a steep channel;
(d) free outfall
Fig. 4 Example of Profile Synthesis
◼ Alternative equation to evaluate the water
surface profiles
◼
Outlining of water surface profiles
Example 1:
Draw the water surface profile for a wide open channel with
three different reaches as provided in the figure below.

Fig.5a Wide open channel with three reaches section

Fig.5b Critical and normal depths and category of bed slope

Fig.5c Water surface profile

Outlining of water surface profiles
Example 2:
Draw the water surface profiles for the two reaches of the open
channel. In the figure below, a gate is located between the two reaches
and the second reach ends with a sudden fall..

Fig.6a Open channel and gate location

Fig.6b Wide open channel with three reaches section

Fig.6c Water Surface Profile

Problem 1:
◼
Fig.1 (a) sufficiently long channel that uniform conditions are
established away from the entrance region; (b) nature of the water
surface profile
Problem 2:
◼
Fig.2 Nature of the water surface profile
Numerical Analysis
of Water Surface
Profiles
Analysis of a water surface profile on a
reach channel
1. The channel geometry, S0, n, and Q are given or
assumed
2. Determine normal depth y0 and critical depth yc.
3. Establish the controls (i.e., depth of flow) at the
upstream and downstream ends of the channel reach
4. Find y and E as functions of z allowing for the
possibility of a hydraulic jump to occur within the reach
Fig. Notation for computing gradually varied flow
Standard Step Method

1. Choose yi+1
2. Compute Ei+1, ym knowing yi and yi+1 and
S(ym)
3. Compute xi+1
4. At location k, trial values of yk are
assumed until xi+1 is satisfied for xk value
◼
◼
Problem 3:
◼
Solution Program
◼
◼
Fig.3 Nature of the water surface profile
Applying the standard step method using spreadsheet analysis, results
are presented below
Station y A V E ym A(ym) P(ym) R(ym) S(ym) Dx x
1 0.5 0.75 26.66667 36.7442 0
2 0.6 1.08 18.51852 18.07888 0.55 0.9075 3.482951 0.260555 0.572036 32.68674 32.68674
3 0.7 1.47 13.60544 10.13466 0.65 1.2675 4.116214 0.307929 0.234686 33.99528 66.68202
4 0.8 1.92 10.41667 6.330425 0.75 1.6875 4.749478 0.355302 0.109404 35.09329 101.7753
5 0.9 2.43 8.230453 4.352617 0.85 2.1675 5.382742 0.402676 0.056121 35.88134 137.6567
6 1 3 6.666667 3.265262 0.95 2.7075 6.016005 0.450049 0.03101 36.23335 173.89
7 1.1 3.63 5.509642 2.647205 1.05 3.3075 6.649269 0.497423 0.018184 35.96771 209.8577
8 1.2 4.32 4.62963 2.29243 1.15 3.9675 7.282533 0.544797 0.011194 34.80371 244.6614
9 1.3 5.07 3.944773 2.093131 1.25 4.6875 7.915797 0.59217 0.007175 32.27366 276.9351
10 1.4 5.88 3.401361 1.989666 1.35 5.4675 8.54906 0.639544 0.00476 27.5196 304.4547
11 2.5 18.75 1.066667 2.557991 300
12 2.45 18.0075 1.110648 2.512872 2.475 18.37688 15.67328 1.172497 0.000188 -55.5497 244.4503
13 2.4 17.28 1.157407 2.468277 2.425 17.64188 15.35665 1.14881 0.000209 -56.4033 188.047
14 2.35 16.5675 1.207183 2.424276 2.375 16.92188 15.04001 1.125124 0.000234 -57.4401 130.6069
15 2.3 15.87 1.260239 2.380948 2.325 16.21688 14.72338 1.101437 0.000262 -58.7159 71.89099
16 2.25 15.1875 1.316872 2.338387 2.275 15.52688 14.40675 1.07775 0.000294 -60.3106 11.58038
17 2.2 14.52 1.37741 2.2967 2.225 14.85188 14.09012 1.054063 0.000331 -62.343 -50.7626
Problem 4:
◼
Solution Program
◼
◼
Fig.4 Nature of the water surface profile
 Applying the standard step method using spreadsheet analysis, results
are presented below
Station y A V E ym A(ym) P(ym) R(ym) S(ym) Dx x
1 0.4 0.823034 47.15636 0.506952 4.931431 1.639501 0
2 0.41 0.83389 47.77839 0.525375 4.758509 1.564098 0.405 0.828475 47.46815 0.516141 2.071189 0.2492 0.033661 2.308636
3 0.42 0.844641 48.39435 0.543979 4.59577 1.496509 0.415 0.839278 48.08711 0.534654 2.098196 0.254816 0.030452 4.603553
4 0.43 0.85529 49.00448 0.56276 4.442391 1.435853 0.425 0.849978 48.70013 0.553347 2.124944 0.260406 0.027618 6.882252
5 0.44 0.865841 49.60902 0.581715 4.297635 1.381369 0.435 0.860577 49.30744 0.572216 2.151443 0.265969 0.025109 9.142118
6 0.45 0.876298 50.20818 0.600841 4.160836 1.332393 0.445 0.871081 49.90926 0.591257 2.177702 0.271505 0.022881 11.38042
7 0.46 0.886665 50.80217 0.620133 4.031394 1.288345 0.455 0.881493 50.50581 0.610466 2.203732 0.277015 0.020896 13.59429
8 0.47 0.896945 51.39117 0.639588 3.908766 1.248718 0.465 0.891816 51.09728 0.62984 2.229539 0.282498 0.019124 15.78073
9 0.48 0.907142 51.97538 0.659203 3.792459 1.213065 0.475 0.902054 51.68387 0.649376 2.255134 0.287954 0.017538 17.93659
10 0.49 0.917257 52.55497 0.678974 3.682024 1.180994 0.485 0.912209 52.26574 0.669069 2.280523 0.293384 0.016114 20.05853
11 0.5 0.927295 53.1301 0.698899 3.577056 1.152157 0.495 0.922286 52.84308 0.688918 2.305714 0.298787 0.014834 22.14308
12 0.51 0.937258 53.70094 0.718973 3.477181 1.126248 0.505 0.932286 53.41605 0.708917 2.330715 0.304163 0.013679 24.18653
13 0.52 0.947149 54.26762 0.739195 3.382059 1.102993 0.515 0.942212 53.98479 0.729066 2.355531 0.309512 0.012636 26.18498
14 0.53 0.956969 54.83031 0.75956 3.291379 1.08215 0.525 0.952068 54.54946 0.74936 2.380169 0.314835 0.011692 28.13433
15 0.54 0.966723 55.38912 0.780066 3.204856 1.063502 0.535 0.961854 55.11019 0.769796 2.404636 0.32013 0.010836 30.03019
16 0.55 0.976411 55.9442 0.80071 3.122227 1.046855 0.545 0.971575 55.66712 0.790371 2.428936 0.325398 0.010058 31.86792
17 0.56 0.986035 56.49567 0.82149 3.043251 1.032038 0.555 0.981231 56.22038 0.811083 2.453077 0.330639 0.00935 33.6426
18 0.57 0.995599 57.04365 0.842402 2.967705 1.018893 0.565 0.990825 56.77009 0.831929 2.477062 0.335853 0.008703 35.34898
19 0.58 1.005104 57.58825 0.863443 2.895384 1.007281 0.575 1.000359 57.31636 0.852906 2.500898 0.34104 0.008113 36.98144
20 0.59 1.014553 58.12958 0.884612 2.826099 0.997076 0.585 1.009836 57.85931 0.874012 2.524589 0.3462 0.007573 38.534
21 0.6 1.023945 58.66775 0.905905 2.759673 0.988165 0.595 1.019256 58.39905 0.895243 2.548139 0.351332 0.007078 40.00024
22 0.61 1.033285 59.20286 0.927319 2.695943 0.980444 0.605 1.028622 58.93568 0.916597 2.571554 0.356437 0.006623 41.37329
23 0.62 1.042573 59.73501 0.948853 2.63476 0.973821 0.615 1.037935 59.4693 0.938071 2.594838 0.361514 0.006205 42.64573
24 0.63 1.05181 60.26429 0.970504 2.575982 0.96821 0.625 1.047198 60 0.959664 2.617994 0.366565 0.00582 43.8096
25 0.64 1.060999 60.79079 0.992268 2.51948 0.963536 0.635 1.056411 60.52788 0.981372 2.641027 0.371587 0.005466 44.85627
26 0.65 1.070142 61.3146 1.014145 2.465131 0.959728 0.645 1.065576 61.05302 1.003193 2.663941 0.376582 0.005138 45.77641
27 0.66 1.079238 61.8358 1.036131 2.412822 0.956723 0.655 1.074696 61.57552 1.025124 2.686739 0.38155 0.004835 46.55988
28 0.67 1.088291 62.35448 1.058224 2.362449 0.954463 0.665 1.08377 62.09545 1.047164 2.709425 0.386489 0.004555 47.19566
29 0.68 1.097301 62.87071 1.080422 2.313911 0.952894 0.675 1.092801 62.61289 1.06931 2.732003 0.391402 0.004296 47.67169
30 0.69 1.106269 63.38456 1.102722 2.267117 0.951968 0.685 1.10179 63.12793 1.091559 2.754475 0.396286 0.004055 47.97479
31 0.7 1.115198 63.89612 1.125123 2.22198 0.951641 0.695 1.110738 63.64062 1.11391 2.776846 0.401142 0.003831 48.09046
Applying the standard step method using spreadsheet analysis, results
are presented below
31 0.7 1.115198 63.89612 1.125123 2.22198 0.951641 500
32 0.71 1.124087 64.40545 1.147621 2.178419 0.951871 0.705 1.119647 64.15106 1.13636 2.799118 0.405971 0.003623 499.9123
33 0.72 1.132939 64.91262 1.170216 2.136358 0.952621 0.715 1.128518 64.6593 1.158907 2.821294 0.410771 0.003429 499.6034
34 0.73 1.141754 65.41769 1.192904 2.095726 0.953857 0.725 1.137351 65.16541 1.181548 2.843378 0.415544 0.003248 499.0539
35 0.74 1.150534 65.92074 1.215683 2.056457 0.955546 0.735 1.146148 65.66947 1.204282 2.865371 0.420288 0.00308 498.2417
36 0.75 1.159279 66.42182 1.238552 2.018486 0.95766 0.745 1.154911 66.17152 1.227107 2.887277 0.425005 0.002923 497.1423
37 0.76 1.167992 66.921 1.261508 1.981755 0.960171 0.755 1.16364 66.67164 1.25002 2.909099 0.429693 0.002776 495.7281
38 0.77 1.176672 67.41833 1.28455 1.946207 0.963054 0.765 1.172336 67.16989 1.273019 2.930839 0.434353 0.002638 493.9677
39 0.78 1.185321 67.91387 1.307674 1.911791 0.966287 0.775 1.181 67.66632 1.296102 2.9525 0.438985 0.002509 491.8257
40 0.79 1.193939 68.40768 1.33088 1.878456 0.969847 0.785 1.189634 68.16098 1.319267 2.974084 0.443588 0.002388 489.2612
41 0.8 1.202528 68.8998 1.354165 1.846156 0.973715 0.795 1.198237 68.65395 1.342513 2.995594 0.448163 0.002275 486.2273
42 0.81 1.211089 69.39031 1.377527 1.814846 0.977873 0.805 1.206812 69.14526 1.365837 3.017031 0.452709 0.002169 482.6693
43 0.82 1.219623 69.87924 1.400964 1.784485 0.982303 0.815 1.215359 69.63497 1.389236 3.038399 0.457227 0.002069 478.5234
44 0.83 1.22813 70.36664 1.424475 1.755033 0.98699 0.825 1.223879 70.12313 1.412711 3.059699 0.461716 0.001974 473.7141
45 0.84 1.236611 70.85257 1.448057 1.726452 0.991918 0.835 1.232373 70.60979 1.436257 3.080933 0.466176 0.001886 468.1513
46 0.85 1.245067 71.33708 1.471708 1.698706 0.997075 0.845 1.240842 71.095 1.459874 3.102105 0.470608 0.001803 461.7262
47 0.86 1.253499 71.8202 1.495427 1.671763 1.002446 0.855 1.249286 71.57881 1.483559 3.123215 0.47501 0.001724 454.3061
48 0.87 1.261908 72.30199 1.519212 1.64559 1.008021 0.865 1.257706 72.06126 1.507311 3.144266 0.479384 0.00165 445.7261
49 0.88 1.270294 72.78249 1.54306 1.620157 1.013787 0.875 1.266104 72.5424 1.531128 3.165259 0.483729 0.00158 435.7781
50 0.89 1.278659 73.26174 1.56697 1.595435 1.019736 0.885 1.274479 73.02227 1.555008 3.186198 0.488045 0.001514 424.1946
51 0.9 1.287002 73.7398 1.590941 1.571397 1.025856 0.895 1.282833 73.50092 1.578948 3.207083 0.492332 0.001451 410.6229
52 0.91 1.295326 74.21669 1.61497 1.548017 1.032138 0.905 1.291166 73.97838 1.602948 3.227916 0.496589 0.001392 394.5853
53 0.92 1.303629 74.69246 1.639055 1.525269 1.038575 0.915 1.29948 74.45471 1.627006 3.2487 0.500817 0.001336 375.4115
54 0.93 1.311914 75.16715 1.663195 1.503131 1.045158 0.925 1.307774 74.92994 1.651119 3.269435 0.505016 0.001283 352.1193
55 0.94 1.320181 75.64081 1.687388 1.481579 1.05188 0.935 1.31605 75.40411 1.675285 3.290125 0.509186 0.001232 323.1847
56 0.95 1.32843 76.11346 1.711633 1.460594 1.058733 0.945 1.324308 75.87726 1.699504 3.31077 0.513326 0.001185 286.0548
57 0.96 1.336663 76.58515 1.735927 1.440153 1.065711 0.955 1.332549 76.34942 1.723774 3.331372 0.517437 0.001139 235.9504
58 0.97 1.344879 77.05592 1.760268 1.420238 1.072807 0.965 1.340773 76.82065 1.748091 3.351933 0.521517 0.001096 162.2185
59 0.98 1.35308 77.5258 1.784655 1.400831 1.080017 0.975 1.348982 77.29097 1.772456 3.372455 0.525569 0.001055 32.019
60 0.98057 1.353547 77.55253 1.786046 1.39974 1.080431 0.980285 1.353314 77.53917 1.785351 3.383284 0.527697 0.001035 20.05479
61 0.99 1.361267 77.99483 1.809087 1.381912 1.087333 0.985285 1.357408 77.77377 1.797562 3.393521 0.529704 0.001015 -427.269