DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING PHYSICS

OBAFEMI AWOLOWOUNIVERSITY
ILE-IFE, NIGERIA

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM
From: Course Secretary, To: Students
General Physics I (PHY101)
Harmattan, 2021/2022 Session

Date: 20/10/2022

GENERAL PHYSICS I (PHY101): THE COURSE CONTENT ALLOCATION (ADJUSTED)

Kindly find below the allocation of the topics and schedule of lectures for your information.
S/N TOPICS HRS DATES LECTURER(S)
1. Physics and Measurements 5 October 21, 24, Prof. M. A. Eleruja
Motion Along a Straight Line 26, 28, 31
2. Vectors 2 November 2, 4 Prof. O. K. Owoade
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
3. Force and Motion 1 November 7 Prof. M.O. Awoyemi
Energy of Systems and Conservation of
Energy
MID-SEMESTER TEST: Saturday, November,19, 2022
4. Center of Mass and Linear Momentum 3 November Dr. O.O. Akinwunmi
Rotation and Angular Momentum 9,11,14
5. Equilibrium and Elasticity 5 November Prof. J.O. Ojo
Gravitation 16,18,21,23,25
Fluids
6. Oscillations 4 November Dr. S.D.Olorunfunmi
Waves I 28,30 /Dr. O. Fasakin
Waves II December 2,5
7. Temperature, First Law of 5 December Dr. E. Omotoso
Thermodynamics; 7,9,12,14, 16
The Kinetic Theory of Gases;
Entropy, Second Law of Thermodynamics
EXAMINATION: Monday, December 28, 2022 (Tentative)
Recommended Text: Fundamentals of Physics/J. Walker, D. Halliday, R. Resnick—10th Ed.
Virtual lecture schedule are as follows:
Mondays (9 – 10 a. m.), Wednesdays (9 – 10 a. m.) and Friday (9 – 10a.m)

Thank you.

Dr. O. Fasakin/ Dr. S.D. Olorunfunmi

PHY101: GENERALPHYSICS I

PROFESSOR M.A. ELERUJA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
INTRODUCTION

(1-0)
 Chapter 1
Measurement
In this chapter we will explore the following concepts:
1. Measurement of a physical parameter
2. Units, systems of units
3. Basic units in mechanics
4. Dimension Analysis
5. Changing units
6. Significant figures

(1-1)
In physics we carry out experiments in which we measure physical parameters.
We then try to deduce the relationship between the measured quantities. We
usually express this relationship in the form of a mathematical equation, which
we call the “physical law,” that describes the phenomenon under study. A
familiar example is Ohm’s law. The experiment in this case consists of
measuring the electric voltage difference V applied across a conductor and the
resulting electric current I that flows through the conductor.
If we plot I versus V we get a straight line. This is expressed in the form:
The equation is known as “Ohm’s law.”
R is known as the “resistance” of the conductor.

(1-2)
Assume that you step on your bathroom scale and that it reads 120.
The number alone is meaningless. It must be accompanied by the units.
120 lb is a very different reading from 120 kg!
Conclusion: For every physical parameter we will need the appropriate units,
i.e. a standard by which we carry out the measurement by comparison to the
standard. Does this mean that we have to define units for all parameters?
The answer is no. In mechanics we need to define only three parameters:
These parameters are length, time, and mass
They are known as base quantities.
Note: For the rest of the nonmechanical parameters we need to define only one
more unit, that of the electric current.
In this book we use the International System of Units (SI).
In this system the units for the base quantities are:

Parameter Unit Name Symbol

Length meter m Time
(1-3)
second s Mass
kilogram kg
 The Metre
• Length is defined as the distance between two
points in space.
• In the 11th century, the standard of length in
Britain was “yard”, while the original standard
of length was “foot” in France.
• This continued until 1799, when the legal
standard of length became “metre”
(1-4)
 The Meter
A
In 1799 the meter was defined to be one ten-millionth of the
Earth distance from the north pole to the equator along a particular
longitudinal line that passes through Paris.
C

Equator B
For practical reasons the meter was later defined as the distance
between two fine lines on a standard meter bar made of
platinum-iridium.
Since 1983 the meter is defined as the length traveled by light in
vacuum during the time interval of 1/299792458 of a second.
The reason why this definition was adapted was that the
measurement of the speed of light had become extremely
precise.

(1-5)
 The Second
Initially (Before 1967) the second was defined as follows:

This is done in terms of mean solar day, which is the time interval between successive
appearance of the Sun at the highest point it reaches in the sky each day. The problem with
this definition is that the length of the day is not constant as is shown in the figure. For this
reason, since 1967 the second is defined as the time taken by 9192631770 light oscillations of
a particular wavelength emitted by a cesium-133 atom. This definition is so precise that it
would take two cesium clocks 6000 years before their readings would differ by more than 1
second.

(1-6)
 The Kilogram
The SI standard of mass is a platinum-iridium cylinder shown in the figure. The cylinder is kept at
the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, Sevre near Paris and assigned a mass of 1
kilogram. Accurate copies have been sent to other countries.

(1-7)
 Dimensional Analysis
• In Physics, the term “dimension” denotes the
Physical nature of a quantity.
• The dimensions of length, mass and time are
L, M and T respectively. Brackets [ ]are used to
denote the dimensions of a physical quantity.
For example
• Dimensions of velocity, [v] = L/T,
• Dimensions of force, [F] =MLT-2
(1-8)
 Dimension Analysis (Cont’d)
• Use of Dimension analysis include (i) To check
the correctness of an equation, and (ii) To check
the units of physical parameters.
• Example: The period, T of a simple pendulum,
which is said to be proportional to the mass of
the bob, m, the length of the string, l and the
acceleration due to gravity, g. We can show
whether this proposition is correct or not.

(1-9)
• Comparing the powers of the dimensions on
both sides of the equation, we have (1-10)
This is the familiar equation which shows the dependence of the period of a
simple pendulum, T on length, l and the acceleration due to gravity, g. The
period, T does not depend on mass, m.
(1-11)
 (1-12)
To convert 20.0 inches to centimetre cm, we need to know that 1 in = 2.54 cm,
therefore
20.0. in = 20.0 x 1 = 20.0 in x 2.54 cm/1 in = 50.80 cm
(1-13)
 Ruler

Calipers

(1-14)
 Chapter 2
Motion Along a Straight Line
In this chapter
we will study kinematics, i.e., how objects move along a straight line.
The following parameters will be defined:
Displacement Average velocity
Average speed
Instantaneous velocity Average and instantaneous
acceleration
For constant acceleration we will develop the equations that give us the
velocity and position at any time. In particular we will study the motion under
the influence of gravity close to the surface of the Earth.
Finally, we will study a graphical integration method that can be used to
analyze the motion when the acceleration is not constant.

(2-1)
Kinematics is the part of mechanics that describes the motion of physical
objects. We say that an object moves when its position as determined by an
observer changes with time.
In this chapter we will study a restricted class of kinematics problems
Motion will be along a straight line.
We will assume that the moving objects are “particles,” i.e., we restrict our
discussion to the motion of objects for which all the points move in the same
way.
The causes of the motion will not be investigated. This will be done later in the
course.
Consider an object moving along a straight
line taken to be the x-axis. The object’s
position at any time t is described by its
coordinate x(t) defined with respect to the
origin O. The coordinate x can be positive or
negative depending whether the object is
located on the positive or the negative part of
(2-2) the x-axis.
Displacement. If an object moves from position x1 to position x2 , the change
in position is described by the displacement O
.Δx .
x1 x2
. x-axis
motion

For example if x1 = 5 m and x2 = 12 m then Δx = 12 – 5 = 7 m. The positive

sign of Δx indicates that the motion is along the positive x-direction.
If instead the object moves from x1 = 5 m and x2 = 1 m then Δx = 1 – 5 = -4 m.
The negative sign of Δx indicates that the motion is along the negative
x-direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction. In this
restricted one-dimensional motion the direction is described by the algebraic
sign of Δx.
Note: The actual distance for a trip is
irrelevant as far as the displacement is
concerned.

Consider as an example the motion of an object from an initial position

x1 = 5 m to x = 200 m and then back to x2 = 5 m. Even though the total
distance covered is 390 m the displacement then is Δx = 0. (2-3)
Average Velocity
One method of describing the motion of an object is to plot its position x(t) as
a function of time t. In the left picture we plot x versus t for an object that is
stationary with respect to the chosen origin O. Notice that x is constant. In
the picture to the right we plot x versus t for a moving armadillo. We can get
an idea of “how fast” the armadillo moves from one position x1 at time t1 to a
new position x2 at time t2 by determining the average velocity between t1 and
t2.

Here x2 and x1 are the positions x(t2) and x(t1),

respectively.
The time interval Δt is defined as Δt = t2 – t1.
The units of vavg are m/s.
Note: For the calculation of vavg both t1 and t2
must be given.
(2-4)
Graphical Determination of vavg
On an x versus t plot we can determine vavg from the slope of the straight line
that connects point ( t1 , x1) with point ( t2 , x2 ). In the plot below, t1=1 s and
t2 = 4 s. The corresponding positions are: x1 = - 4 m and x2 = 2 m.

Average Speed savg

The average speed is defined in terms of the total distance traveled in a time
interval Δt (and not the displacement Δx as in the case of vavg).
Note: The average velocity and the average speed
for the same time interval Δt can be quite different.
(2-5)
Instantaneous Velocity
The average velocity vavg determined between times t1 and t2 provides a useful
description of “how fast” an object is moving between these two times. It is in
reality a “summary” of its motion. In order to describe how fast an object moves
at any time t we introduce the notion of instantaneous velocity v (or simply
velocity). Instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity
determined for a time interval Δt as we let Δt → 0.

From its definition instantaneous velocity is the

first derivative of the position coordinate x with
respect to time. It is thus equal to the slope of
the x versus t plot.
Speed
We define speed as the magnitude of an
object’s velocity vector.
(2-6)
Average Acceleration
We define the average acceleration aavg between
t1 and t2 as:

Units: m/s2
Instantaneous Acceleration
If we take the limit of aavg as Δt → 0 we get the
instantaneous acceleration a, which describes
how fast the velocity is changing at any time t.

The acceleration is the

slope of the v versus t plot.
Note: The human body does not react to velocity
but it does react to acceleration.
(2-7)
Motion with Constant Acceleration
Motion with a = 0 is a special case but it is rather common, so we will develop
the equations that describe it.

(2-8)
The x(t) versus t plot is a parabola that
intercepts the vertical axis at x = x0.

The v(t) versus t plot is a straight line with

slope = a and intercept = v0.

The acceleration a is a constant.

(2-9)
Free Fall
Close to the surface of the Earth all objects move toward the center of the Earth
with an acceleration whose magnitude is constant and equal to 9.8 m/s2. We
use the symbol g to indicate the acceleration of an object in free fall.
If we take the y-axis to point upward then the
acceleration of an object in free fall a = -g and the
equations for free fall take the form:
a
y
B

Note: Even though with this choice of axes a < 0, the

velocity can be positive (upward motion from point A to
point B). It is momentarily zero at point B. The velocity
becomes negative on the downward motion from point
A B to point A.
Hint: In a kinematics problem, always indicate the axis
as well as the acceleration vector. This simple
(2-10) precaution helps to avoid algebraic sign errors.
(2-11)
 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Dr. OWOADE
Department of Physics and Engineering Physics

4th September 2014

Prof. O. K. Owoade

Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
1. Position and Displacement
One general way of locating a particle(particle-like object) is with a
position vector ~r
~r = x î + y ĵ + z k̂ (1)
where x î , y ĵ and z k̂ are the vector components of ~r and the
coefficients (x, y , z) are its scalar component. Notes coefficients x, y
and z give the particle’s location along the co-ordinates axes and
relative to the origin. As the particle moves,its position vector
changes in such a way that the vector always extends to the particle
from the reference point e.g from ~r1 to ~r2 Displacement ∆~r

∆~r = ~r1 − ~r2 (2)

eg if
~r1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ , ~r2 = x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂

∆~r = (~r2 − ~r1 ) = (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂ (3)

this implies that

∆~r = ∆x î + ∆y ĵ + ∆z k̂ (4)
Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
 2. Average Velocity and Instantaneous velocity
Average velocity = Displacement/ time interval

~ avg = ∆~r
V (5)
∆t

~ avg = ∆x î + ∆y ĵ + ∆z k̂ = ∆x + ∆y + ∆z
V (6)
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
if a particle moves from ~r1 = (−3.0m)î + (2.0m)ĵ + (5.0m)k̂to
~
2 = (9.0m)î + (2.0m)ĵ + (8.0m)k̂ in 2s. Calculate Vavg . solution
∆~r = ~r1 − ~r2 = (9.0 − (−3.0))mî + (2.0 − 2.0)mĵ + (8.0 − 5.0)mk̂
then
~ avg = ∆~r
V ∆t
~ avg = (12.0)mî+(3.0)mk̂
V .0s
~ avg = (6.0)m/s î + (1.5)m/s k̂
V
Velocity of a particle is the particles instantaneous velocity ~v at
some instant

~ = Vavg t→0
V (7)

~ = d~r
V (8)
Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics
dt
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
 Instantaneous velocity of the particle at instant t1 (when at position
1), ∆t is about t1 limit as ∆t → 0 , V ~ avg → V
~
~
Vavg takes on the direction of the tangent line. The direction of the
instantaneous velocity ~v of a particle is always tangent to the
particle’s position.

~ = d(x î + y ĵ + z k̂) = dx î + dy ĵ + dz k̂ = vx î + vy ĵ + vz k̂ (9)

V
dt dt dt dt
dy
where vx = dx dz
dt , vy = dt and vz = dt
Average Accelaration and instantaneous Accelaration
Average Accelaration = change in velocity/time interval

~2 − V
V ~1 ~
∆V
~aavg = = (10)
∆t ∆t
at some instant
~a = aavg t→0 (11)

dV ~
~a = (12)
Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics
dt
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
 d(~vx î + ~vy ĵ + ~vz k̂) d~vx d~vy d~vz
~a = = î + ĵ + k̂ = ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂
dt dt dt dt
(13)
let x = −3t 3 + 4t − 2 and y = 6t 2 − 4t
~vx = dx dt = −6t + 3 ,
~ax = d~ vx
dt = −6 ,
~vy = dy dt = 12t − 4 ,
~ay = d~ vy
dt = 12 ,
Ex (i) x = ~a , and y = −5t 2 + 6 ,
(ii) ~r = −4t 3 − 2t î + 3ĵ
Projectile Motion
This is a two - dimensional motion e.g tennis ball or baseball in
flight Note: it is not an airplane in flight (a) The projectile is
launched with an initial velocity ~vo that can be
~o = V
V ~ ox î + V
~ oy ĵ (14)
~ ox and V
the components V ~ oy can then be found if we know the angle
~
θ between Vo and the positive x direction
Vox = Vo cos θandVoy = Vo sin θ (15)
Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
 In projectile motion the horizontal motion and the vertical motion
are independent of each other, ie neither motion affects the other
(1) Horizontal Motion
No acceleration and the velocity component is Vox of the projectile’s
velocity remain unchanged from it’s initially value Vox throughout
the motion at any point of the motion the horizontal comp = x − xo
with an initial position xo with a = 0 x − xo = Vox t because
Vox = Vo cos θ

x − xo = Vox t = (Vo cos θ)t = (Vo cos θ)t (16)

(2) Vertical Motion

accelaration is constant and is -ve i.e a = −g
using eqn of motion
y − yo = Voy t − 1/2gt 2
with Voy = Vo sin θy − yo = (Vo sin θ)t − 1/2gt 2 (17)

dy
Vy = = (Vo sin θ) − gt (18)
dt
using 3rd eqn of motion

Vy2 = (Vo sin θ)2 − 2g (y − yo ) (19)

Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
(3) Equation of path
using equation 16 and 17
t = Vx−x o
o cos θ
2
y = (tan θo )x − 2(Vo gx
cos θo )2
(4) Horizontal Range
It is the horizontal distance the projectile has travelled when it returns to
its initial height where it was launched
R = x − xo , y − yo = 0 in eqn 16 and 17
R = (Vo cos θo )t (a)
0 = (Vo sin θo )t − 1/2gt 2 (b)
eliminating t in (a) and (b)
2
R = 2(Vgo ) sin θo cos θo
but 2 sin θo cos θo = sin 2θo
Then
(Vo )2
R= sin 2θo (20)
g
when θo = 45, R is maximum.

Dr. OWOADE Department of Physics and Engineering Physics Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
Projectile......contd

5th September 2014

Prof. O. K. Owoade

Projectile......contd
Projectile......contd
1. Effect of the Air
We assumed that the air through which the projectile moves
has no effect on its motion.
Note the following
I The ball is a projectile and so its horizontal and vertical
motions can be considered separately
I The horizontal component V ~ x (V
~ o cos θ) of the ball’s velocity
does not change during the flight
I The vertical component V ~ y of its velocity does change and is
zero when the ball reaches maximum height
I The ball’s direction of travel at any time during the flight is at
the angle of its velocity vector v just then
2. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
If it travels around a circle or a circular arc at
constant(uniform) speed.
Note: Speed does not vary, the particle is accelerating
because the velocity changes direction.
(V )2
~a = (1)
r
Projectile......contd
 where a is (centripetal acceleration)
r is radius of the circle and v is speed of the particle
2πr
T = (period) (2)
v
using equation 1 and 2 above
2
2π( va ) 2πv
T = = (3)
v a
3. RELATIVE MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
XPA = XPB + XBA
d(XPA )
dt = d(XdtPB ) + d(XdtBA )
Thus the velocity component are related by V ~ PA = V
~ PB + V~ BA
The velocity V ~ PA of p as measured by A is equal to the
~
velocity VPB of P as measured by B plus the velocity V ~ BA of
B as measured by A.
⇒V ~ BA is the velocity of frame B relative from A
~ ~ ~
aP = d(VdtPA ) = d(VdtPB ) + d(VdtBA ) Because VBA is constant, the
last term is zero.
Projectile......contd
 ~aPA = PB The observer on different frames of reference that
move at constant velocity V ~ BA
relative to each other will measure the same acceleration for a
moving particle.
4. RELATIVE MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION
Our two observers are again watching a moving particle P
from the origins of reference frames A and B, at that instant,
the position vector of the origin of B relative to the origin of
A is ~rBA
. Also the position vectors of particle P are ~rPA relative to the
origin of A and ~rPB relative to the origin of B.
~rPA = ~rPB + ~rBA
d(~rPA )
dt = d(~dt
rPB )
+ d(~dt
rBA )

~ PA = V
V ~ PB + V ~ BA
likewise for a
~aPA = PB + ~aBA . but ~aBA = 0 Since V ~ BA is constant, it’s time
derivative is zero.
~aPA = PB
Next slide!
Projectile......contd
5. NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
I If no force acts on a body, the body’s velocity cannot change
meaning it cannot accelerate.
I In other words, if the body is at rest, it stays at rest. If it is
moving, it continues to move with the same velocity
I Force can cause the acceleration of a body which is define in
terms of the acceleration that a force gives to a standard
reference body.Thus, if our standard body 1kg mass has an
acceleration of magnitude a,the force F must be acting on it
and that the magnitude of the force(in newtons) is equal to
the magnitude of the acceleration
I A force is measured by the acceleration it produces
I If two or more forces act on a body, the net force or resultant
force,by adding the individual forces vectors. if no net force
acts on a body F ~ net = 0, the body’s velocity cannot change
that is the body cannot accelerate
I Newton’s first law is not true in all reference frames but we
can always find reference frames in which it is true. such
frames are known as Inertial reference frames
I An inertial reference frame is one in which newton’s law hold.
I A force is measured by the acceleration it produces
Projectile......contd
6. MASS
Mass of a body is the characteristic that relates a force on the
force on the body to the resulting acceleration.
7. NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
I The net force on a body is equal to the product of the body’s
mass and its acceleration.
~ net = m~a,
F
~ net must be the vector sum of all the forces that act on that
F
body.
In 3 dimension
~ net,x = m~ax ,
F
~ net,y = m~ay
F
~ net,z = m~az ,
F
I The acceleration component of a given axis is caused only by
sum of the force components along that same axis and not by
force components along any other axis.

Some particular force.

Next slide!
Next slide!
Projectile......contd
8. GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
I It is a certain kind of pull that is directed towards a second
body
I It is a force that pulls on a body directly down toward the
ground
I Suppose a body of mass m is in free fall with the free fall
acceleration of magnitude g, then if we neglect the effect of
the air, the only force acting on the body is the gravitational
force F~ g g = m~g ↓
~ g = −m~g ↑
F
~g = F
F ~ g ĵ = −m~g ĵ = m
9. WEIGHT
I The weight W of a body is equal to the magnitude of the
gravitaional force on the body.
I It is the magnitude of the net force required to prevent the
body from falling freely
~ net,y = m~ay ,
F
W −F ~ g = m(0)
W =F ~ g ( weight with ground as inertial frame
W = mg
Projectile......contd
 I Suppose a body of mass m is in free fall with the free fall
acceleration of magnitude g, then if we neglect the effect of the
air, the only force acting on the body is the gravitational force
10. NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
I When two bodies interact, the forces on the bodies from each
other are always equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
~ BC ← , → F
F ~ CB
~ ~
FBC = FCB
~ BC = −F
This implies that F ~ CB () equal magnitude and
opposite direction

Projectile......contd
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

10th September 2014

Prof. O. K. Owoade

FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
1. Friction
Frictional forces are unavoidable in our daily lives.
I It is the force that opposes motion of an object or particle
I Imagine a block placed on a rough surface being pulled by a
force.
I If the block does not move, the opposing force ~fs is called the
static frictional force
I If the applied force increase and the block remain at rest
when the applied force reaches a certain magnitude contact
with the tabletop and accelerates leftward.
The frictional force that then opposes the motion is called the
kinetic frictional force.~fk
~fs > ~fk

1.1 Properties of Friction

I If the body does not move,then the static frictional force ~fs
and the component of F~ that is parallel to the surface balance
each other. They are equal in magnitude and ~fs is directed
opposite that component of F~
I The magnitude ~fs has a maximum value ~fs,max that is given by
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
 ~fs,max = µs FN µs is coefficient of static friction, FN is Normal
Reaction
I If the body begins to slide along the surface, the magnitude of
the frictional force rapidly decreases to a value ~fk
~fk = µk FN
µk is coefficient of kinetic friction , FN is Normal Reaction

1.1.1 The Drag Force and Terminal Speed

1.1.2 The Frictional force in a liquid is dragforce
1.1.3 It opposes the relative motion and points in the direction in
which the fluid flows relative to the body.
1.1.4 The coefficient of drag force is determined experimentally by
C.
D = 12 C ρAv 2
ρ = air density (mass per volume),
A = effective cross sectional area of the body(the area of the
cross section taken perpendicular to the velocity ~v )
C = Drag force coefficient (0.4 to 1)
D = Drag force which is usually upward. From the second law
of motion
D − fg = ma(net force)
if D = fg , then a = 0.
D − fg = 0
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
 Then the body falls at a constant speed called Terminal speed
vt
⇒ D − Fg = 0
1
2 q
C ρAv 2 = Fg
g2F
vt = C ρA
For spherical surface
1.1.5 Fg = mg
1.1.6 Spherical drop’s volume, V = 34 πR 3
1.1.7 Density of the water in the drop is mass per volume,
ρw = mv
q
Fg = V ρw g = 43 πR 3 ρw g
8Rρw g
vt = 3C ρa

1.1.1 Uniform Circular Motion

Recall, a = v 2 /R
a is centripetal acceleration, R is the radius of the circle,
v is the velocity. A centripetal force accelerates a body
by changing the direction of the body’s velocity without
changing the body’s speed.
2
F = mvr
Note:
1.1.2 A Centripetal force must act on the car because the car
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
 moving around a circular arc will be directs towards the
center of the circular arc.
1.1.3 The only horizontal force acting on the car is a frictional
force on the tires from the road
1.1.4 Because the car is not sliding, the frictional force must
be a static frictional force
1.1.5 Practice Questions
(1) The position of a particle moving in an xy plane is
given by ~r = (2t 3 − 5t)î + (6 − 7t 4 )ĵ with ~r in meters
and t in seconds. In unit vector notation, Calculate (a)~r
(b) ~v and (c)~a for t = 2s (d) what is the angle between
the positive direction of the x-axis and a line tangent to
the particle’s path a t = 2s?
(2) A stone is calculated at time t = 0, with an initial
velocity of magnitude 20m/s and at an angle of 40
above the horizontal. What are the magnitudes of the
(a) horizontal and (b) vertical components of it’s
displacement from the catapult site at t = 1.1s? Repeat
for the (c) horizontal and (d)vertical components at
t = 1.8s (e) horizontal component also at t = 1.8s and
(f) vertical components at t = 5s
(3) A rotating fan completes 1200 revolutions every
minute. consider the tip of a blade, at a radius of 0.15m
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
(a) Through what distance does the tip speed move in
one revolution? What are (b) the tip’s speed and (c) the
magnitude of it’s acceleration? (d) What is the period
of the motion.
(4) A boat is traveling up stream in the positive
direction of x axis at 14km/h with respect to the water
of a river. The water is flowing at 9km/h with respect to
the ground. What are the (a) magnitude and (b)
direction of the boat’s velocity with respect to the
ground? A child on the boat walks from front to rear at
6km/h with respect to the boat. What are the (c)
magnitude and (d) direction of the child’s velocity with
respect to the ground?
(5) A 2kg object is subjected to three forces that give it
an acceleration ~a = −8î + 6ĵ.if two of the three forces
~ 1 = 30î + 16ĵ and F
are F ~ 2 = −12î + 8ĵ , find the third
force.
(6) A block with a wieght of 3N is at rest on a
horizontal surface. A 1N upward force is applied to the
block by means of an attached vertical string. What are
the (a) magnitude and (b) direction of the force of the
block on the horizontal surface
(7) A person pushes horizontally with a force of 22N on
FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
a 55kg crate to move it accross a level floor.The
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.35. What is the
magnitude of (a) the friction force and (b) the crate’s
acceleration?
(8) A ball ball player with mass m = 79kg , sliding into
second base is retarded by a frictional force of
magnitude 470N.What is the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the player and the ground?

FRICTION, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Chapter 10

Rotation

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-1 Rotational Varibles

Learning Objectives
10.01 Identify that if all parts of a body rotate around a fixed
axis locked together, the body is a rigid body.
10.02 Identify that the angular position of a rotating rigid body
is the angle that an internal reference line makes with a
fixed, external reference line.
10.03 Apply the relationship between angular displacement
and the initial and final angular positions.
10.04 Apply the relationship between average angular
velocity, angular displacement, and the time interval for that
displacement.
10.05 Apply the relationship between average angular
acceleration, change in angular velocity, and the time
interval for that change.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10.06 Identify that counterclockwise motion is in the positive
direction and clockwise motion is in the negative direction.

10.07 Given angular position as a function of time, calculate the

instantaneous angular velocity at any particular time and the
average angular velocity between any two particular times.

10.08 Given a graph of angular position versus time, determine

the instantaneous angular velocity at a particular time and the
average angular velocity between any two particular times.

10.09 Identify instantaneous angular speed as the magnitude of

the instantaneous angular velocity.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10.10 Given angular velocity as a function of time,
calculate the instantaneous angular acceleration at any
particular time and the average angular acceleration
between any two particular times.
10.11 Given a graph of angular velocity versus time,
determine the instantaneous angular acceleration at any
particular time and the average angular acceleration
between any two particular times.
10.12 Calculate a body’s change in angular velocity by
integrating its angular acceleration function with respect
to time.
10.13 Calculate a body’s change in angular position by
integrating its angular velocity function with respect to
time.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-1 Rotational Variables

● We now look at motion of rotation

● We will find the same laws apply
● But we will need new quantities to express them
o Torque
o Rotational inertia
● A rigid body rotates as a unit, locked together
● We look at rotation about a fixed axis
● These requirements exclude from consideration:
o The Sun, where layers of gas rotate separately
o A rolling bowling ball, where rotation and translation occur

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-1 Rotational Variables

● The fixed axis is called the axis of rotation

● Figs 10-2, 10-3 show a reference line
● The angular position of this line (and of the object) is
taken relative to a fixed direction, the zero angular
position

Figure 10-2
Figure 10-3
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-1 Rotational Variables

● Measure using radians (rad): dimensionless

Eq. (10-1)

Eq. (10-2)

● Do not reset θ to zero after a full rotation

● We know all there is to know about the kinematics of
rotation if we have θ(t) for an object
● Define angular displacement as:
Eq. (10-4)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-1 Rotational Variables

● “Clocks are negative”:

Answer: Choices (b) and (c)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-1 Rotational Variables

● Average angular velocity: angular displacement

during a time interval
Eq. (10-5)

● Instantaneous angular velocity: limit as Δt → 0

Eq. (10-6)

● If the body is rigid, these equations hold for all points

on the body
● Magnitude of angular velocity = angular speed
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-1 Rotational Variables

● Figure 10-4 shows the values for a calculation of

average angular velocity

Figure
10-4
● Average angular acceleration: angular velocity
change during a time interval
Eq. (10-7)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-1 Rotational Variables

● Instantaneous angular velocity: limit as Δt → 0

Eq. (10-8)

● If the body is rigid, these equations hold for all points

on the body
● With right-hand rule to determine direction, angular
velocity & acceleration can be written as vectors
● If the body rotates around the vector, then the vector
points along the axis of rotation
● Angular displacements are not vectors, because the
order of rotation matters for rotations around different
axes
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-2 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

Learning Objectives
10.14 For constant angular acceleration, apply the relationships
between angular position, angular displacement, angular
velocity, angular acceleration, and elapsed time (Table 10-1).

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-2 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

● The same equations hold as for constant linear

acceleration, see Table 10-1
● We simply change linear quantities to angular ones
● Eqs. 10-12 and 10-13 are the basic equations: all
others can be derived from them

Table
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-1
10-2 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration

Answer: Situations (a) and (d); the others do not have constant angular
acceleration

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

Learning Objectives
10.15 For a rigid body rotating 10.16 Distinguish between
about a fixed axis, relate the tangential acceleration and
angular variables of the body radial acceleration, and draw
(angular position, angular a vector for each in a sketch
velocity, and angular of a particle on a body
acceleration) and the linear rotating about an axis, for
variables of a particle on the both an increase in angular
body (position, velocity, and speed and a decrease.
acceleration) at any given
radius.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

● Linear and angular variables are related by r,

perpendicular distance from the rotational axis
● Position (note θ must be in radians):
Eq.
(10-17)

● Speed (note ω must be in radian measure):

Eq.
(10-18)

● We can express the period in radian measure:

Eq.
(10-20)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

● Tangential acceleration
(radians):

Eq.
(10-22)

● We can write the radial

acceleration in terms of
angular velocity (radians):

Eq.
(10-23)

Figure
10-9
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

Answer: (a) yes (b) no (c) yes (d) yes

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation

Learning Objectives
10.17 Find the rotational inertia 10.19 Calculate the rotational
of a particle about a point. kinetic energy of a body in
terms of its rotational inertia
10.18 Find the total rotational
and its angular speed.
inertia of many particles
moving around the same
fixed axis.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation

● Apply the kinetic energy formula for a point particle

and sum over all the particles K = Σ ½mivi2
● different linear velocities (same angular velocity for all
particles but possibly different radii )
● Then write velocity in terms of angular velocity:
Eq.
(10-32)
We call the quantity in parentheses on the right side
the rotational inertia, or moment of inertia, I
● This is a constant for a rigid object and given rotational
axis
● Caution: the axis for I must always be specified
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation

● We can write:
Eq.
(10-33)

● And rewrite the kinetic energy as:

Eq.
(10-34)

● Use these equations for a finite set of rotating particles

● Rotational inertia corresponds to how difficult it is to
change the state of rotation (speed up, slow down or
change the axis of rotation)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation

Figure
10-11

Answer: They are all equal!

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertia

Learning Objectives
10.20 Determine the rotational 10.22 Apply the parallel-axis
inertia of a body if it is given theorem for a rotation axis
in Table 10-2. that is displaced from a
parallel axis through the
10.21 Calculate the rotational
center of mass of a body.
inertia of body by integration
over the mass elements of
the body.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertia

● Integrating Eq. 10-33 over a continuous body:

Eq.
(10-35)

● In principle we can always use this equation

● But there is a set of common shapes for which values
have already been calculated (Table 10-2) for common
axes

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertia

Table
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertia

● If we know the moment of inertia for the center of

mass axis, we can find the moment of inertia for a
parallel axis with the parallel-axis theorem:

Eq.
(10-36)

● Note the axes must be

parallel, and the first must
go through the center of
mass
● This does not relate the
moment of inertia for two
arbitrary axes Figure 10-12

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertia

Answer: (1), (2), (4), (3)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-5 Calculating the Rotational Inertial

Example Calculate the moment of inertia for Fig. 10-13 (b)

o Summing by particle:

o Use the parallel-axis theorem

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.10-13
All rights reserved.
10-6 Torque

Learning Objectives
10.25 Identify that a rotation
10.23 Identify that a torque on axis must always be
a body involves a force and a specified to calculate a
position vector, which torque.
extends from a rotation axis
to the point where the force 10.26 Identify that a torque is
is applied. assigned a positive or
negative sign depending on
10.24 Calculate the torque by the direction it tends to make
using (a) the angle between the body rotate about a
the position vector and the specified rotation axis:
force vector, (b) the line of “clocks are negative.”
action and the moment arm
of the force, and (c) the force 10.27 When more than one
component perpendicular to torque acts on a body about
the position vector. a rotation axis, calculate the
net torque.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-6 Torque

● The force necessary to rotate an

object depends on the angle of the
force and where it is applied
● We can resolve the force into
components to see how it affects
rotation

Figure 10-16

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-6 Torque

● Torque takes these factors into account:

Eq.
(10-39)

● A line extended through the applied force is called the

line of action of the force
● The perpendicular distance from the line of action to
the axis is called the moment arm
● The unit of torque is the newton-meter, N m
● Note that 1 J = 1 N m, but torques are never
expressed in joules, torque is not energy

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-6 Torque

● Again, torque is positive if it would cause a

counterclockwise rotation, otherwise negative
● For several torques, the net torque or resultant
torque is the sum of individual torques

Answer: F1 & F3, F4, F2 & F5

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-7 Newton's Second Law for Rotation

Learning Objectives
10.28 Apply Newton's second law for rotation to relate the net
torque on a body to the body's rotational inertia and rotational
acceleration, all calculated relative to a specified rotation axis.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-7 Newton's Second Law for Rotation

● Rewrite F = ma with rotational variables:

Eq.
(10-42)
● It is torque that
causes angular
acceleration

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 10-17
10-7 Newton's Second Law for Rotation

Answer: (a) F2 should point downward, and

(b) should have a smaller magnitude than F1
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10-8 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy

Learning Objectives
10.29 Calculate the work done 10.31 Calculate the work done
by a torque acting on a by a constant torque by
rotating body by integrating relating the work to the angle
the torque with respect to the through which the body
angle of rotation. rotates.
10.30 Apply the work-kinetic 10.32 Calculate the power of a
energy theorem to relate the torque by finding the rate at
work done by a torque to the which work is done.
resulting change in the
10.33 Calculate the power of a
rotational kinetic energy of
torque at any given instant by
the body.
relating it to the torque and
the angular velocity at that
instant.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-8 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy

● The rotational work-kinetic energy theorem states:

Eq.
(10-52)

● The work done in a rotation about a fixed axis can be

calculated by:
Eq.
(10-53)

● Which, for a constant torque, reduces to:

Eq.
(10-54)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10-8 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy

● We can relate work to power with the equation:

Eq.
(10-55)

● Table 10-3 shows corresponding quantities for linear

and rotational motion:

Tab. 10-3

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

10 Summary

Angular Position Angular Displacement

● Measured around a rotation • A change in angular position
axis, relative to a reference
line: Eq.
Eq. (10-4)
(10-1)

Angular Velocity and Angular Acceleration

Speed • Average and instantaneous
• Average and instantaneous values:
values:
Eq.
Eq. (10-7)
(10-5)
Eq. Eq.
(10-6) (10-8)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 Summary

Kinematic Equations Linear and Angular

• Given in Table 10-1 for constant Variables Related
acceleration • Linear and angular
• Match the linear case displacement, velocity, and
acceleration are related by r

Rotational Kinetic Energy The Parallel-Axis Theorem

and Rotational Inertia • Relate moment of inertia around
any parallel axis to value around
com axis
Eq. (10-34)
Eq.
(10-36)
Eq. (10-33)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
10 Summary

Torque Newton's Second Law in

• Force applied at distance from Angular Form
an axis:
Eq.
Eq. (10-42)
(10-39)
• Moment arm: perpendicular
distance to the rotation axis

Work and Rotational

Kinetic Energy
Eq.
(10-53)

Eq.
(10-55)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 11

Rolling, Torque, and Angular

Momentum

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-1 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined

Learning Objectives
11.01 Identify that smooth 11.02 Apply the relationship
rolling can be considered as between the center-of-mass
a combination of pure speed and the angular speed
translation and pure rotation. of a body in smooth rolling.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure
11-1 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined

● We consider only objects that roll smoothly (no slip)

● The center of mass (com) of the object moves in a
straight line parallel to the surface
● The object rotates around the com as it moves
● The rotational motion is defined by:

Eq. (11-1)

Eq. (11-2)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure
11-1 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined

Figure
11-4

● The figure shows how the velocities of translation and

rotation combine at different points on the wheel

Answer: (a) the same (b) less than

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling

Learning Objectives
11.03 Calculate the kinetic initial energy values to the
energy of a body in smooth values at a later point.
rolling as the sum of the
translational kinetic energy of
the center of mass and the 11.06 Draw a free-body
rotational kinetic energy around diagram of an accelerating
the center of mass. body that is smoothly rolling
on a horizontal surface or up
11.04 Apply the relationship or down on a ramp.
between the work done on a
smoothly rolling object and its
kinetic energy change.
11.05 For smooth rolling (and
thus no sliding), conserve
mechanical energy to relate
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling

11.07 Apply the 11.08 For smooth rolling up

relationship between the or down a ramp, apply
center-of-mass the relationship between
acceleration and the the object’s acceleration,
angular acceleration. its rotational inertia, and
the angle of the ramp.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling

● Combine translational and rotational kinetic energy:

Eq. (11-5)

● If a wheel accelerates, its angular speed changes

● A force must act to prevent slip

Eq. (11-6)

Figure 11-7
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling

● If slip occurs, then the motion is not smooth rolling!

● For smooth rolling down a ramp:
1. The gravitational force is vertically down
2. The normal force is perpendicular to the ramp
3. The force of friction points up the slope

Figure 11-8
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-2 Forces and Kinetic Energy of Rolling

● We can use this equation to find the acceleration of

such a body
Eq.
(11-10)

● Note that the frictional force produces the rotation

● Without friction, the object will simply slide

Answer: The maximum height reached by B is less than that reached by A. For
A, all the kinetic energy becomes potential energy at h. Since the ramp is
frictionless for B, all of the rotational K stays rotational, and only the
translational kinetic energy becomes potential energy at its maximum height.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-3 The Yo-Yo

Learning Objectives
11.09 Draw a free-body 11.11 For a yo-yo moving up
diagram of a yo-yo moving or down its string, apply the
up or down its string. relationship between the
yo-yo's acceleration and its
11.10 Identify that a yo-yo is
rotational inertia.
effectively an object that rolls
smoothly up or down a ramp 11.12 Determine the tension in
with an incline angle of 90°. a yo-yo's string as the yo-yo
moves up or down the string.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-3 The Yo-Yo

● As a yo-yo moves down a string, it

loses potential energy mgh but
gains rotational and translational
kinetic energy
● To find the linear acceleration of a
yo-yo accelerating down its string:
1. Rolls down a “ramp” of angle 90°
2. Rolls on an axle instead of its outer
surface
3. Slowed by tension T rather than friction

Figure 11-9
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-3 The Yo-Yo

● Replacing the values in 11-10 leads us to:

Eq.
(11-13)

Example Calculate the acceleration of the yo-yo

o M = 150 grams, R0 = 3 mm, Icom = Mr2/2 = 3E-5 kg m2
o Therefore acom = -9.8 m/s2 / (1 + 3E-5 / (0.15 * 0.0032))
= - .4 m/s2

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-4 Torque Revisited

Learning Objectives
11.13 Identify that torque is a 11.16 Use the right-hand rule
vector quantity. for cross products to find the
direction of a torque vector.
11.14 Identify that the point
about which a torque is
calculated must always be
specified.
11.15 Calculate the torque due
to a force on a particle by
taking the cross product of
the particle's position vector
and the force vector, in either
unit-vector notation or
magnitude-angle notation.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-4 Torque Revisited

● Previously, torque was defined only for a rotating body

and a fixed axis
● Now we redefine it for an individual particle that moves
along any path relative to a fixed point
● The path need not be a circle; torque is now a vector
● Direction determined with right-hand-rule

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-10
11-4 Torque Revisited

● The general equation for torque is:

Eq.
(11-14)
● We can also write the magnitude as:
Eq.
(11-15)
● Or, using the perpendicular component of force or the
moment arm of F:
Eq.
(11-16)

Eq.
(11-17)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-4 Torque Revisited

Answer: (a) along the z direction (b) along the +y direction (c) along the +x
direction

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-4 Torque Revisited

Example Calculating net torque:

Figure 11-11

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-5 Angular Momentum

Learning Objectives
11.17 Identify that angular or magnitude-angle notation.
momentum is a vector
quantity.
11.20 Use the right-hand rule
11.18 Identify that the fixed
for cross products to find the
point about which an angular
direction of an angular
momentum is calculated
momentum vector.
must always be specified.
11.19 Calculate the angular
momentum of a particle by
taking the cross product of
the particle's position vector
and its momentum vector, in
either unit-vector notation
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-5 Angular Momentum

● Here we investigate the

angular counterpart to linear
momentum
● We write:

Eq.
(11-18)
● Note that the particle need not
rotate around O to have
angular momentum around it
● The unit of angular momentum
is kg m2/s, or J s
Figure 11-12
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-5 Angular Momentum

● To find the direction of angular momentum, use the

right-hand rule to relate r and v to the result
● To find the magnitude, use the equation for the
magnitude of a cross product:

Eq.
(11-19)
● Which can also be written as:
Eq.
(11-20)

Eq.
(11-21)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-5 Angular Momentum

● Angular momentum has meaning only with respect to

a specified origin
● It is always perpendicular to the plane formed by the
position and linear momentum vectors

Answer: (a) 1 & 3, 2 & 4, 5

(b) 2 and 3 (assuming counterclockwise is positive)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-6 Newton's Second Law in Angular Form

Learning Objectives
11.21 Apply Newton's second law in angular form to relate the
torque acting on a particle to the resulting rate of change of the
particle's angular momentum, all relative to a specified point.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-6 Newton's Second Law in Angular Form

● We rewrite Newton's second law as:

Eq.
(11-23)

● The torque and the angular momentum must be

defined with respect to the same point (usually the
origin)

● Note the similarity to the linear form:

Eq.
(11-22)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
11-6 Newton's Second Law in Angular Form

Answer: (a) F3, F1, F2 & F4 (b) F3 (assuming counterclockwise is positive)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

Learning Objectives
11.22 For a system of 11.23 Apply the relationship
particles, apply Newton's between the angular
second law in angular form to momentum of a rigid body
relate the net torque acting rotating around a fixed axis
on the system to the rate of and the body's rotational
the resulting change in the inertia and angular speed
system's angular momentum. around that axis.
11.24 If two rigid bodies rotate
about the same axis,
calculate their total angular
momentum.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

● We sum the angular momenta of the particles to find

the angular momentum of a system of particles:
Eq.
(11-26)

● The rate of change of the net angular momentum is:

Eq.
(11-28)
● In other words, the net torque is defined by this
change:
Eq.
(11-29)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

● Note that the torque and angular momentum must be

measured relative to the same origin
● If the center of mass is accelerating, then that origin
must be the center of mass
● We can find the angular momentum of a rigid body
through summation:

Eq.
(11-30)

● The sum is the rotational inertia I of the body

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 11-7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

● Therefore this simplifies to:

Eq.
(11-31)
Table 11-1

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Figure
11-7 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

Answer: (a) All angular momenta will be the same, because the torque is the
same in each case (b) sphere, disk, hoop

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-8 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Learning Objectives
11.25 When no external net torque acts on a system along a
specified axis, apply the conservation of angular momentum to
relate the initial angular momentum value along that axis to the
value at a later instant.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-8 Conservation of Angular Momentum

● Since we have a new version of Newton's second law,

we also have a new conservation law:
Eq.
(11-32)
● The law of conservation of angular momentum
states that, for an isolated system,
(net initial angular momentum) = (net final angular
momentum)

Eq.
(11-33)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-8 Conservation of Angular Momentum

● Since these are vector equations, they are equivalent

to the three corresponding scalar equations
● This means we can separate axes and write:

● If the distribution of mass changes with no external

torque, we have:
Eq.
(11-34)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 11-8 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Example Angular momentum conservation

● A student spinning on a stool: rotation speeds up when arms
are brought in, slows down when arms are extended
● A springboard diver: rotational speed is controlled by tucking
her arms and legs in, which reduces rotational inertia and
increases rotational speed
● A long jumper: the angular momentum caused by the torque
during the initial jump can be transferred to the rotation of the
arms, by windmilling them, keeping the jumper upright

Figure
11-18

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-8 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Answer: (a) decreases (b) remains the same (c) increases

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-9 Precession of a Gyroscope

Learning Objectives
11.26 Identify that the 11.27 Calculate the precession
gravitational force acting on a rate of a gyroscope.
spinning gyroscope causes
11.28 Identify that a
the spin angular momentum
gyroscope's precession rate
vector (and thus the
is independent of the
gyroscope) to rotate about
gyroscope's mass.
the vertical axis in a motion
called precession.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-9 Precession of a Gyroscope

● A nonspinning gyroscope, as
attached in 11-22 (a), falls
● A spinning gyroscope (b) instead
rotates around a vertical axis
● This rotation is called precession

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.11-22
All rights reserved.
11-9 Precession of a Gyroscope

● The angular momentum of a (rapidly spinning)

gyroscope is:
Eq.
(11-43)
● The torque can only change the direction of L, not its
magnitude, because of (11-43)
Eq.
(11-44)
● The only way its direction can change along the
direction of the torque without its magnitude changing
is if it rotates around the central axis
● Therefore it precesses instead of toppling over

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11-9 Precession of a Gyroscope

● The precession rate is given by:

Eq.
(11-46)

● True for a sufficiently rapid spin rate

● Independent of mass, (I is proportional to M) but does
depend on g
● Valid for a gyroscope at an angle to the horizontal as
well (a top for instance)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11 Summary

Rolling Bodies Torque as a Vector

Eq. ● Direction given by the
(11-2) right-hand rule
Eq.
(11-5) Eq.
(11-14)
Eq.
(11-6)
Angular Momentum of a Newton's Second Law in
Particle Angular Form

Eq.
(11-23)
Eq.
(11-18)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

11 Summary

Angular Momentum of a Angular Momentum of a

System of Particles Rigid Body
Eq.
(11-31)
Eq.
(11-26)
Eq.
(11-29)

Conservation of Angular Precession of a Gyroscope

Momentum
Eq.
Eq. (11-46)
(11-32)

Eq.
(11-33)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Lecture Set 5:
Equilibrium and Elasticity

These slides are mostly from Halliday and Resnick; but they have been
edited in some places for more clarity and local relevance.

Ensure you download as powerpoint and play using Slide Show to listen to
the audio explanations added to each slide

You can post your questions to me on Googleclass or send them by

Whats’App chat to 0805 710 6482

Prof Joshua Ojo, PY 122 White House.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Keys for Stability: Equilibrium and Elasticity

We often want objects, (e.g. houses, bridges, ladder) to

be stable despite forces acting on them.
One focus of Physics is on what allows an object to be
stable in spite of any forces acting on it.
The two main aspects of stability are:
• the equilibrium of the forces and torques acting on
rigid objects and
• the elasticity of nonrigid objects, a property that
governs how such objects can deform
When this Physics is done correctly, it is the subject of
countless articles in physics and engineering journals;
When it is done incorrectly, it is the subject of countless
articles in newspapers and legal journals!
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-1 Equilibrium

Learning Objectives
12.01 Distinguish between 12.03 Explain center of gravity
equilibrium and static and how it relates to center
equilibrium. of mass.
12.02 Specify the four 12.04 For a given distribution
conditions for static of particles, calculate the
equilibrium. coordinates of the center of
gravity and the center of
mass.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Equilibrium

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Equilibrium

Real bodies are extended, and are not just structureless points.

They are a distribution of points fixed together.

If all the points constituting a particular Object remain at fixed

distances one from one another under all circumstances, that Object
is said to be a “Rigid Object”.

In an “Elastic Object” the relative distances between constituent

points/particles can change. We will study this more under
“Elasticity” aspect later on.

So a real body is extended. And even though all the forces acting on
such a body may cancel out, their turning effects (Torque) will not
cancel out if they are acting at different locations on the same body.
So we have another condition for a body to be in equilibrium: there
must be NO NET TORQUE ON IT
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-1 Equilibrium

as necessary condition for equilibrium in an extended

object. Where L is the angular momentum (analogous to linear
momentum in the linear case)

Likewise, to have static equilibrium, not only must the rate

of change of angular momentum L be equal to zero, there
must be no angular velocity ω at all.

Thus ω = 0 is another condition for static equilibrium

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Conditions for Equilibrium – summarized

● Requirements for equilibrium are given by Newton's

second law, in linear and rotational forms
Eq. (12-3)

Eq. (12-5)

● Therefore we have for equilibrium:

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Equilibrium

● We often simplify matters by considering forces only in

the xy plane, giving:
Eq. (12-7)

Eq. (12-8)

Eq. (12-9)

● Note that for static equilibrium we have the additional

requirements that:

4. The angular momentum of the body L must be zero.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Stable Static Equilibrium

● As discussed in 8-3 (Halliday and Resnick), if a body returns

to static equilibrium after a slight displacement, it is in
stable static equilibrium
● If a small displacement ends equilibrium, it is unstable

● Despite appearances, this rock

is in stable static equilibrium,
otherwise it would topple at the
slightest gust of wind

Figure
12-1
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-1 Stable Static Equilibrium

● In part (a) of the figure, we have unstable equilibrium

● A small force to the right results in (b)
● In (c) equilibrium is stable, but push the object so it
passes the position shown in (a) and it falls
● The block in (d) is even more stable

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 12-2
5-1 Equilibrium

Answer: (c), (e), (f) – only in these situations can we balance the clockwise and
anti-clockwise Torques about any arbitrary point/axis.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Equilibrium

● The gravitational force on a body is the sum of

gravitational forces acting on individual elements
(atoms) of the body
● We can simplify this by saying:

● Until now we have assumed that the gravitational

force acts at the center of mass
● This is approximately true for the everyday case√

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Equilibrium (determining centre of mass – c.o.m.)

● We can show this by considering a sum of torques on

each element vs. the torque caused by the
gravitational force at the c.o.g

● Substitute migi for Fgi

● Cancel g (= gi for all i)and divide
by the total mass, leaving:

Eq.
(12-16)
● The term on the right is the c.o.m
Please see details of this proof in
Figure 12-4
the textbook © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-1 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium

Learning Objectives
12.05 Apply the force and 12.06 Identify that a wise choice
torque conditions for static about the placement of the
equilibrium. origin (about which to calculate
torques) can simplify the
calculations by eliminating one
or more unknown forces from
the torque equation.
(Torque is rxF. If r = 0, then the Torque
due to that F = 0)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-1 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium

● This section consists of example problems, for forces

in the xy plane

Answer: (a) No (b) place the rotation axis at the location where F1 is applied
to the beam (c) 45 N
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-1 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium

Example Balancing a horizontal beam

o M = 2.7 kg, m = 1.8 kg

o Set rotation axis at x = 0
o Sum torques
o ¼ Mg L+ ½ mgL = FrL

so Fr= 15 N

o Balance vertical forces

Fl = (M + m)g – Fr Figure 12-7
= 29 N © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 5-1 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium

Example Balancing a leaning boom:

Find the tension in the cable, in the rope
and the size of force F by the hinge.
M = 430 kg, m = 85 kg, a = 1.9 m, b = 2.5 m
o Set rotation axis at x = 0, y = 0
o Sum torques (using Tr = Mg)
• a Tc – b Tr – ½ b mg = 0
Tc = 6100 N N
o Balance forces
• Fh = Tc = 6100 N
Fv = (m + M) g = 5050 N Figure 12-6
F = 7900 N
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
More details on the solution

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

Learning Objectives
12.07 Explain what an 12.10 For shearing, apply the
indeterminate situation is. equation that relates stress
to strain and the shear
12.08 For tension and
modulus.
compression, apply the
equation that relates stress 12.11 For hydraulic stress,
to strain and Young's apply the equation that
modulus. relates fluid pressure to
strain and the bulk modulus.
12.09 Distinguish between
yield strength and ultimate
strength.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

● For problems in the xy plane we have 3 independent

equations (2 involving forces, and 1 involving torques)
● Therefore we can solve for 3 unknowns
● If we have more unknown forces, we cannot solve for
them and the situation is indeterminate
● (e.g. a+b+c=12; 2a+3b-c=13. Find a, b, and c!)

● This assumes that bodies are rigid and do not deform

(there are no such bodies)
● With some knowledge of elasticity, we can generate
new equations and solve more problems
(e.g. 2a+b=10)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

12-2 Elasticity

Answer: (d)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

● All rigid bodies are partially elastic, meaning we can

change their dimensions by applying forces
● A stress, deforming force per unit area, produces a
strain, or unit deformation
● There are 3 main types of stress:
o Tensile (a), Shearing (b), Hydraulic (c)

Figure 12-11
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

Learning Objectives
12.07 Explain what an 12.10 For shearing, apply the
indeterminate situation is. equation that relates stress
to strain and the shear
12.08 For tension and
modulus.
compression, apply the
equation that relates stress 12.11 For hydraulic stress,
to strain and Young's apply the equation that
modulus. relates fluid pressure to
strain and the bulk modulus.
12.09 Distinguish between
yield strength and ultimate
strength.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

● For problems in the xy plane we have 3 independent

equations (2 involving forces, and 1 involving torques)
● Therefore we can solve for 3 unknowns
● If we have more unknown forces, we cannot solve for
them and the situation is indeterminate
● (e.g. a+b+c=12; 2a+3b-c=13. Find a, b, and c!)

● This assumes that bodies are rigid and do not deform

(there are no such bodies)
● With some knowledge of elasticity, we can generate
new equations and solve more problems
(e.g. 2a+b=10)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

Answer: (d)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

● All rigid bodies are partially elastic, meaning we can

change their dimensions by applying forces
● A stress, deforming force per unit area, produces a
strain, or unit deformation
● There are 3 main types of stress:
o Tensile (a), Shearing (b), Hydraulic (c)

Figure 12-11
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

● Stress and strain are proportional in the elastic range

● Related by the modulus of elasticity:
Eq.
(12-22)
● As stress increases, eventually a yield strength is
reached and the material deforms permanently
● At the ultimate strength,
the material breaks

Figure 12-13

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

● In simple tension/compression, stress is F/A

● The strain is the dimensionless quantity ΔL/L
● Young's modulus, E, used for tension/compression

Eq.
(12-23)

● Note that many materials have very different tensile

and compressive strengths, despite the same
modulus being used for both
● E.g., concrete: high compressive strength, very low
tensile strength
● Elasticity (compressive strength) of de-oxygenated red blood
cells is a critical issue in Sickle Cell Anaemia disease.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

● Strain can be measured by a strain gauge

● Placed on the material, it becomes subject to the
same strain
● Strain can be read out as a change in electrical
resistance, for strains up to 3%

Figure
12-14
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

● Shear modulus, G, used for shearing

Eq.
(12-24)

● Δx is along a different axis than L

● Bulk modulus, B, used for hydraulic compression
Eq.
(12-25)
● Relates pressure to volume change (isotropic, within fluids)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Elasticity

● The table shows some elastic properties for common

materials, for comparison purposes

Table
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 12-1
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Elasticity

Example Balancing a wobbly table

o Three legs of 1.00 m, a fourth longer by 0.50 mm
o Compressed by M = 290 kg so all four legs are compressed
but not buckled and the table does not wobble
o Legs are wooden cylinders with area A = 1.0 sq cm
o E = 1.3 x 1010 N/m2
o The 3 shorter legs must compress the same amount, the longer leg
compresses more
o Write length comparison, use the stress-strain equation, and approximate
all legs to be length L*

Eq.
(12-27)
6
[*We are dividing by astronomical values
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, for AE~10
Inc. All ]
rights res\e\rved.
5-2 Elasticity

Example Balancing a wobbly table (continued)

o Get a second equation by balancing forces
Eq.
(12-28)
o Solve the simultaneous equations to find
• F3 = 550 N
• F4 = 1200 N
o Each short leg is compressed by 0.42 mm, and the long leg is
compressed by 0.92 mm

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5-2 Summary

Static Equilibrium Center of Gravity

● If the gravitational
Eq.
acceleration is the same for
(12-3) all elements of the body, the
cog is at the com.
Eq.
(12-5)

Elastic Moduli Tension and Compression

● Three elastic moduli ● E is Young's modulus
● Strain: fractional length change
Eq.
● Stress: force per unit area (12-23)

Eq.
(12-22)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5-2 Summary

Shearing Hydraulic Stress

● G is the shear modulus ● B is the bulk modulus

Eq. Eq.
(12-24) (12-25)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Module 5-3
Gravitation
5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation
5.3-2 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition
5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface
5.3-4 Gravitation Inside Earth
5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy
5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws
5.3-7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy
5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

Learning Objectives
13.01 Apply Newton's law of 13.03 Draw a free-body
gravitation to relate the diagram to indicate the
gravitational force between gravitational force on a
two particles to their masses particle due to another
and their separation. particle or a uniform,
spherical distribution of
13.02 Identify that a uniform
matter.
spherical shell of matter
attracts a particle that is
outside the shell as if all the
shell's mass were
concentrated as a particle at
its center.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation (in 1665, aged 23)

● The same force, called Gravitational force:

o Holds us to the Earth. Makes apple fall to the ground
o Attracts and directs a passing space craft to a nearby planet
o Holds Earth in orbit around the Sun
o Holds the Sun together with the stars in our galaxy
o Reaches out across intergalactic space to hold together the
Local Group of galaxies
o Holds together the Local Supercluster of galaxies
o Is responsible for black holes
● Gravity is far-reaching and very important!

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

● Gravitation is one of the Four basic forces directing

interactions in our universe. (The others are electromagnetic force,
strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force)

● Gravitational attraction depends on the amount of “stuff” an object

is made of. How much “matter” it contains.
● The force is always attractive, never repulsive
● Gravitation is the tendency for bodies to attract each other
● Newton realized this attraction was responsible for maintaining the
orbits of celestial bodies
● Newton's law of gravitation defines in precise mathematics, the
strength of this attractive force between particles
● For apple & Earth: 0.8 N; for 2 people: < 1 μN

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

● The magnitude of the force is given by:

Eq. (13-1)

● Where G is the gravitational constant:

Eq. (13-2)

● The force always points from one particle to the other,

so this equation can be written in vector form:
Eq. (13-3)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

● The shell theorem describes

gravitational attraction for objects
● Earth is a nesting of shells, so we
feel Earth's mass as if it were all
located at its center
● Gravitational force forms third-law
force (i.e. Action-Reaction) pairs
● E.g., Earth-apple and apple-Earth
forces are both 0.8 N
Figure 13-2
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-1 Newton's Law of Gravitation

● The difference in mass causes

the difference in the apple:Earth
accelerations:
~10 m/s2 vs. ~ 10-25 m/s2

Figure
13-3

Answer: All exert equal forces on the particle

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-2 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition

Learning Objectives
13.04 If more than one 13.05 If more than one
gravitational force acts on a gravitational force acts on a
particle, draw a free-body particle, find the net force by
diagram showing those adding the individual forces
forces, with the tails of the as vectors.
force vectors anchored on
the particle.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-2 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition

● Find the net gravitational force by the principle of

superposition: the net is the sum of individual effects
● Add the individual forces as vectors:
Eq. (13-5)

● For a real (extended) object, this becomes an integral:

Eq. (13-6)

● If the object is a uniform sphere or shell we can treat

its mass as being at its center instead

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5.3-2 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition

Example
Summing
two
forces:
Figure 13-4

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-2 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition

Answer: (a) 1, 2 & 4, 3 (b) line of length d

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

Learning Objectives
13.06 Distinguish between the 13.07 Calculate the
free-fall acceleration and the gravitational acceleration
gravitational acceleration. near but outside a uniform,
spherical astronomical body.
Lift, free-fall; centripetal
acceleration; weightlessness 13.08 Distinguish between
measured weight and the
magnitude of the
gravitational force.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

● Combine F = GMm/r2 and

F = mag:
Eq.
(13-11)

● This gives the magnitude of the

gravitational acceleration at a
given distance from the centre
of the Earth
● Table 13-1 shows the value
for ag for various altitudes
above the Earth’s surface
Table
13-1
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

● The calculated ag will differ slightly from the measured

g at any location
● Therefore the calculated gravitational force on an
object will not match its weight for the same 3 reasons:
1. Earth's mass is not uniformly distributed, Fig. 13-5
2. Earth is not a sphere
3. Earth rotates

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley 13-5
& Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

Example Difference in gravitational force and weight due to

rotation at the equator:
Eq.
(13-12)

Eq.
(13-14)

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 13-6
5.3-3 Gravitation Near Earth's Surface

Example Simulating weightlessness:

imagine being on a platform moving with angular velocity ω
at a distance R from the centre, such that ω2R = ag, then g
= 0, hence mg=0
Eq.
(13-12)
Eq.
(13-14)

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 13-6
 Weighing a Fish in an Elevator*
*From College Physics, Serway, Example 4:9)

Goal Explore the effect of acceleration on

the apparent weight of an object

Problem: A man weighs a fish with a spring

scale attached to the ceiling of an elevator, as
shown in the figure . While the elevator is at
rest, he measures a weight of 40.0 N. (a) What
weight does the scale read if the elevator
accelerates upward at 2.00 m/s2? (b) What does
the scale read if the elevator accelerates
downward at 2.00 m/s2? (c) If the elevator cable
breaks, what does the scale read?

Strategy Write down Newton’s second law for the fish, including the force exerted by
the spring scale and the force of gravity, . The scale doesn’t measure the true weight,
it measures the force T that it exerts on the fish, so in each case solve for this force,
which is the apparent weight as measured by the scale.
Remarks Notice how important it is to have correct signs in this problem! Accelerations can increase or
decrease the apparent weight of an object. Astronauts experience very large changes in apparent
weight, from several times normal weight during ascent to weightlessness in free fall.
You can apply similar analyses to determining the apparent weight of the man himself. That would be
the Normal reaction from the floor where he stands. i.e. N takes the place of T in the above problem.
5.3-4 Gravitation Inside Earth

Learning Objectives
13.09 Identify that a uniform 13.10 Calculate the
shell of material exerts no net gravitational force that is
gravitational force on a exerted on a particle at a
particle located inside it. given radius inside a
nonrotating uniform sphere of
matter.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5.3-4 Gravitation Inside Earth

● The shell theorem also means that:

● Forces between elements do not disappear, but their vector

sum is 0
● Let's find the gravitational force inside a uniform-density Earth
● a solid sphere, not a shell:

Eq.
(13-17)
Both Mass (M) and distance to the centre (r) decrease. But r decreases faster and is inverse. So overall, F increases
as we move inside. The reverse occurs as we move to the other side of the centre of the earth. (see next slide:
inside the earth (if earth were uniform)

Figure 13-7
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-4 Gravitation Inside Earth

● The constant density is:

● Substitute in to Eq. 13-17:

Eq.
(13-19)

● If we write this as a vector equation, substituting K for

the constants:
Eq.
(13-20)

● Object dropped through Earth oscillates (Hooke's law)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

Learning Objectives
13.11 Calculate the 13.13 Using the gravitational
gravitational potential energy force on a particle near an
of a system of particles (or astronomical body (or some
uniform spheres that can be second body that is fixed in
treated as particles). place), calculate the work
done by the force when the
13.12 Identify that if a particle body moves.
moves from an initial to a final
point while experiencing a 13.14 Apply the conservation
gravitational force, the work of mechanical energy
done by that force (and thus (including gravitational
the change in gravitational potential energy) to a particle
potential energy) is moving relative to an
independent of which path is astronomical body (or some
taken. second body that is fixed in
place).
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

13.15 Explain the energy 13.16 Calculate the escape

requirements for a speed of a particle in
particle to escape from an leaving an astronomical
astronomical body body.
(assumed to be a uniform
sphere).

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

● Note that gravitational potential energy is a property of

a pair of particles
● We cannot divide it up to say how much of it “belongs”
to each particle in the pair
● We often speak as of the “gravitational potential
energy of a baseball” in the ball-Earth system
● We get away with this because the energy change
appears almost entirely as kinetic energy of the ball
● This is only true for systems where one object is much
less massive than the other

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

Eq.
(13-21)

Eq.
(13-22)

Figure 13-8
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

● The gravitational force is

conservative
● The work done by this force does not
depend on the path followed by the
particles, only the difference in the
initial and final positions of the
particles
● Since the work done is independent
of path, so is the gravitational
potential energy change

Eq.
(13-26)
Figure
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13-10
5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy
● Newton's law of gravitation can be derived from the potential
energy formula by taking the derivative
● For a projectile to escape the gravitational pull of a body, it
must come to rest only at infinity, if at all
● At rest at infinity: Kinetic Energy K = 0 and gravitational
potential energy U = 0 (because r → ∞)
● So K + U must be at least 0 at the surface of the body:

Eq.
(13-28)
● Rockets launch eastward to take advantage of Earth's
rotational speed, to reach v more easily
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5.3-5 Gravitational Potential Energy

Table
13-2

Answer: (a) increases (b) negative work

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5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws

Learning Objectives
13.17 Identify Kepler's three 13.20 For an elliptical orbit,
laws. apply the relationships
between the semimajor axis,
13.18 Identify which of Kepler's
the eccentricity, the
laws is equivalent to the law
perihelion, and the aphelion.
of conservation of angular
momentum. 13.21 For an orbiting natural or
artificial satellite, apply
13.19 On a sketch of an
Kepler's relationship between
elliptical orbit, identify the
the orbital period and radius
semimajor axis, the
and the mass of the
eccentricity, the perihelion,
astronomical body being
the aphelion, and the focal
orbited.
points.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws

● The motion of planets in the solar system was a

puzzle for astronomers, especially curious motions
such as in Figure 13-11
● Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) derived laws of motion
using Tycho Brahe's (1546-1601) measurements

Figure Figure
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13-12
5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws

● The orbit is defined by its semimajor axis a and its

eccentricity e
● An eccentricity of zero corresponds to a circle
● Eccentricity of Earth's orbit is 0.0167

● Equivalent to the law of conservation of angular

momentum
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5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws

Figure
13-13

● The law of periods can be written mathematically as:

Eq.
(13-34)
● Holds for elliptical orbits if we replace r with a
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-6 Planets and Satellites: Kepler's Laws

Table
13-3

Answer: (a) satellite 2 (b) satellite 1

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5.3-7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy

Learning Objectives
13.22 For a satellite in a 13.23 For a satellite in an
circular orbit around an elliptical orbit, calculate the
astronomical body, calculate total energy.
the gravitational potential
energy, the kinetic energy,
and the total energy.

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5.3-7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy

● Relating the centripetal acceleration of a satellite to

the gravitational force, we can rewrite as energies:
Eq.
(13-38)
● Meaning that:
Eq.
(13-39)

● Therefore the total mechanical energy is:

Eq.
(13-40)
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5.3-7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy

● Total energy E is the negative of the kinetic energy

● For an ellipse, we substitute a for r
● Therefore the energy of an orbit depends only on its
semimajor axis, not its eccentricity
● All orbits in Figure 13-15 have the same energy

Figure 13-16
Figure
13-15 © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.3-7 Satellites: Orbits and Energy

Answer: (a) orbit 1, since the energy has decreased (b) the semimajor axis
has decreased, so the period decreases

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5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

Learning Objectives
13.24 Explain Einstein's 13.25 Identify Einstein's model
principle of equivalence. for gravitation as being due
to the curvature of
spacetime.

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5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

● The general theory of relativity describes gravitation

● Its fundamental postulate is the principle of
equivalence
● Gravitation and acceleration are equivalent (mg≡mI)
● The experimenter inside
this box is unable to tell
whether he is on Earth
experiencing g = 9.8
m/s2, or in free space
accelerating at 9.8 m/s2.

Figure
13-18
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5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

● Space (spacetime) is curved

● Analogies: In (a) and (b), paths that appear to be
parallel, along the surface of the Earth or falling
toward the Earth's center, actually converge
● We can see why by stepping “outside” the curved
Earth, but we can't step “outside” of curved space

Figure
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13-19
5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

● But we can observe the curvature of space

● Light bends as it passes by massive objects: an effect
called gravitational lensing
● In extreme cases we observe the light coming from
multiple places, or bent into an Einstein ring

Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 13-20
5.3-8 Einstein and Gravitation

● The source of gravitation, however, is still unclear

● Is it purely an effect of curved spacetime?
● Is it a force between masses?
● Is it due to a fundamental particle, the graviton, which
would carry the gravitational force?
● These questions are not yet settled

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.3 Summary

The Law of Gravitation Gravitational Behavior of

Uniform Spherical Shells
Eq.
(13-1) ●The net force on an external
object: calculate as if all the mass
were concentrated at the center of
the shell
Eq.
(13-2)
Superposition Gravitational Acceleration

Eq. Eq.
(13-5) (13-11)

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5.3 Summary

Free-Fall Acceleration and Gravitation within a

Weight Spherical Shell
Earth's mass is not uniformly
● ●A uniform shell exerts no net force
distributed, the planet is not on a particle inside
spherical, and it rotates: the
●Inside a solid sphere:
calculated and measured values
of acceleration differ Eq.
(13-19)
Gravitational Potential Potential Energy of a
Energy System

Eq.
(13-21)
Eq.
(13-22)

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5.3 Summary

Escape Speed Kepler's Laws

● The law of orbits: ellipses
Eq.
(13-28) ● The law of areas: equal areas
in equal times
● The law of periods:

Eq.
(13-34)
Energy in Planetary Motion Kepler's Laws
● Gravitation and acceleration
are equivalent
Eq.
(13-42) ● General theory of relativity
explains gravity in terms of
curved space

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Module 5-4

Fluids

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Some Applications of Fluid Mechanics

The physics of fluids is the basis of hydraulic engineering, a branch of

engineering that is applied in a great many fields:
A nuclear engineer might study the fluid flow in the hydraulic system of
an aging nuclear reactor,
A medical engineer might study the blood flow in the arteries of an aging
patient.
An environmental engineer might be concerned about the drainage from
waste sites or the efficient irrigation of farmlands.
A naval engineer might be concerned with the dangers faced by a
deep-sea diver or with the possibility of a crew escaping from a downed
submarine.
An aeronautical engineer might design the hydraulic systems controlling
the wing flaps that allow a jet airplane to land.
Theatre Arts: Hydraulic engineering is also applied in many Broadway
and Las Vegas shows, where huge sets are quickly put up and brought
down by hydraulic systems.
Before we can study any such application of the physics of fluids, we
must first answer the question “What is a fluid?”
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5.4-1 Fluid Density and Pressure

Learning Objectives
14.01 Distinguish fluids from 14.03 Apply the relationship
solids. between hydrostatic
pressure, force, and the
14.02 When mass is uniformly
surface area over which that
distributed, relate density to
force acts.
mass and volume.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-1 Fluid Density and Pressure

● Physics of fluids is the basis of hydraulic engineering

● A fluid is a substance that can flow, like water or air,
and conform to a container
● This occurs because fluids cannot sustain a shearing
force (tangential to the fluid surface)
● They can however apply a force perpendicular to the
fluid surface
● Some materials (pitch) take a long time to conform to
a container, but are still fluids
● The essential identifier is that fluids do not have a
crystalline structure (i.e. a fairly rigid 3-D array providing
long-range order. e.g Ice vs water and steam)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-1 Fluid Density and Pressure
(more relevant in fluids than Mass and Force in solids)

● The density, ρ, is defined as:

Eq. (14-1)

● In theory the density at a point is the limit for an

infinitesimal volume, but we assume a fluid sample is
large relative to atomic dimensions and has uniform
density. Then
Eq. (14-2)

● Density is a scalar quantity

● Units kg/m3
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5.4-1 Fluid Density and Pressure

● The pressure, force acting on an area, is defined as:

Eq. (14-3)

● We could take the limit of this for

infinitesimal area, but if the force
is uniform over a flat area A we write
Eq. (14-4)

● We can measure pressure with a

sensor
Figure
14-1
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-1 Fluid Density and Pressure

● We find by experiment that for a fluid at rest, pressure

has the same value at a point regardless of sensor
orientation
● Therefore static pressure is scalar, even though force
is not
● Only the magnitude of the force is involved
● Units: the pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)
the atmosphere (atm)
the torr (1 torr = 1 mm Hg)
the pound per square inch (psi)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Note that the density of a gas (see Air in the table) varies considerably with pressure, but the density of a
liquid (see Water) does not; that is, gases are Wiley
© 2014 John readily compressible
& Sons, but liquids are not.
Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-2 Fluids at Rest

Learning Objectives
14.04 Apply the relationship 14.05 Distinguish between
between the hydrostatic total pressure (absolute
pressure, fluid density, and pressure) and gauge
the height above or below a pressure.
reference level.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-2 Fluids at Rest : Hydrostatic pressures are those caused by
fluids at rest (air in the atmosphere, water in a tank)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-2 Fluids at Rest

● Write the balance of forces:

Eq. (14-5)

● Rewrite: forces with pressures, mass with density

Eq. (14-7)

● For a depth h below the surface in a liquid this

becomes: Eq. (14-8)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5.4-2 Fluids at Rest

● The pressure in 14-8 is the absolute pressure

● Consists of p0, the pressure due to the atmosphere,
and the additional pressure from the fluid
● The difference between absolute pressure and
atmospheric pressure is called the gauge pressure
because we use a gauge to measure this pressure
difference
The equation can be turned around to calculate the

atmospheric pressure at a given height above ground:

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-2 Fluids at Rest

Answer: All the pressures will be the same. All that matters is the distance h,
from the surface to the location of interest, and h is the same in all cases.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-3 Measuring Pressure

Learning Objectives
14.06 Describe how a 14.07 Describe how an
barometer can measure open-tube manometer can
atmospheric pressure. measure the gauge pressure
of a gas.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-3 Measuring Pressure

● Figure 14-5 shows mercury barometers

● The height difference between the air-mercury
interface and the mercury level is h:
Eq. (14-9)

Figure
14-5
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-3 Measuring Pressure

● Only the height matters, not the cross-sectional area

● Height of mercury column is numerically equal to torr
pressure only if:
o Barometer is at a place where g has its standard
value
o Temperature of mercury is 0°C

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 5.4-3 Measuring Pressure

Figure 14-6 shows an open-tube manometer

Fig

● The height difference between

● the two interfaces, h, is related
● to the gauge pressure:
Eq.
(14-10)

● The gauge pressure can be positive or negative,

depending on whether the pressure being measured
is greater or less than atmospheric pressure
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5.4-4 Pascal's Principle

Learning Objectives
14.08 Identify Pascal's 14.09 For a hydraulic lift, apply
principle. the relationship between the
input area and displacement
and the output area and
displacement.

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5.4-4 Pascal's Principle

● Pascal's principle governs the transmission of

pressure through an incompressible fluid:

● Consider a cylinder of fluid (Figure 14-7)

● Increase pext, and p at
any point must change
Eq.
(14-12)

● Independent of h

Figure 14-7
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-4 Pascal's Principle

● Describes the basis for a hydraulic lever

● Input and output forces related by:
Eq.
(14-13)

● The distances of movement are related by:

Eq.
(14-14)

Figure 14-8
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-4 Pascal's Principle

● So the work done on the input piston equals the work

output

Eq.
(14-15)

● The advantage of the hydraulic lever is that:

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5.4-5 Archimedes' Principle

Learning Objectives
14.10 Describe Archimedes' 14.13 For a floating body,
principle. relate the gravitational force
to the mass of the fluid
14.11 Apply the relationship
displaced by the body.
between the buoyant force
on a body and the mass of 14.14 Distinguish between
the fluid displaced by the apparent weight and actual
body. weight.
14.12 For a floating body, 14.15 Calculate the apparent
relate the buoyant force to weight of a body that is fully
the gravitational force. or partially submerged.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-5 Archimedes' Principle

● The buoyant force is the net upward force on a

submerged object by the fluid in which it is submerged
● This force opposes the weight of the object
It comes from the increase in pressure with depth
Boils down to the Normal reaction to the weight (mg) of the
displaced volume (V) of fluid.

Figure 14-10

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5.4-5 Archimedes' Principle

● The stone and piece of wood displace the water that

would otherwise occupy that space
● Archimedes' Principle states that:

● The buoyant force has magnitude

Eq.
(14-16)

● Where mf is the mass of displaced fluid

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-5 Archimedes' Principle

● A block of wood in static equilibrium is floating:

● This is expressed: Eq.

(14-17)

● Because of Eq. 14-16 we know:

● Which means: Eq.

(14-18)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-5 Archimedes' Principle

● The apparent weight of a body in a fluid is related to

the actual weight of the body by:
(apparent weight) = (actual weight) – (buoyant force)
● We write this as:

Eq.
(14-19)

Answer: (a) all the same (b) 0.95ρ0, 1ρ0, 1.1ρ0

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

Learning Objectives
14.16 Describe steady flow, 14.19 Identify and calculate
incompressible flow, volume flow rate.
nonviscous flow, and
14.20 Identify and calculate
irrotational flow.
mass flow rate.
14.17 Explain the term
streamline.
14.18 Apply the equation of
continuity to relate the
cross-sectional area and flow
speed at one point in a tube
to those quantities at a
different point.

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5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

● Motion of real fluids is complicated and poorly

understood (e.g., turbulence)
● We discuss motion of an ideal fluid
1. Steady flow: Laminar flow, the velocity of the moving
fluid at any fixed point does not change with time
2. Incompressible flow: The ideal fluid density has a
constant, uniform value
3. Nonviscous flow: Viscosity is, roughly, resistance to
flow, fluid analog of friction. No resistive force here
4. Irrotational flow: May flow in a circle, but a dust grain
suspended in the fluid will not rotate about c.o.m.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

● Visualize fluid flow by adding a tracer

● Each bit of tracer (see figure 14-13) follows a
streamline
● A streamline is the path a tiny element of fluid follows
● Velocity is tangent to streamlines, so they can never
intersect (then 1 point would experience 2 velocities)

Figure
14-13 Figure
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

● Fluid speed depends on cross-sectional area

● Because of incompressibility, the volume flow rate
through any cross-section must be constant
● We write the equation of continuity:
Eq. Figure
(14-23) 14-15
● Holds for any tube of
flow whose
boundaries consist of
streamlines
● Fluid elements cannot
cross streamlines
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

● We can rewrite the equation as:

Eq.
(14-24)

● Where RV is the volume flow rate of the fluid

(volume passing a point per unit time)
● If the fluid density is uniform, we can multiply by the
density to get the mass flow rate:

Eq.
(14-25)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-6 The Equation of Continuity

Answer: 13, out

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-7 Bernoulli's Equation

Learning Objectives
14.21 Calculate the kinetic 14.24 Apply Bernoulli's
energy density in terms of a equation to relate the total
fluid's density and flow energy density at one point
speed. on a streamline to the value
at another point.
14.22 Identify the fluid
pressure as being a type of 14.25 Identify that Bernoulli's
energy density. equation is a statement of
the conservation of energy.
14.23 Calculate the
gravitational potential energy
density.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-7 Bernoulli's Equation

● Figure 14-19 represents a tube

through which an ideal fluid flows
● Applying the conservation of
energy to the equal volumes of
input and output fluid:

Eq.
(14-28)
● The ½ρv2 term is called the fluid's
kinetic energy density

Figure
14-19
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
5.4-7 Bernoulli's Equation

● Equivalent to Eq. 14-28, we can write:

Eq.
(14-29)

● These are both forms of Bernoulli's Equation

● Applying this for a fluid at rest we find Eq. 14-7
● Applying this for flow through a horizontal pipe:
Eq.
(14-30)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4-7 Bernoulli's Equation

Answer: (a) all the same volume flow rate

(b) 1, 2 & 3, 4
(c) 4, 3, 2, 1

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

5.4 Summary

Density Fluid Pressure

● A substance that can flow
Eq.
(14-2) ● Can exert a force
perpendicular to its surface

Eq.
(14-4)

Pressure Variation with Pascal's Principle

Height and Depth ● A change in pressure applied
to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and
Eq.
to the walls of the containing
(14-8)
vessel

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5.4 Summary

Archimedes' Principle Flow of Ideal Fluids

Eq. Eq.
(14-16) (14-24)

Eq. Eq.
(14-19) (14-25)

Bernoulli's Equation

Eq.
(14-29)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 16

Waves - I

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16-1 Transverse Waves

Learning Objectives displacement at any given time

and position
16.01 Identify the three main 16.04 Given a displacement
types of waves. function for a traverse wave,
16.02 Distinguish between calculate the time between
transverse waves and two given displacements.
longitudinal waves. 16.05 Sketch a graph of a
16.03 Given a displacement transverse wave as a
function for a traverse wave, function of position,
determine amplitude ym, identifying amplitude ym
angular wave number k, wavelength λ, where the
angular frequency ω, phase slope is greatest, where it is
constant ϕ, and direction of zero, and where the string
travel, and calculate the elements have positive
phase kx ± t + ϕ and the velocity, negative velocity,
and zero velocity.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16.06 Given a graph of displacement versus time for a
transverse wave, determine amplitude ym and period
T.

16.07 Describe the effect on a transverse wave of

changing phase constant ϕ.

16.08 Apply the relation between the wave speed v, the

distance traveled by the wave, and the time required for that
travel.

16.09 Apply the relationships between wave speed v,

angular frequency ω, angular wave number k,
wavelength λ, period T, and frequency f.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16.10 Describe the motion of a string element as a
transverse wave moves through its location, and
identify when its transverse speed is zero and when it
is maximum.

16.11 Calculate the transverse velocity u(t) of a string

element as a transverse wave moves through its
location.

16.12 Calculate the transverse acceleration a(t) of a

string element as a transverse wave moves through its
location.

16.13 Given a graph of displacement, transverse

velocity, or transverse acceleration, determine the
phase constant ϕ.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-1 Transverse Waves

Types of Waves
1. Mechanical Waves: They are governed by Newton’s laws,
and they can exist only within a material medium, such as
water, air, and rock. Examples: water waves, sound waves,
and seismic waves.
2. Electromagnetic waves: These waves require no material
medium to exist. Light waves from stars, for example, travel
through the vacuum of space to reach us. All electromagnetic
waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed c = 299
792 458 m/s.
3. Matter waves: These waves are associated with electrons,
protons, and other fundamental particles, and even atoms
and molecules. Because we commonly think of these
particles as constituting matter, such waves are called matter
waves.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-1 Transverse Waves

Transverse and Longitudinal

Waves
A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string
(Figure (a)). A typical string element moves
up and down continuously as the wave
passes. This is transverse wave.
(a) Transverse Wave
A sound wave is set up in an air- filled pipe
by moving a piston back and forth (Figure
(b)). Because the oscillations of an element
of the air (represented by the dot) are
parallel to the direction in which the wave
travels, the wave is a longitudinal wave.
(b) Longitudinal Wave
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16-1 Transverse Waves

Sinusoidal Function
Five “snapshots” (y vs x each at a constant time)
of a string wave traveling in the positive direction
along an x axis. The amplitude ym is indicated. A
typical wavelength λ, measured from an arbitrary
position x1, is also indicated.

The sine function describes

the shape of the wave

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-1 Transverse Waves

Period, Wave Number, Angular

Frequency and Frequency

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-1 Transverse Waves

The Speed of a Traveling Wave

Two snapshots of the wave: at time t=0, and

then at time t=Δt. As the wave moves to the
right at velocity ν, the entire curve shifts a
distance Δx during Δt.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

Learning Objectives

16.14 Calculate the linear 16.15 Apply the relationship

density μ of a uniform string in between wave speed ν, tension
terms of the total mass and total τ, and linear density μ.
length.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-2 Wave Speed on a Stretched String

Learning Objectives
The speed of a wave on a stretched string is set by properties of
the string (i.e. linear density), not properties of the wave such as
frequency or amplitude. Tau is the tension (in N) in the string.

(linear density)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
String
Learning Objective

16.16 Calculate the average rate at which energy is transported

by a transverse wave.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
String

• When we set up a wave on a stretched string, we provide

energy for the motion of the string. As the wave moves away
from us, it transports that energy as both kinetic energy and
elastic potential energy.
• The Rate of Energy Transmission The kinetic energy dK
associated with a string element of mass dm is given by

where u is the transverse speed of the oscillating string

element

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-3 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling along a
String

• The average power of, or average rate at which energy

is transmitted by, a sinusoidal wave on a stretched string
is given by

The factors μ and ν in this equation depend on the

material and tension of the string. The factors ω and ym
depend on the process that generates the wave.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-4 The Wave Equation

Learning Objective

16.17 For the equation giving a string-element displacement

as a function of position x and time t, apply the relationship
between the second derivative with respect to x and the
second derivative with respect to t.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 16-4 The Wave Equation

By applying Newton’s second law to the element’s motion, we can

derive a general differential equation, called the wave equation,
that governs the travel of waves of any type.

a) A string element as a sinusoidal

transverse wave travels on a
stretched string. Forces and
act at the left and right ends,
producing acceleration with a
vertical component ay .

b) The force at the element’s right

end is directed along a tangent to
the element’s right side.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-4 The Wave Equation

This is the general differential equation that governs the

travel of waves of all types. Here the waves travel along an x
axis and oscillate parallel to the y axis, and they move with
speed v, in either the positive x direction or the negative x
direction.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-5 Interference of Waves

Learning Objectives 16.20 Describe how the phase

16.18 Apply the principle of difference between two
superposition to show that two transverse waves (with the
overlapping waves add same amplitude and
algebraically to give a wavelength) can result in
resultant (or net) wave. fully constructive
16.19 For two transverse waves interference, fully destructive
with the same amplitude and interference, and
wavelength and that travel intermediate interference.
together, find the displacement 16.21 With the phase
equation for the resultant wave difference between two
and calculate the amplitude in interfering waves expressed
terms of the individual wave in terms of wavelengths,
amplitude and the phase quickly determine the type of
difference. interference the waves have.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16-5 Interference of Waves

Principle of
Superposition of waves
Let y1(x, t) and y2(x, t) be the
displacements that the string would
experience if each wave traveled
alone. The displacement of the string
when the waves overlap is then the
algebraic sum

This summation of displacements

along the string means that

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-5 Interference of Waves

The resultant wave due to the

interference of two sinusoidal
transverse waves, is also a
sinusoidal transverse wave, with an
amplitude and an oscillating term.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-5 Interference of Waves

Constructive and
Destructive
Interference

Two identical sinusoidal waves, y1(x, t) and y2(x, t), travel along a
string in the positive direction of an x axis. They interfere to give a
resultant wave y’(x, t). The resultant wave is what is actually seen on
the string. The phase difference Φ between the two interfering
waves is (a) 0 rad or 0o, (b) π rad or 180o, and (c) 2/3 π rad or 120o.
The corresponding resultant waves are shown in (d), (e), and ( f ).
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16-6 Phasors

Learning Objectives
16.22 Using sketches, explain 16.24 By using phasors, find
how a phasor can represent the resultant wave of two
the oscillations of a string transverse waves traveling
element as a wave travels together along a string,
through its location. calculating the amplitude and
16.23 Sketch a phasor diagram phase and writing out the
for two overlapping waves displacement equation, and
traveling together on a string, then displaying all three
indicating their amplitudes and phasors in a phasor diagram
phase difference on the that shows the amplitudes,
sketch. the leading or lagging, and
the relative phases.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-6 Phasors

A phasor is a vector that rotates around its tail, which is

pivoted at the origin of a coordinate system. The magnitude
of the vector is equal to the amplitude ym of the wave that it
represents.

(a) (b)
(a) A second phasor, also of angular speed ω but of magnitude ym2 and
rotating at a constant angle β from the first phasor, represents a second
wave, with a phase constant Φ. (b) The resultant wave is represented by the
vector sum y’m of the two phasors.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Learning Objectives
16.25 For two overlapping calculate the amplitude in terms of
waves (same amplitude and the individual wave amplitude.
wavelength) that are traveling
in opposite directions, sketch 16.27 Describe the SHM of a
snapshots of the resultant string element at an antinode of
wave, indicating nodes and a standing wave.
antinodes.
16.26 For two overlapping
waves (same amplitude and
wavelength) that are
traveling in opposite
directions, find the
displacement equation for
the resultant wave© 2014
and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16.28 For a string element at an antinode of a standing
wave, write equations for the displacement, transverse
velocity, and transverse acceleration as functions of time.
16.29 Distinguish between “hard” and “soft” reflections of
string waves at a boundary.
16.30 Describe resonance on a string tied taut between
two supports, and sketch the first several standing wave
patterns, indicating nodes and antinodes.
16.31 In terms of string length, determine the wavelengths
required for the first several harmonics on a string under
tension.
16.32 For any given harmonic, apply the relationship
between frequency, wave speed, and string length.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Standing Waves
The interference of two identical sinusoidal waves moving in
opposite directions produces standing waves. For a string
with fixed ends, the standing wave is given by

Stroboscopic photographs reveal (imperfect) standing wave patterns

on a string being made to oscillate by an oscillator at the left end. The
patterns occur at certain frequencies of oscillation.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
16-7 Standing Waves and Resonance

Harmonics
Standing waves on a string can be set
up by reflection of traveling waves from
the ends of the string. If an end is fixed,
it must be the position of a node. This
limits the frequencies at which standing
waves will occur on a given string.
Each possible frequency is a resonant
frequency, and the corresponding
standing wave pattern is an oscillation
mode. For a stretched string of length L
with fixed ends, the resonant
frequencies are

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16 Summary

Waves Wave Speed

● Transverse Waves ● Angular velocity/ Angular wave
● Longitudinal Waves number

Eq.
(16-13)

Sinusoidal Waves Traveling Waves

● Wave moving in positive ● A functional form for traveling
direction (vector) waves
Eq. Eq. (16-17)
(16-2)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

16 Summary

Powers Standing Waves

● Average Power is given by ● The interference of two
identical sinusoidal waves
moving in opposite directions
Eq.
produces standing waves.
(16-33)
Eq.
(16-60)
Interference of Waves Resonance
● Two sinusoidal waves on the ● For a stretched string of
same string exhibit length L with fixed ends, the
interference resonant frequencies are

Eq. Eq. (16-66)

(16-51)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter 17

Waves - II

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-1 Speed of Sound

Learning Objectives
17.01 Distinguish between a 17.04 Apply the relationship
longitudinal wave and a between the speed of sound,
transverse wave. the distance traveled by a
sound wave, and the time
17.02 Explain wavefronts and
required to travel that
rays.
distance.
17.03 Apply the relationship
between the speed of sound
through a material, the
material’s bulk modulus, and
the material’s density.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-1 Speed of Sound

Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that can travel

through solids, liquids, or gases.
Point S represents a tiny sound source,
called a point source, that emits sound
waves in all directions. A sound wave
travels from a point source S through a
three-dimensional medium. The
wavefronts (surfaces over which the
oscillations due to the sound wave have
the same value) form spheres centered
on S; the rays are radial to S. The short,
double-headed arrows indicate that
elements of the medium oscillate parallel
to the rays.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-1 Speed of Sound

The speed ν of a sound wave in a medium having bulk

modulus B and density ρ is

An element of air of width Δx moves toward

Through direct application of the pulse with speed v.
Newton’s Second law.

The leading face of the element enters the

pulse. The forces acting on the leading and
trailing faces (due to air pressure) are shown.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-2 Traveling Sound Waves

Learning Objectives
17.05 For any particular time and 17.08 Sketch a graph of the
position, calculate the displacement s(x) of an
displacement s(x,t) of an element of air as a function
element of air as a sound wave of position, and identify the
travels through its location. amplitude sm and wavelength
17.06 Given a displacement λ.
function s(x,t) for a sound wave, 17.09 For any particular time
calculate the time between two and position, calculate the
given displacements. pressure variation Δp
17.07 Apply the relationships (variation from atmospheric
between wave speed v, angular pressure) of an element of
frequency ω, angular wave air as a sound wave travels
number k, wavelength λ, period through its location.
T, and frequency ƒ.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-2 Traveling Sound Waves

Learning Objectives (Continued)

17.10 Sketch a graph of the 17.12 Given a graph of position
pressure variation Δp(x) of an s versus time for a sound
element as a function of wave, determine the
position, and identify the amplitude sm and the period
amplitude Δpm and wavelength T.
λ.
17.13 Given a graph of
17.11 Apply the relationship pressure variation Δp versus
between pressure-variation time for a sound wave,
amplitude Δpm and determine the amplitude Δpm
displacement amplitude sm. and the period T.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 17-2 Traveling Sound Waves

(a) A sound wave,

traveling through a long
air-filled tube with speed
v, consists of a moving,
periodic pattern of
expansions and
compressions of the air.
The wave is shown at an
arbitrary instant.

(b) A horizontally expanded view of a short piece of the tube. As the

wave passes, an air element of thickness Δx oscillates left and right in
simple harmonic motion about its equilibrium position. At the instant
shown in (b), the element happens to be displaced a distance s to the
right of its equilibrium position. Its maximum displacement, either right
or left, is sm. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 17-2 Traveling Sound Waves

Displacement: A sound wave causes a longitudinal displacement s

of a mass element in a medium as given by

where sm is the displacement amplitude (maximum displacement)

from equilibrium, k = 2π/λ, and ω=2πƒ, λ and ƒ being the
wavelength and frequency, respectively, of the sound wave.

Pressure: The sound wave also causes a pressure change Δp of

the medium from the equilibrium pressure:

where the pressure amplitude is

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-3 Interference

Learning Objectives
17.15 Given the phase
difference between two sound
17.14 If two waves with the same
waves with the same
wavelength begin in phase but
amplitude, wavelength, and
reach a common point by
travel direction, determine the
traveling along different paths,
type of interference between
calculate their phase difference
the waves (fully destructive
Φ at that point by relating the
interference, fully constructive
path length difference ΔL to the
interference, or indeterminate
wavelength λ.
interference).
17.16 Convert a phase
difference between radians,
degrees, and number of
wavelengths.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-3 Interference

Two point sources S1 and S2 emit

spherical sound waves in phase.
The rays indicate that the waves
pass through a common point P.
The waves (represented with
transverse waves) arrive at P.
Fully Fully
Destructive Interference Constructive Interference
(exactly out of phase) (exactly in phase)

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-3 Interference

• The interference of two sound

Path Length waves with identical wavelengths
Difference passing through a common point
depends on their phase difference
there ϕ . If the sound waves were
emitted in phase and are traveling in
approximately the same direction, ϕ
is given by

where ΔL is their path

length difference.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-3 Interference

• Fully constructive interference occurs when ϕ is an

integer and multiple of 2π,

and, equivalently, when ΔL is related to wavelength λ by

• Fully destructive interference occurs when ϕ is an odd

multiple of π,

and, equivalently, when ΔL is related to wavelength λ by

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-4 Intensity And Sound Level

Learning Objectives the distance r to a detector,

17.17 Calculate the sound and the sound intensity I at
intensity I at a surface as the the detector.
ratio of the power P to the 17.21 Apply the relationship
surface area A. between the sound level β,
17.18 Apply the relationship the sound intensity I, and the
between the sound intensity I standard reference intensity
and the displacement amplitude I0.
sm of the sound wave. 17.22 Evaluate a logarithm
17.19 Identify an isotropic point function (log) and an
source of sound. antilogarithm function (log-1).

17.20 For an isotropic point 17.23 Relate the change in a

source, apply the relationship sound level to the change in
involving the emitting power Ps, sound intensity.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-4 Intensity And Sound Level

• The intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average

rate per unit area at which energy is transferred by the wave
through or onto the surface

where P is the time rate of energy transfer (power) of the

sound wave and A is the area of the surface intercepting the
sound. The intensity I is related to the displacement
amplitude sm of the sound wave by

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-4 Intensity And Sound Level

• The intensity at a distance r from

a point source that emits sound
waves of power Ps equally in all
directions isotropically i.e. with
equal intensity in all directions,

A point source S emits sound waves

where 4πr2 is the area of the uniformly in all directions. The waves
pass through an imaginary sphere of
sphere.
radius r that is centered on S.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-4 Intensity And Sound Level

The Decibel Scale

• The sound level β in decibels (dB) is
defined as

where I0 (= 10-12 W/m2) is a reference

intensity level to which all intensities are
compared. For every factor-of-10 increase
in intensity, 10 dB is added to the sound Sound can cause the wall of
level. a drinking glass to oscillate.
If the sound produces a
standing wave of oscillations
and if the intensity of the
sound is large enough, the
glass will shatter.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-5 Sources of Musical Sound

Learning Objectives
17.24 Using standing wave 17.26 Identify which type of
patterns for string waves, sketch pipe has even harmonics.
the standing wave patterns for
the first several acoustical 17.27 For any given harmonic
harmonics of a pipe with only and for a pipe with only one
one open end and with two open open end or with two open
ends. ends, apply the relationships
between the pipe length L,
17.25 For a standing wave of the speed of sound v, the
sound, relate the distance wavelength λ, the harmonic
between nodes and the frequency ƒ, and the
wavelength. harmonic number n.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 17-5 Sources of Musical Sound

Standing sound wave patterns can be set up in pipes (that is,

resonance can be set up) if sound of the proper wave- length is
introduced in the pipe.
Two Open Ends. One Open End.
A pipe open at both ends will A pipe closed at one end and open at
resonate at frequencies the other will resonate at frequencies

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-6 Beats

Learning Objectives
17.28 Explain how beats are 17.30 Apply the relationship
produced. between the beat frequency
and the frequencies of two
17.29 Add the displacement
sound waves that have the
equations for two sound waves
same amplitude when the
of the same amplitude and
frequencies (or, equivalently,
slightly different angular
the angular frequencies)
frequencies to find the
differ by a small amount.
displacement equation of the
resultant wave and identify the
time-varying amplitude.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-6 Beats

Beats arise when two waves having slightly different

frequencies, ƒ1 and ƒ2, are detected together. The
beat frequency is

(a,b) The pressure variations Δp of (c) The resultant pressure variation if the
two sound waves as they would be two waves are detected simultaneously.
detected separately. The frequencies
of the waves are nearly equal.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-7 The Doppler Effect

Learning Objectives moving either directly toward

or away from a stationary
17.31 Identify that the Doppler
detector, (b) a detector
effect is the shift in the de-
moving either directly toward
tected frequency from the
or away from a stationary
frequency emitted by a sound
source, and (c) both source
source due to the relative
and detector moving either
motion between the source and
directly toward each other or
the detector.
directly away from each
17.32 Identify that in calculating other.
the Doppler shift in sound, the
17.34 Identify that for relative
speeds are measured relative to
motion between a sound
the medium (such as air or
source and a sound detector,
water), which may be moving.
motion toward tends to shift
17.33 Calculate the shift in sound the frequency up and motion
frequency for (a) a source away tends to shift it down.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-7 The Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is a change in the observed frequency of a wave

when the source or the detector moves relative to the transmitting
medium (such as air). For sound, the observed frequency ƒ’ is given
in terms of the source frequency ƒ by

where v is the speed of sound through the air, vD is the detector’s

speed relative to the air, and vS is the source’s speed relative to the
air.
In the numerator, the plus sign applies when the detector moves
toward the source and the minus sign applies when the detector
moves away from the source.
In the denominator the minus sign is used when the source moves
toward the detector, the plus sign applies when the source moves
away from the detector.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17-7 The Doppler Effect

Detector Moving Source Moving

Source Stationary Detector Stationary

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-8 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves

Learning Objectives
17.35 Sketch the bunching of 7.37 For a sound source
wavefronts for a sound source exceeding the speed of
traveling at the speed of sound sound, apply the relationship
or faster. between the Mach cone
angle, the speed of sound,
17.36 Calculate the Mach number
and the speed of the source.
for a sound source exceeding
the speed of sound.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

17-8 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves

If the speed of a source relative to the medium exceeds the speed

of sound in the medium, the Doppler equation no longer applies. In
such a case, shock waves result. The half-angle θ of the Mach
cone is given by

A source S moves at speed vS faster than

the speed of sound and thus faster than
the wavefronts. When the source was at
position S1 it generated wavefront W1, and
at position S6 it generated W6. All the
spherical wavefronts expand at the speed
of sound v and bunch along the surface of
a cone called the Mach cone, forming a
shock wave. The surface of the cone has
half-angle θ and is tangent to all the
wavefronts.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17 Summary

Sound Waves Sound Intensity

● Speed of sound waves in a ● The intensity at a distance r
medium having bulk modulus from a point source that emits
and density sound waves of power Ps is

Eq. (17-3) Eq.

(17-28)

Interference Sound Level in Decibel

● If the sound waves were ● The sound level b in decibels
emitted in phase and are (dB) is defined as
traveling in approximately the Eq. (17-29) w
same direction, ϕ is given by here I0 (= 10-12 W/m2) is a
reference intensity
Eq.
(17-21)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
17 Summary

Standing Waves in Pipes Sound Intensity

● A pipe open at both ends ● The half-angle θ of the Mach
cone is given by
Eq.
(17-39)
● A pipe closed at one end and Eq.
open at the other (17-57)
Eq.
(17-41)
The Doppler Effect
● For sound the observed
frequency ƒ’ is given in terms
of the source frequency ƒ by

Eq.
(17-47)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 PHY 101 – GENERAL PHYSICS I
TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
Chapter 18 – Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of
Thermodynamics
Chapter 19 – The Kinetic Theory of Gases
Chapter 20 – Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Ezekiel OMOTOSO, Ph.D.

Rm. G7 Yellow house Ext. {Dept. of Physics & Engineering Physics}

Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 10th Extended Edition

 Chapter 18

Temperature, Heat, and the

First Law of Thermodynamics

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 18. Temperature, Heat, and the 1st Law
of Thermodynamics
18.1. Temperature
18.2. The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales
18.3. Thermal Expansion
18.4. Absorption of Heat
18.5. The First of Thermodynamics
18.6. Heat Transfer Mechanisms

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 18-1 Temperature
• Thermodynamics: study and application of the
thermal energy (internal energy) of systems.
• One of the concepts of thermodynamics is
temperature.
• Temperature: SI base quantity related to our
sense of hot and cold.
• measured with a thermometer,
• contains a working substance with a
measurable property,
• length or pressure, that changes in a regular
way as the substance becomes hotter or colder.
• Physicists measure temperature on the Kelvin
scale, which is marked in units called kelvins. Room temp ~ 290 K
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if they are at the same
temperature throughout and therefore no heat will flow from one
body to the other.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
When 2 bodies
are in thermal
equil., their temp
are the same
Every body has a
property called
temperature

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Triple Point of Water
• Triple point of water is the point
in which solid ice, liquid water,
and water vapor coexist in A triple-point cell
thermal equilibrium. (This does
not occur at normal atmospheric
pressure.)
• By international agreement, the
temperature of this mixture has
been defined to be 273.16 K.
The bulb of a constant-volume
gas thermometer is shown
inserted into the well of the cell.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer
• It consists of a gas-filled bulb connected by a
tube to a mercury manometer.
• By raising and lowering reservoir R, the mercury
level in the left arm of the U-tube can always be
brought to the zero of the scale to keep the gas
volume constant.
• the recipe for measuring a temperature with a
gas thermometer, where p is the observed
pressure and p3 is the pressure at the triple point
𝑷 𝑷
of water, is 𝑻 = 𝑻𝟑 = (𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟔 𝑲)( )
𝑷𝟑 𝑷𝟑 Constant-Volume Gas
Thermometer

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Problems
• 1. A constant-volume gas thermometer is used to measure the temperature of
an object. When the thermometer is in contact with water at its triple point
(273 K) the pressure in the thermometer is 8.50 × 104 Pa. When it is in contact
with the object the pressure is 9.65×104 Pa. The temperature of the object is:

• Solution
• T3 = 273 K, P = 9.65×104 Pa, P3 = 8.50 × 104 Pa

𝑷 9.65×104
𝑻= 𝑻𝟑 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑷𝟑 8.50 × 104
= 𝟑𝟏𝟎 𝑲
2. When a certain constant volume gas thermometer is in thermal contact with
water at its triple point (273.16 K) the pressure is 6.30× 104 Pa. For this
thermometer a kelvin corresponds to a change in pressure of about:
 18-2 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales
• The Celsius temperature scale is
defined by

with T in kelvins.

• The Fahrenheit temperature scale is

defined by

The Kelvin, Celsius and Fahrenheit

temperature scales compared.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Problems
3. Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales agree numerically at a reading of:
4. Fahrenheit and Celcius scales agree numerically at a reading of:

Solution
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32°
5
The numerical reading at which F and C equal be x
9
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 32°
5
5𝑥 = 9𝑥 + 5 32°
𝒙 = −𝟒𝟎°
 18-3 Thermal Expansion
Linear Expansion
• All objects change size with changes in temperature. For a
temperature change ΔT, a change ΔL in any linear dimension L
is given by
∆𝐿 = 𝐿𝛼∆𝑇
α is the coefficient of linear expansion (per Kelvin or per degree Celsius).

The strip bends as shown at temperatures above this reference

temperature. Below the reference temperature the strip bends the other
way. Many thermostats operate on this principle, making and breaking an
electrical contact as the temperature rises and falls.
 Volume Expansion
• If the temperature of a solid or liquid whose Unusual behavior of
volume is V is increased by an amount ΔT, the water:
increase in volume is found to be above 4 oC water expand
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝛽∆𝑇 as the T rises.
β is the coefficient of volume expansion and is Between 0 and 4 oC,
water contracts with
related to linear expansion as 𝛽 = 3𝛼 increasing T.
Above 4 oC, the density
of water passes through a
maximum.
Answer: (a) – 2 and 3 (same increase in height), then 1, At other T, density of
and then 4 water is less than
(b) – 3, then 2, then 1 and 4 (identical increase in area) maximum.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Problems
5. The Stanford linear accelerator contains hundreds of brass
disks tightly fitted into a steel tube (see figure). The coefficient
of linear expansion of the brass is 2.00×10–5 per C°. The
system was assembled by cooling the disks in dry ice (–57°C)
to enable them to just slide into the close-fitting tube. If the
diameter of a disk is 80.00 mm at 43°C, what is its diameter in
the dry ice?
Solution
∝ = 2.00×10–5 per C°, Ti = –57°C, Tf = 43°C, 6. When the
temperature of a
df = 80.00 mm copper penny is
increased by 100 C°,
𝑑𝑓 − 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 ∝ ∆𝑇 its diameter increases
by 0.17%. The area of
80 − 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑖 × 43 + 57 one of its faces
𝑑𝑖 = 79.84 𝑚𝑚 increases by:
 Problems
7 8.The two metallic strips that constitute
some thermostats must differ in:
A) length
B) thickness
C) mass
D) rate at which they conduct heat
coefficient of linear expansion

9. Thin strips of iron and zinc are riveted

Solution together to form a bimetallic strip which
bends when heated. The iron is on the
inside of the bend because:
A) it has a higher coefficient of linear
expansion
B) it has a lower coefficient of linear
expansion
C) it has a higher specific heat
D) it has a lower specific heat
E) it conducts heat better
 18-4 Absorption of Heat
Temperature and Heat
• If the temp. of a system TS is not equal to the
temp. of the environment TE, then both will
change until the two are equal
• Such change in T is due to the transfer of
energy between the thermal energy of the
system and system’s environment.
• Heat Q: Energy transferred between a
system and its environment. Occurs because
of the temp. difference between them. Q = +ve heat absorbed or gained
• It can be measured in joules (J), calories Q = -ve heat released or lost
(cal), kilocalories (Cal or kcal), or British
thermal units (Btu), with
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
(a) TS > TE, energy is transferred from
the system to the environ,
i.e. Q is negative
(b) TS = TE no heat transfer, Q = 0
(c) TS < TE, energy is transferred from the
environ to the system
i.e. Q is positive
➢ Heat is the energy that is transferred
btw a system and its environ bcos of a
temp diff that exists btw them
➢ Recall that energy can transferred as
work, W via a force acting on a
system.
➢ Heat and work, unlike temp., pressure
& volume are not intrinsic ppties of a
system.
16
 Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids
• Heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between the
heat Q that the object absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature
change ΔT of the object; that is,
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇 = 𝐶 𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇𝑖
• Ti and Tf are the initial and final temp. of the object.
• If the object has mass m, then,
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇 = 𝑐𝑚 𝑇𝐹 − 𝑇𝑖
c is the specific heat of the material making up the object.
Heat capacity per unit mass is the specific heat

Answer: Material A has the greater specific heat

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Heat of transformation
• When quantities are expressed in moles, specific heats must also
involve moles (rather than a mass unit); they are then called molar
specific heats.
• Heat of transformation L: the amount of energy per unit mass that must
be transferred as heat when a sample completely undergoes a phase.
• Thus, when a sample of mass m completely undergoes a phase change,
the total energy transferred is
𝑄 = 𝐿𝑚
• When the change is from liquid to gas then the sample must absorb heat
or from gas to liquid then the sample must release heat. In both cases
the heat of transformation is called heat of vapourization LV
• From solid to liquid (sample absorbs heat) or from liquid to solid (sample
releases heat), the heat of transformation is heat of fusion LF
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Problems
7. Take the mechanical equivalent of heat as 4 J/cal. A 10-gram bullet moving at
2000 m/s plunges into 1 kg of paraffin wax (specific heat 0.7 cal/g ×°C). The
wax was initially at 20°C. Assuming that all the bullet's energy heats the wax, its
final temperature is:
Solution
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 × 104 𝐽
2
2 × 104 𝐽 𝟏
= = × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝑸
4𝐽/𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝟐
𝑐𝑎𝑙 1
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 1 × 1000𝑔 × 0.7 𝑇𝑓 − 20 = × 104 𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑔 × °𝐶 2
𝑇𝑓 = 7.17 + 20 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟏𝟕°𝑪
 18-5 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Heat and Work
▪ Suppose a system starts from an initial state i
describe by a pressure Pi, volume Vi and temp Ti
▪ We want to change the system to a final state f
described by Pf, Vf and Tf
▪ If there is an upward displacement of ds with an
upward force F
▪ A gas may exchange energy with its surroundings
through work. The amount of work W done by a
gas as it expands or contracts from an initial
volume Vi to a final volume Vf is given by A gas confined to a cylinder
𝑉𝑓 with a movable piston.
▪ 𝑊 = ‫= 𝑤𝑑 ׬‬ ‫𝑉𝑑𝑃 𝑉׬‬
𝑖
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
There are so many ways to take gas from i to f

A gas confined to a cylinder

with a movable piston.

Heat and work are path-dependent quantities.

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
There are so many ways to take gas from i to f
(a) The shaded area represents the work W done by
a system as it goes from an initial state i to a final
state f. Work W is positive because the system’s
volume increases.
(b) W is still positive, but now greater.
(c) W is still positive, but now smaller. (d)W can be
even smaller (path icdf) or larger (path ighf).
(e) Here the system goes from state f to state i as
the gas is compressed to less volume by an external
force. The work W done by the system is now
negative.
(f) The net work W net done by the system during a
complete cycle is represented by the shaded area.
The net work done by the system during the cycle is
the sum of the positive work done during the
expansion and the negative work done during the
compression. In Fig. 18-14f , the net work is positive
because the area under the expansion
curve (i to f ) is greater than the area under the
compression
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, curve (f to i).
Inc. All rights reserved.
▪ The 1st law of thermodynamics describes systems in which the only
change is that of internal energy & transfers of energy are by heat & work.
▪ The principle of conservation of energy for a thermodynamic process is
expressed in the first law of thermodynamics, which may assume either of
the forms: ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
▪ If thermodynamic system undergoes only a differential change
▪ 𝑑𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Some Special Cases of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics
➢ Adiabatic process: one that occurs so rapidly or occurs in a system that is so
well insulated that no transfer of energy as heat occurs between the system
and its environment, Q = 0
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −𝑊
➢ Constant-volume processes: this means that no work is done
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄
➢ Cyclical processes: no intrinsic property of the system can possibly change
i.e. ΔEint = 0
𝑄=𝑊
➢ Free expansion: These are adiabatic processes in which no heat occurs
between the system and its environment, and no work is done on or by
the system i.e. Q =W
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 18-6 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Thermal Conduction
The rate Pcond at which energy is conducted
through a slab for which one face is
maintained at the higher temperature TH and
the other face is maintained at the lower
temperature TC (the amount of energy
transferred per unit time, i.e. conduction rate)
is

Here each face of the slab has area A, Energy is transferred as heat from a
the length of the slab (the distance reservoir at temperature TH to a cooler
between the faces) is L, and k is the reservoir at temperature TC through a
thermal conductivity of the material. conducting slab of thickness L and
thermal conductivity k.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Thermal Resistance to Conduction (R-value)
The R-value of a slab of thickness L is
𝐿
𝑅=
𝑘
➢The lower the thermal conductivity of the material of which a
slab is made, the higher the R-value of the slab
➢High R-value mean a poor thermal conductor and thus a good
thermal insulation

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Conduction through Composite Slab
Assuming that the transfer of heat is a
steady state process i.e. the energy
transferred through one material in a certain
time must be equal to that transferred
through other material is the same
𝐴 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
𝐿1 𝐿2
ൗ𝑘 + ൗ𝑘
1 2
For n materials
𝐴 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
σ 𝐿ൗ𝑘

28
 Convection
• Convection occurs when temperature differences cause an energy
transfer by motion within a fluid.
• The temp of the part of the fluid is in contact with the hot object
increases and that fluid expands and thus becomes less dense
• This expanded fluid then rises and then cooler fluid then flows to take
the position of the rising warmer fluid
• When you look at the flame of a candle or a match, you are watching
thermal energy being transported upward by convection.
• Convection is part of many natural processes. Atmospheric convection
plays a fundamental role in determining global climate patterns and
daily weather variations. Glider pilots and birds alike seek rising
thermals (convection currents of warm air) that keep them aloft. Huge
energy transfers take place within the oceans by the same process.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Thermal Radiation
Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromagnetic energy. The
rate Prad at which an object emits energy via thermal radiation is
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜖𝐴𝑇 4
σ (= 5.6704×10-8 W/m2.K4) is the Stefan– Boltzmann constant,
ε: emissivity of the object’s surface (btw 0 & 1). When ε =1 is said to be black body
A is its surface area, and T is its surface temperature (in kelvins).
The rate Pabs at which an object absorbs energy via thermal radiation from its
environment, which is at the uniform temperature Tenv (in kelvins), is

To radiate means to emit. No material medium is needed i.e radiation travels through vacuum
Because an object will radiate energy to environment while it absorbs energy from the
environment, the object’s net rate Pnet of energy exchange due to thermal radiation is
4 − 𝑇4
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜎𝜖𝐴 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑣
Pnet is positive if net energy is being absorbed via radiation and negative if it is being
lost via radiation
 Problems
8. An electric stove burner of diameter 20 cm is at a temperature of 250 °C. If σ = 5.67
x 10-8 W/m2·K4, at what rate is the burner radiating energy? Assume the emissivity ε =
0.6
9. A homeowner purchases insulation for her attic rated at R-15. She wants the attic
insulated to R-30. If the insulation she purchased is 10 cm thick, what thickness does
she need to use?
10. The rate of heat flow through a slab is Pcond. If the slab thickness is doubled, its
cross-sectional area is halved, and the temperature difference across it is doubled, then
the rate of heat flow becomes:
11. During an adiabatic process an object does 100 J of work and its temperature
decreases by 5 K. During another process it does 25 J of work and its temperature
decreases by 5 K. Its heat capacity for the second process is:
12. Fifty grams of ice at 0°C is placed in a thermos bottle containing one hundred
grams of water at 6°C. How many grams of ice will melt? The heat of fusion of water is
333 kJ/kg and the specific heat of water is 4190 J/kg × K.
 18 Summary Heat Capacity and Specific
Heat
Temperature and Thermometer
• SI base quantity related to our
Celsius and Fahrenheit Scale • Heat Capacity:
• The Celsius temperature scale is
sense of hot and cold.
defined by • Specific Heat
• It is measured using thermometer
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If bodies A and B are each in • The Fahrenheit temperature scale is Application of First Law
thermal equilibrium with a third body defined by
C (the thermometer), then A and B
are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
Thermal Expansion
The Kelvin Temperature Scale • Linear Expansion
• We define the temperature T as
measured with a gas thermometer • Volume Expansion
to be
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The principle of conservation of
Conduction, Convection, Radiation energy for a thermodynamic
• Conduction process is expressed in:

• Radiation:
 PHY 101 – GENERAL PHYSICS I
TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
Chapter 18 – Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of
Thermodynamics
Chapter 19 – The Kinetic Theory of Gases
Chapter 20 – Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Ezekiel OMOTOSO, Ph.D.

Rm. G7 Yellow house Ext. {Dept. of Physics & Engineering Physics}

Halliday,
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Resnick
All rights reserved. & Walker, 10th Extended 1Edition
 Chapter 19

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 CHAPTER 19. The Kinetic Theory of Gases
19.01 Avogadro’s number
19.02 Ideal gases
19.03 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
19.04 Translational Kinetic Energy
19.05 Mean Free Path
19.06 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds
19.07 The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gases
19.08 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats
19.09 The Adiabatic Expansion of and Ideal Gas
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
 19-1 The Kinetic Theory of Gases
• Volume, pressure and temperature are all consequence of the
motion of atom.
• Volume is the result of freedom the atom has to spread throughout
the container.
• Pressure is as a result of the collisions of the atoms with the wall of
the container.
• Temperature has to do with the kinetic energy of the atom.
• Kinetic theory relates the motion of the atom to the volume,
pressure & temperature.
• In other way, the kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic
properties of gases to the microscopic properties of gas molecules.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 4
 19-1 Avogadro’s Number
• One mole is the number of atoms in a 12 g sample of carbon-12
• One mole of a substance contains NA elementary units (usually atoms or
molecules), where NA is found experimentally to be 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1
(Avogadro’s number).
• The number of moles n contained in a sample of any substance is equal to the
ratio of the number of molecules N in the sample to number of molecules NA
𝑵
in 1 mole, 𝒏=
𝑵𝑨
• The mass per mole M of a substance is related to the mass m of an individual
molecule of the substance by
• The number of moles n contained in a sample of mass Msam, consisting of N
molecules, is related to the molar mass M of the molecules and to Avogadro’s
number NA as given by
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 5
 19-2 Ideal Gases
• The goal is to explain the macroscopic properties 𝑛𝑅 = 𝑘𝑛𝑁𝐴
(such as pressure and temperature) of a gas in 𝑁
terms of the behaviour of the molecules that make 𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
it up. 𝑁 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴
• Experiments have shown that at low enough 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠
densities, all real gases tend to obey the relation
All real gases approach
(ideal gas law)
the ideal state at low
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 enough densities i.e.
• P = absolute pressure, V = volume, n = number of under conditions in
moles of gas, T = temp. in K and R = gas constant = which their molecules
8.32 J/mol.K are far enough apart
𝑅 8.31 −23
𝐽
𝑘= = = 1.38 × 10 that they do not interact
𝑁𝐴 6.02 × 1023 𝐾 with one another 6
• Where k is Boltzmann constant, 𝑅 = 𝑘𝑁𝐴
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Work Done by an Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature
• Assume an ideal gas expands from initial vol. 𝑉𝑖 to a final vol.
𝑉𝑓 while temp. T of the gas is constant.
• Such process at constant T is Isothermal expansion
• Reverse is called Isothermal compression
• 3 isotherms on a p-V diagram. An isotherm is a curve that
connects points that have the same temp.
• Graph of pressure vs volume for a gas whose T is held constant
• The work done by an ideal gas during an isothermal (constant-
temp) change from volume Vi to volume Vf is
𝑉𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝐿𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑖
At constant volume, 𝑊 = 0 (constant volume process)
A constant pressure
𝑊 = 𝑝 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑝∆𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
Inc. All rights reserved. 7
 Problems
1. Oxygen (molar mass = 32 g) occupies a volume of 12 liters when its
temperature is 20°C and its pressure is 1 atm. Using R = 0.082
liter.atm/mole.K, calculate the mass of the oxygen:
Solution
M = 32 g, V =12 liters, P =1 atm, T = 20 + 273 = 290 K
𝑀𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
where 𝑛 =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠,𝑀
𝑀𝑜
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑀
𝑀𝑜
1 × 12 = × 0.082 × 293,
32
𝑴𝒐 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒈
2. One mole of oxygen (assume it to be an ideal gas) expands at a constant temperature T of
310 K from an initial volume Vi of 12 L to a final volume Vf of 19 L. How much work is done
by the gas during the expansion? © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 8
 19-3 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed
➢ Let n moles of an ideal gas be confined in a cubical
box of volume V
➢ The wall of the box are held at constant temperature T
➢ The molecules of gas in the box are moving in all
directions with various speeds
➢ Consider only elastic collision with the walls.
➢ The momentum delivered to the wall by the molecule
during collision is +2mvx
➢ The time Δt between collisions is the time molecule
takes to travel to the opposite wall and back again i.e.
a distance of 2L at speed vx
2𝐿
∆𝑡 =
𝑣© 𝑥2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 9
➢The average rate at which momentum is delivered by this single
∆𝑝𝑥 2𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑥2
molecule is = 2𝐿ൗ =
∆𝑡 𝑣𝑥 𝐿
𝑑𝑝
From Newton’s second law Ԧ
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡
➢To find the total force, add up the contribution of all molecules that
𝑚𝑣𝑥21 𝑚𝑣𝑥22 𝑚𝑣𝑥2𝑁
strike the wall 𝐹𝑥 = + + ⋯…+
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
➢Diving the total force by the area of the wall, L2 gives the pressure
𝐹𝑥 𝑚
on the wall 𝑃 = 2 = 3 𝑣𝑥21 + 𝑣𝑥22 + ⋯ … + 𝑣𝑥2𝑁
𝐿 𝐿

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 10

N = number of molecules in the box
Since N = nNA, there are nNA terms in the second parentheses and we
can replace the quantity by 𝑛𝑁𝐴 𝑣𝑥2 𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑛𝑚𝑁𝐴 2
𝑃= 3
𝑣𝑥 𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝐿
𝑛𝑀 𝑣𝑥2 𝑎𝑣𝑒
mNA = molar mass M of the gas 𝑃=
𝑉
2 1 2
For any molecules 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 ; 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣
3
𝒏𝑴 𝒗𝟐 𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝑷=
𝟑𝑽
➢ The square root of (v2)ave is called root mean square of molecules vrms
𝒏𝑴𝒗𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑷= =
𝟑𝑽 𝑽
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 11
 2
In terms of the speed of the gas molecules, the 𝑛𝑀𝑣 𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃=
pressure exerted by n moles of an ideal gas is 3𝑉
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃=
2
where vrms = √(v )avg is the root-mean-square speed of the 𝑉
molecules, M is the molar mass, and V is the volume.
2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑛𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠
The rms speed can be written in terms of the =
𝑉 3𝑉
temperature as
𝟑𝑹𝑻
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑴
Problems
3. Five molecules have speeds of 2.8, 3.2, 5.8, 7.3, and 7.4 m/s. Their root-mean-square speed is closest to:
4. Oxygen has a molar mass of 32 g/mol. If 12 moles of oxygen are in a 0.1-m3 container with an rms speed of
480 m/s, what is the pressure of the gas?
5. The temperature of low pressure hydrogen is reduced from 100°C to 20°C. The rms speed of its molecules
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 12
decreases by approximately:
 19-4 Translational Kinetic Energy 1
𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 2
• Let consider a single molecules of an ideal gas as it 2 𝑎𝑣𝑒
moves around in the box and assume changes 1
when it collides with other molecule = 𝑚 𝑣 2 𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
• To determine the average translational kinetic 1 2
energy, write K.E in term of vel. and mass = 𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒
2
𝟑𝑹𝑻
1 3𝑅𝑇
• Replace the Vave 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑚
𝑴 2 𝑀
• Then the relationship btw m & NA 3𝑅𝑇
𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝑁𝐴
𝑅
𝑘=
𝑁𝐴
• The average translational kinetic energy is related 𝟑
to the temperature of the©gas: 𝑲𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝑻 13
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
𝟐
 3𝑅𝑇
• At a given T, all the ideal gas molecules – no matter their 𝐾𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝑁𝐴
mass – have the same average translational KE – namely 𝑅
3
𝑘𝑇 𝑘=
2 𝑁𝐴
• When we measure T of a gas, we are also measuring the 𝟑
average KE of its molecules 𝑲𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒌𝑻
𝟐

Answer: (a) 1=2=3 (b) 3,2 and 1

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 14
 19-5 Mean Free Path
• Molecules of an ideal gas moves randomnly
• Mean free path λ of the molecules is to describe the
random motion
• The mean free path λ of a gas molecule is its average
path length between collisions and is given by
𝟏
𝝀=
𝟐𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝑵ൗ𝑽
where N/V is the number of molecules per unit volume
and d is the molecular diameter.

In the figure, a molecule traveling through a gas, colliding with other gas
molecules in its path. Although the other molecules are shown as
stationary, they are also moving
© 2014 inInc.aAllsimilar
John Wiley & Sons, rights reserved.fashion. 15
 Problems
6. In a certain gas the molecules are 5.0 × 10-9 m apart on average, have a mean
free path of 5.0 × 10-6 m, and have an average speed of 500 m/s. The rate at
which a molecule has collision with other molecules is about:

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 16

 19-6 The Distribution of Molecular Speed
Three measures of the distribution of speeds among the molecules of a gas:
The average speed vave of molecules in a gas is given by
8𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝜋𝑀
The root mean square speed vrms Where M = molar mass,
R = gas constant
3𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = T = Temperature in K
𝑀
The most probable speed vp is the speed at which P(v) is max.
2𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑀
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 18
 19-7 The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
➢ We want to derive from molecular considerations an expression for internal
energy Eint of an ideal gas
➢ We want an expression for the energy associated with random motion of the
atoms or molecules in the gas
➢ Assume that our ideal gas is a monoatomic gas e.g. helium
➢ Assume that the internal energy of the ideal gas is simply the sum of
translational KE of its atoms
➢ The average translational KE depends only the temp. of the gas and can be
written as 𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 3Τ2 𝑘𝑇
A sample of n moles of such gas contains nNA atoms

𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴 𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴 3ൗ2 𝑘𝑇

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 19
 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴 𝐾𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑛𝑁𝐴 3ൗ2 𝑘𝑇
𝑘 = 𝑅ൗ𝑁
𝐴
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 3ൗ2 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (Monatomic ideal gas)
➢ The internal energy Eint of an ideal gas is a function of the temperature only,
it does not depend on any other variable

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume

➢Suppose we have n moles of an ideal gas at pressure p and
temperature T, confined to a cylinder of fixed volume
➢If a small amount of energy is added to the gas as heat Q
➢The gas temperature rises a small amount to T+ΔT and the
pressure rises to p+Δp bringing
© 2014the gas
John Wiley toInc.aAllfinal
& Sons, state
rights reserved. 20
The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is defined
to be

Cv = molar specific heat at constant volume

From first law of thermodynamics
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 − 𝑊
➢ With the volume held constant, the gas cannot expand and thus cannot do
any work, W = 0
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑛∆𝑇
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 3ൗ2 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
3 𝐽
𝐶𝑣 = ൗ2 𝑅 = 12.5 .𝐾
𝑚𝑜𝑙
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 21
Generalizing for Eint by substituting Cv for 3/2R
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 𝑇
➢ Eint depends on temperature only
➢ When an ideal gas that is confined to a container undergoes a temperature
change ΔT, then the resulting change in its internal energy is
∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
➢ A change in the internal energy Eint of a confined ideal gas depends on the
change in the gas temperature only.
➢It does not depend on what type of process produce the change in the
temperature

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 22

 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
We now assume that the temperature of ideal gas is increased by
small amount ΔT, but the necessary energy (heat Q) is added
with gas under constant pressure
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
Cp = molar specific heat at constant pressure
Cp > Cv because energy must now be supplied not only to raise
the temperature of the gas but also for the gas to do work
The molar specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is defined
to be

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 23

 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
➢Relationship between Cp and Cv: ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑊 = 𝑝∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑄 − 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
𝑄ൗ
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑛∆𝑇 − 𝑅
𝐶𝑣 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝑅
where Cp can also be defined as
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶𝑣 + 𝑅

Answer: 5 and then—4,3,2,1—with same int. energy

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 24
 19-9 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
When an ideal gas undergoes a slow 𝑝𝑉 γ = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
adiabatic volume change (a change for 𝐶𝑝
which Q=0), γ = ൘𝐶
𝑣
γ is the ratio of molar specific heats for the gas
Since the gas goes from initial state to
final state
γ γ
𝑝𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑝=
𝑉
𝑛𝑅𝑇 γ
(a)The volume of an ideal gas is increased 𝑉 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
by removing mass from the piston. The 𝑉
process is adiabatic (Q= 0). When the gas goes from initial i to
final state f
(b) The process proceeds from i to f along 𝜸−𝟏 𝜸−𝟏 (Adiabatic
an adiabat on a p-V diagram. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
𝑻𝒊 𝑽𝒊 = 𝑻𝒇 𝑽𝒇 process)
26
 Free Expansion
➢ Free expansion of a gas is an adiabatic process that no work or change in
internal energy
➢ In free expansion, a gas is in equilibrium only at its initial and final points.
Since ΔEint = 0, the temperature of the final state must be that of the initial state
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇𝑓
If we assume that the gas is ideal, then because there is no change in temperature,
there can be no change in pV
𝒑𝒊 𝑽𝒊 = 𝒑𝒇 𝑽𝒇

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 27

Kinetic Theory of Gases
• relates the macroscopic properties of 19 Summary Adiabatic Expansion
gases to the microscopic properties of
gas molecules. • When an ideal gas undergoes an
Maxwell Speed Distribution
adiabatic volume change (a change for
• The three measures of distribution of
Avogadro’s Number which Q=0)
speed

• Mole related to mass of a molecule in which γ (=Cp/Cv) is the ratio of molar

specific heats for the gas.

Ideal Gas
An ideal gas is one for which the
pressure p, volume V, and Degrees of Freedom
temperature T are related by
Molar Specific Heat • The equipartition of energy theorem
states that every degree of freedom of
• At constant volume: a molecule has an energy 1/2kT per
Temperature and Kinetic Energy molecule.
• The average translational kinetic energy per
molecule of an ideal gas is
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. 28
 PHY 101 – GENERAL PHYSICS I
TOPICS TO BE COVERED:
Chapter 18 – Temperature, Heat, and the First Law of
Thermodynamics
Chapter 19 – The Kinetic Theory of Gases
Chapter 20 – Entropy and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Ezekiel OMOTOSO, Ph.D.

Rm. G7 Yellow house Ext. {Dept. of Physics & Engineering Physics}

Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 10th Extended 1Edition

 Chapter 20

Entropy and the Second Law of

Thermodynamics
CHAPTER 20. Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

20.01 Entropy
20.02 Entropy in the Rel World: Engines
20.03 Refrigerators and Real Engines
20.04 A Statistical view of Entropy

3
 20-1 Entropy
Entropy postulate: if an irreversible process occurs in  Entropy differs from
a closed system, the entropy S of the system always energy in that it
increases; it never decreases does not obey a
This process is irreversible; that is, it conservative law.
does not occur in reverse, with the  The energy of a
gas spontaneously collecting itself closed system is
in the left half of the container.
conserved; it always
The isothermal expansion remains constant
of an ideal gas, done in a
 For irreversible
reversible way.
processes, the
If a process occurs in a closed system, entropy of a closed
the entropy of the system increases for
irreversible processes and remains system always
constant for reversible processes. increases 4
 Change in Entropy
2 ways to define the change in entropy of a system:
1) In terms of the system’s temperature and the energy, it gains or loss as heat.
2) By counting the ways in which the atoms or molecules that make up the system can be
arranged.
• Let consider the free expansion process of a gas
• If the gas has an initial state i as well as final state f.
• Change in entropy depends not only on energy transferred as heat but also
on the temperature at which the transfer takes place.
• To find the entropy change for an irreversible process, replace that process
with any reversible process that connects the same initial and final states.
• Calculate the entropy change for this reversible process with the above
equation.

Q = energy transferred as heat to or from the system during the

process,
T is the temp. of the system in Kelvins during the process. 5
 Since T is always positive, the sign of ΔS is 1 𝑓𝑓
always the same as that of Q ∆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 − 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖
 SI unit of entropy (entropy change) is J/K
 The temperature of an ideal gas does not � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑄𝑄
change during a free expansion: T = Ti =Tf
𝑄𝑄 (change in entropy,
 Change in entropy (Isothermal process) is ∆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 − 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 =
𝑇𝑇 isothermal process)

When the ΔT of a system is small relative to the temp. before and after the process, the
𝑄𝑄
ΔS can be as ∆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 − 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ≈
𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Tave = the average temp. of the system in Kelvins during the process
 Entropy is a property of the state of a system and is independent of how that state is
reached.
Recall from 1st law of thermodynamics
𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, and 𝑑𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (from Chapters 18 & 19) 6
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using the ideal gas equation
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑝𝑝 =
𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉
Diving through by T:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉 𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = � 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + � 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉 𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇

𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� = ∆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑆𝑆𝑓𝑓 − 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ∆𝑆𝑆 does not depend
𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇 on how the gas
𝑽𝑽𝒇𝒇 𝑻𝑻𝒇𝒇
∆𝑺𝑺 = 𝑺𝑺𝒇𝒇 − 𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊 = 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 + 𝒏𝒏𝑪𝑪𝒗𝒗 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 changes between
𝑽𝑽𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝑻𝒊𝒊 the two states 7
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Let modify the entropy postulate to include both reversible and irreversible
processes
 If a process occurs in a closed system, the energy of the system increase for
irreversible processes and remain constant for reversible processes. It never
decreases:

• The greater-than sign applies to irreversible processes

• The equals sign to reversible processes.
• The equation applies only to closed systems.
The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the
entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time.
The 2nd law states that if the physical process is irreversible, the
combined entropy of the system and the environment must increase.
The Sf must be greater than the Si for an irreversible process
8
 20-2 Entropy in the Real World: Engines
 A heat engine (or an engine) is a device that extracts energy from its
environment in the form of heat and does useful work.
 If an engine is to do work on a sustained basis, the working substance must
operate in a cycle i.e. the working substance must pass through a closed series
of thermodynamic processes called strokes.

Carnot Engine
• Study real engines by analyzing the behaviour of an ideal engine.
• In an ideal engine, all processes are reversible, and no wasteful energy
transfer occur e.g. Carnot engine

9
 Carnot Engine The elements of a
Carnot engine. The
two black arrowheads
on the central loop
suggest the working
substance operating
in a cycle, as if on a p-
V plot.

A P-V plot of the cycle followed by the

During each cycle of the engine, the
working substance of the Carnot engine.
The cycle consists of two isothermal (ab and working substance absorbs energy QH as
cd) and two adiabatic processes (bc and da). heat from a thermal reservoir at constant
The shaded area enclosed by the cycle is temperature TH and discharges energy QL
equal to the work W per cycle done by the as heat to a second thermal reservoir at a
Carnot engine. constant lower temperature TL.
10
 To calculate the net work done by a Carnot engine during ∆𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 is +ve because energy
a cycle; apply the 1st law of thermodynamics 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 is added to the
∆𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑄𝑄 − 𝑊𝑊 working substance as heat
 If X represents any state property of the working substance (an increase in S) and
– pressure, temp, volume, internal energy or entropy, then: ∆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 is -ve because energy
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 is removed from the
 ΔX = 0 for every cycle
working substance as heat
 ΔEint = 0 for a complete cycle of the working substance (a decrease in S)
 Q is the net heat transfer per cycle and W is net work,  Because S is a state
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 function, then, ΔS = 0
 There are two reversible energy transfer as for a cycle
heat. Thus, two changes in the entropy of the  For ΔS = 0: 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
working substance – one at TH and one at TL
 Because TH>TL, then, 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 > 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
 The net entropy change per cycle:
 More energy is extracted as heat from the
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
 ∆𝑆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝑆𝐻𝐻 + ∆𝑆𝑆𝐿𝐿 = − high temp. reservoir than is delivered to
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿
the low temperature reservoir 11
 Efficiency of a Carnot Engine
Thermal efficiency ε: is defined as the work
the engine does per cycle divided by the
energy it absorbs as heat per cycle
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑊𝑊
The elements of a 𝜀𝜀 = =
perfect engine — 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
i.e., one that The elements of a
For a Carnot engine: 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 Carnot engine. The two
converts heat QH
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 black arrowheads on the
from a high-temp. 𝜀𝜀𝐶𝐶 = =1−
reservoir directly to 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 central loop suggest the
work W with 100% This can be re-written as: working substance
efficiency. 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 operating in a cycle, as if
𝜀𝜀𝐶𝐶 = 1 − on a p-V plot.
𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻
 TL and TH are in kelvins
 Because TL < TH, the Carnot engine has a ε less than 1 i.e. less than 100%
 A perfect engine is only a dream. It can only be achieved if TL = 0 or TH = ∞ 12
  No series of process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of energy as heat
from a thermal reservoir and the complete conversion of this energy to work
 In summary, there are no perfect engines
Problems
1. A Carnot cycle heat engine operates between 400 K and 500 K. What is he efficiency?
2. A heat engine operates between a high temperature reservoir at TH and a low temperature
reservoir at TL. Its efficiency is given by 1 – TL/TH:
Ans: only if the engine is reversible

Stirling Engine
The Stirling engine was developed in 1816 by Robert Stirling. This engine, long
neglected, is now being developed for use in automobiles and spacecraft.
A p-V plot for the working substance of an ideal Stirling engine, with the
working substance assumed for convenience to be an ideal gas.

13
Answer: (c), (b), (a).
 20-3 Refrigerator and Real Engines
Entropy in Real World: Refrigerator
𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
 A refrigerator is a device that uses work to 𝐾𝐾 = =
transfer energy from low temp. reservoir to a 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑊𝑊
high temp. reservoir as it continuously For a refrigerator, the first law of
repeats a set of series of thermodynamic thermodynamics gives 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
processes 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 = magnitude of the energy
 In an ideal refrigerator, all processes are transferred as heat to high
reversible and no wasteful energy transfers temperature reservoir
occur as a result of, say, friction and 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
turbulence 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
 All the energy transfer as either heat or work Because a Carnot refrigerator is a
are reversed from those of a Carnot engine Carnot engine operating in reverse,
 A measure of the efficiency of a refrigerator is 𝑻𝑻𝑳𝑳
𝑲𝑲𝒄𝒄 =
called coefficient of thermal performance, K 𝑻𝑻𝑯𝑯 − 𝑻𝑻𝑳𝑳 14
The net entropy change for the entire system is
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄
∆𝑆𝑆 = +
𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻
 Because TH>TL, the right side of this equation is negative and thus the net
change in entropy per cycle for the closed system is also negative
 Because such a decrease in entropy violates the second law thermodynamics, a
perfect refrigerator does not exist
 No series of processes in possible whose sole result is the transfer of energy as
heat from a reservoir at a given temp to a reservoir at a higher temp
Problem
3. Is it possible to transfer energy from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir?
4. A perfectly reversible heat pump with a coefficient of performance of 14 supplies energy to a
building as heat to maintain its temperature at 27°C. If the pump motor does work at the rate of 1 kW,
at what rate does the pump supply energy to the building? 15
 The Efficiency of Real Engines
 Let εc be the efficiency of a Carnot engine 𝑊𝑊 𝑊𝑊
operating between two given temperatures ′ >
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻
 Suppose an engine X has an efficiency of The primed refers to engine X and
εX that is greater than εc the right side of the inequality is the
 Couple engine X to a Carnot refrigerator efficiency of the Carnot refrigerator
 Adjust the strokes of the Carnot when it operates as an engine
refrigerator so that the work it requires per  The inequality requires that
cycle is just equal to that provided by 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 > 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻′
engine X  The work done by engine X is
 No (external) work is performed on or by equal to the work done on the
the combination of engine and refrigerator Carnot refrigerator, then,
 If εX is greater than εc 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻′ − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿′
𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻 − 𝑄𝑄𝐻𝐻′ = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 − 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿′ =16 𝑄𝑄
 The net effect of engine X and Carnot refrigerator working in combination is to transfer
energy Q as heat from low temp reservoir to a high temperature reservoir without the
requirement of work
 The combination acts like the perfect refrigerator whose existence is a violation of 2nd law of
thermodynamics
 No real engine can have an efficiency greater than that of a Carnot engine when both engines
work between the same two temp
 At most it can have an efficiency equal to that of a Carnot engine

Problem
5. Imagine a Carnot engine that operates between the temperatures TH = 850 K and TL = 300 K. The engine
performs 1200 J of work each cycle, which takes 0.25 s. (i) What is the efficiency of this engine? (ii) What is the
average of this engine? (iii) How much energy |QH| is extracted as heat from the high-temperature reservoir every
cycle (iv) How much energy |QL| is delivered as heat to the low-temperature reservoir every cycle?

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 20 Summary
Irreversible (one-way) Process Second Law of Thermodynamics Entropy from Statistical Point of
• If an irreversible process occurs in • If a process occurs in a closed system, View
a closed system, the entropy of the entropy of the system increases • For a system of N molecules:
the system always increases. for irreversible processes and
remains constant for reversible
Entropy Change processes.
• Entropy change for reversible • Boltzmann’s entropy equation:
process is given by

• Stirling’s approximation:
Refrigerator
Entropy Change • Coefficient of performance of a
• The efficiency ε of any engine
refrigerator:

• Efficiency of Carnot engine

• Carnot Refrigerator

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