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Module 3

The document discusses wear, which is defined as surface damage caused by relative motion between contacting solid surfaces. Several factors affect the wear rate, including temperature, load, elastic modulus, and lubrication. There are different types of wear mechanisms such as adhesive, abrasive, surface fatigue, fretting, erosive, and corrosive/oxidative wear. Methods to reduce wear include preventing overloading, maintaining proper clearances, improving lubrication, enhancing surface finishing, and using harder materials.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views27 pages

Module 3

The document discusses wear, which is defined as surface damage caused by relative motion between contacting solid surfaces. Several factors affect the wear rate, including temperature, load, elastic modulus, and lubrication. There are different types of wear mechanisms such as adhesive, abrasive, surface fatigue, fretting, erosive, and corrosive/oxidative wear. Methods to reduce wear include preventing overloading, maintaining proper clearances, improving lubrication, enhancing surface finishing, and using harder materials.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Page |1

Wear
Wear is defined as surface damage of one or all solid surfaces in contact subject to
relative motion. In other words, it is the damage or removal of material that a solid
surface has undergone due to sliding, rolling, or impacting against another solid
surface. It is not a material property, but rather a system response. Typically, wear is
undesirable as it can lead to increased friction, and ultimately to material failure or
loss of functionality. The process of wear can change continuously in time or with
changes in operational conditions. Wear is usually accelerated by frictional heating by
means of chemical and mechanical interactions.

Factors Affecting Wear

Figure 3.1 Factors affecting Wear

The wear resistance is influenced by the contact temperature. Since the hardness and
yield strength diminish as the temperature rises, abrasive wear would increase. The
yield strength and hardness for most of the materials diminishes as the temperature
rises. At elevated temperatures the dislocation movement in metals causes a drop in
yield strength, making plastic deformation simpler. The wear rate is substantially
influenced by the normal load. With an increase in the load applied, the shear force
and frictional thrust rise as well, speeding up the wear rate. The elastic modulus is an
indicator of the material’s resistance to deformation under load, with a larger number
indicating more stiffness. The wear resistance is influenced by the contact temperature.
Since the hardness and yield strength diminish as the temperature rises, abrasive wear
would increase. The yield strength and hardness for most of the materials diminishes
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as the temperature rises. At elevated temperatures the dislocation movement in metals


causes a drop in yield strength, making plastic deformation simpler.

Wear Types / Mechanisms


Wear can be classified according to how the damaging of the surfaces occurs.
Commonly, there is:

1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear
3. Surface fatigue
4. Fretting wear
5. Erosive wear
6. Corrosive and oxidation wear

Each type of wear is caused by one or more mechanisms. These mechanisms can
synergically overlap, leading to an increased rate of wear

1. Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear is the type of wear originated by the contact and interaction of
asperities between two touching surfaces with strong adhesive force. The adhesive
forces hold two surfaces together even though they are separated by a measurable
distance. In other words, opposing asperities bond to each other and shear off as one
surface slides over another. Generally, adhesive wear occurs when two bodies slide
over or are pressed into each other, which promote material transfer. This can be
described as plastic deformation of very small fragments within the surface layers. Its
intensity depends on several physical and chemical factors, but generally will increase
with higher values of surface energy density. Oxidation films, the presence of
lubricants, contaminants or lower loads, however, will suppress its effect.
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Figure 3.2 Removal of material during adhesive wear

2. Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear takes place when a rough, hard surface glides across a surface that is
relatively softer. It is also the most frequent type of wear mechanism encountered in
industry. Abrasive wear can be produced following three kinds of mechanisms,
namely plowing (if there is no material removal from the surfaces, but rather grooves
are formed from material being displaced), cutting (if there is material removal in the
form of debris), or by fragmentation (if there is material removal, and at the same time
there is localized fracture of the touching surfaces due to the removed debris).

• Plowing occurs when material is displaced to the side, away from the wear particles,
resulting in the formation of grooves that do not involve direct material removal.
The displaced material forms ridge adjacent to grooves, which may be removed by
subsequent passage of abrasive particles.
• Cutting occurs when material is separated from the surface in the form of primary
debris, or microchips, with little or no material displaced to the sides of the grooves.
This mechanism closely resembles conventional machining.
• Fragmentation occurs when material is separated from a surface by a cutting process
and the indenting abrasive causes localized fracture of the wear material. These
cracks then freely propagate locally around the wear groove, resulting in additional
material removal by spalling.

The abrasive wear mode is dictated by the type of contact and there’re two types
of abrasive wear namely two-body and three-body wear. When hard particles remove
material from one surface, this is known as two-body wear. When particles are not
restricted and are allowed to roll and glide along a surface, three-body wear develops.
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Figure 3.3 Removal of material during abrasive wear

3. Surface fatigue

Surface fatigue occurs due to the growth and formation of cracks. It is a kind of basic
material fatigue in which the material surface weakens as a result of cyclic loads. It is
produced when the wear particles are separated from the solid surfaces by the
accumulation of microdamage in the material. The wear mechanism in action
combines the formation of cracks and voids in the solid surfaces, which are amplified
with the running of cycles.

Figure 3.4 Removal of material during surface fatigue wear

4. Fretting wear

Fretting wear occurs between two contacting surfaces in constant cyclical rubbing of
small amplitude. It initiates fatigue cracks, which often result in fretting fatigue failure
in shafts and other highly stressed components likes bearings, although most bearings
have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem.

It is the more serious phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of


the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the small particles removed by wear
are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal, so wear
accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion
acts in the same way, especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large
structures like bridges can suffer serious degradation in behaviour, especially when
salt is used during the winter to deice the highways carried by the bridges. The
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problem of fretting corrosion was involved in the Silver Bridge tragedy and the
Mianus River Bridge accident.

5. Erosive wear

Erosive wear is the type of wear produced by short sliding motion over a very short
interval of time. It is produced when particles gradually remove material from the
surface by continuous impact, deforming and damaging it. The impact of erosive wear
can be affected by the nature of the impacting particles (their size, shape, and
hardness), as well as the velocity and angle with which they impact to the surface,
among other. Due to the nature of the conveying process, piping systems are prone to
wear when abrasive particles have to be transported.

6. Corrosive and oxidation wear

Corrosive and oxidation wear occur as a combined effect of chemical and mechanical
action. Chemical action increases porosity of the surface, while mechanical action leads
to wear out. There are also a series of factors that affect wear in this case, such as an
improper design of the mechanism, or the inability to remove sufficient heat or moister
from the contact region.

The sliding movement continuously eliminates the preventive corrosion


product. As a result, the new surface is exposed to additional corrosive damage. Since
this removes corrosive products and the passive protective layer faster than surfaces
without any relative motion.

Figure 3.5 Removal of material during corrosive wear

Wear Effects
• Over heating
• Unwanted vibration
• Noisy operation
• Loss of efficiency
• Quality reduction
Page |6

Wear Reduction Methods


We all understand that wear can only be mitigated, not prevented. We can minimize
wear, but we won’t be able to eradicate it. Many strategies have been devised to
minimize wear, as detailed below.

1. Prevention of overloading

Overloading should be avoided since it causes lubricants to break down and puts an
excess force on the worn surface.

2. Maintain a proper clearance

When the clearance between the surfaces is too small, a lubricating oil layer cannot be
applied to the worn surface, resulting in metal-on-metal contact. If there is more space
between the surfaces, motion is lost. Due to the sheer absence of lubrication, the
machine’s parts wear down quickly, making it loud and vibrating.

3. Better lubrication

Lubrication produces a lubricant film in the space between the contacting surfaces,
which improves its smoothness and avoids material contact. Improper lubrication
leads to wear of surfaces.

4. Improving the surface finishing

Various sorts of straight or circular lays are formed when parts are passed through the
machining process, that cannot be seen with the human eye. Because of the good
surface, a line contact rather than a point contact is created, which is advantageous in
processes. Good surface finish uniformly distributes load rather than maintaining
asperity contacts leading to reduction of wear.

5. High surface hardness

In compared to soft surfaces, hard surfaces wear down faster. Heat treatment is used
to enhance the surface hardness of the shaft, bearing, and guide way, which reduces
wear.

6. Proper surface treatment

Mechanical wear can be minimized by applying a hard coating of metal, such as


chromium or galvanic, on the surface. As a result, it may be argued that if a hard layer
is applied to the surface of a wear-resistant metal, the part’s wear can be minimized.

7. Protection of surface against the ingress of dirt, dust and metal particles
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If debris, dirt, or metal particles get inside the bearings, they get crushed much more.
If the particles are tougher than the surface of the part, the surface will wear down and
gets damaged.

8. Proper atmosphere

Dust, debris, moisture, dangerous chemical vapour are all present in the atmosphere,
affecting machining operations and reducing their service life.

Several other techniques for wear reduction include proper maintenance,


varying clearance adjustments over time, good planning, integration of preventive
maintenance, controlling the preventive maintenance tasks, selection of appropriate
material for the component, reducing sliding pairs with the replacement of rolling
pairs, and using a fully automated maintenance facility.

Lubricants-types and Applications


The most common application of a lubricant is to reduce interference between two
surfaces, but keep in mind that each lubricant is unique. Lubricating machines is
frequently assigned to new employees in the industry because it is thought to be a job
for newer workers or apprentices. Although lubrication is a relatively simple task, it is
still beneficial to have a thorough understanding of the various types of lubricants.
This ensures that the incorrect type is never used for the incorrect application. This
will undoubtedly reduce machine downtime and failure.

Lubricants are classified into four types: oil, grease, penetrating lubricants, and dry
lubricants. The two most common lubricants one’ll encounter on a daily basis are oil
and grease, but your facility will still use dry and penetrating lubricants. It is critical
to understand when and when not to use these various types of lubricants.

1. Greases

Greases are created by combining oil (typically mineral oil) with thickeners (such as
lithium-based soaps). Lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide, graphite, and others
may be combined with additional particles. Greases have the ability to mix well with
the lubricants in the oil, adding stickiness and allowing the lubricants to collect on the
surfaces. Grease can also act as a barrier, protecting surfaces from contaminants that
can damage the surface. Several greases and oils, for example, came in a variety of
consistencies. Grease has a disadvantage in fast running devices due to its extreme
thickness and sticky nature, which can easily cause resistance.

When to use grease?

• As for gears, bearings, chains, and linkages.


• We require the lubricant to adhere to the surface for an extended period of time.
• We want to keep dust and water droplets out.
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• We may forget to oil the machine because we use it so infrequently.

Grease should not be used in the following situations:

• The machine contains fast-moving or fine parts, and grease may cause it to slow
down or create too much resistance.
• Moving parts can fling grease around, making it difficult to keep the area clean.
• The machines have fine or fast-moving mechanisms where thick grease would
be too much of a barrier.

Types of grease and their uses

Greases have traditionally been used to keep vehicles, vessels, machines, and their
components lubricated at all times. However, no two lubricants are the same - different
types of grease produce different results based on the unique properties they possess.

Calcium grease

Calcium grease is one of the first greases that was manufactured for general use. Some
of the key features of this multipurpose grease are great water resistance, good
corrosion protection, and great mechanical stability. However, this lubricant is best
used at lower temperatures, as high temperatures may cause changes in its structure.
Today, calcium grease and calcium complex grease are mainly used in marine,
industrial, automotive, and agricultural applications.

Aluminium complex grease

Aluminium complex grease has many advantages - it can withstand extremely high
temperatures, has impressive water-resisting properties, prevents rust, corrosion, and
oxidation, and has good shear stability. Aluminium complex greases are best used in
the food industry, but are also known to offer excellent results when used in the
automotive, steel milling, construction, and farming industry.

Barium complex grease

Barium complex grease is a high-performance grease widely known for its mechanical
stability, high-temperature resistance, ability to withstand heavy loads and high
speeds, excellent water tolerance, great oxidation stability, as well as resistance to
various chemicals. Barium complex grease is mostly used in demanding, heavy-load
applications, such as industrial, aeronautical, marine, and manufacturing applications.

Bentone (Clay) grease

Bentone grease is a clay-based lubricant developed with the help of bentonite clay.
This grease type is often called non-melt lubricant because it has no known dropping
point. Its main properties are temperature change resistance, great wear and tear
protection, exceptional water tolerance, good mechanical or shear stability, and
Page |9

impressive adhesiveness. Bentone grease is ideal for highly-demanding applications


and it’s typically used in the steel, manufacturing, construction, mining, and ceramic
industry.

Polyurea grease

Polyurea grease has become very popular due to its amazing characteristics, such as
outstanding water resistance, great oxidation stability, rust and corrosion prevention,
durability, versatility, good mechanical stability, as well as high-temperature
performance. Due to these features, polyurea grease is recommended for long-life
applications and used across various industries. It is considered vital for the proper
lubrication of steel plants and electric motors.

Sodium grease

Sodium grease is formulated by mixing soda soap with additives and base oils. Such
mixture provides solid shear stability, high dropping point, excellent rust protection,
and good lubrication, but has poor water resistance and oxidation stability. Due to its
drawbacks, sodium grease is now mostly used for the lubrication of rolling contact
bearings. Moreover, it is commonly mixed with other greases in an effort to produce
grease of higher quality and value.

2. Oils

These thin liquids are made up of long polymer chains with additional additives. Such
as antioxidants, which prevent the oil from oxidising, corrosion inhibitors, which
prevent corrosion, and detergents, which prevent the formation of deposits. They are
difficult to squeeze out between the surfaces of the long chains, but with the
application of oil, you can create a slippery barrier between them. Oils have different
weights based on their viscosity. Lower numbers indicate an easy flow.

When to use oil?

• Hinges, bearings, tool maintenance, and blade sharpening


• We want to lubricate something without encountering the resistance that is
typical when using grease.
• We require lubrication but do not want to disassemble everything, so you wick
the oil into a small space.

Oil should not be used in the following situations:

• The machine or part that requires lubrication appears dirty or dusty. Adding
oil to a dirty or compromised area will increase friction or cause the oil to “gum
up.” Furthermore, if the surface is not clean, oils with a lower viscosity will drip
or run.
P a g e | 10

• If the surface is wet or will become wet, the oil will be washed away. This is a
common misconception because oil does make things waterproof. However, as
the oil absorbs the water, its adhesion decreases and the parts that required
lubrication in the first place are washed away.

3. Penetrating Lubricants

These lubricants serve as shields for a variety of stuck-bolt combatants. These covered
elements, penetrating lubricants, on the other hand, are not designed for long-term
lubrication. Because of their low viscosity, these oils are specifically designed for one
purpose: to infiltrate the small cracks on the surfaces, increase lubrication, and split up
the rust. There are many different types of penetrating oils, but we must know how to
make low-cost penetrating oils.

When to use penetrating lubricant?

• Unstucking seized nuts or bolts. This will set them free, whether they are
covered in rust or years of debris.
• Removing chewing gum, removing adhesive stickers, and performing
warehouse repair tasks

Penetrating Lubricant should not be used in the following situations:

• This product should never be used in place of other lubricants, and it should
never be used on bearings or other parts. It is short-lived and will cause damage
to your machine.

4. Dry Lubricants

Specific types of lubricants, such as silicon, molybdenum, graphite, and PTFE, are
present in dry lubricants. These particles have a very slippery molecular nature, which
reduces friction between these surfaces. They are also available in spray form, where
they are mixed with alcohol, water, or other volatile solvents that evaporate after
application.

When to dry lubricant?

• Threaded rods, locks, and hinges


• Tiny parts that cannot be clogged with grease or surrounding surfaces that must
be kept clean
• We should not use a lubricant that attracts dust or dirt.
• Surfaces may be subjected to extremely high temperatures or pressures. Oils
will begin to oxidise if this occurs.

Dry Lubricant should not be used in the following situations:


P a g e | 11

Any remaining lubricant will be washed away by exposing the application surface to
liquids or solvents.

Lubrication Methods
The purpose of lubrication is to control friction and wear by the introduction of a
friction-reducing film between moving surfaces in contact. Various substances can be
used to lubricate, however, the most effective are Oil and Grease. In general, the
structure of a lubrication system is composed of a pumping element, lubricating tank,
electrical control device, dividers, distributors, and distribution lines (pipes and
fittings).

1. Screw down grease cup

Figure 3.6a shows the screw down grease cup lubricator. It has a lubricator body / cup
to hold grease. A knurled cap is screwed over the top portion of the lubrication body.
The lower part of the body has a threaded nipple to be fitted with the bearing or
machine parts to be lubricated. The operation of the lubricator is very simple. The
grease is kept in the body. It can be operated manually by turning the knurled cap.
The amount of grease is pushed in through the capillary to the engine parts to be
lubricated. Such lubricators have been found in flour mills, agriculture equipment.

Figure 3.6 (a) Screw down grease cup and (b) Tell-Tale Lubricator

Figure 3.6b shows the improved version of the screw cap lubricator (sometimes
called Tell-Tale Lubricator). It forces the grease by spring pressure exerted through a
plunger attached with the knob. The flow of grease is accelerated with the help of a
knob which moves the plunger downward pushing the grease through grub screw.
P a g e | 12

The knob attached with the piston acts as a tell-tale which is visible from a distance
and indicates the level of grease.

2. Pressure grease gun

The grease gun is one of the most common tools you'll see in your shop or
manufacturing plant. Grease guns have three ways in which they can be powered: by
hand, air or electricity. Aside from these variations, the hand-powered (or manual)
grease guns can either be manufactured with a lever or a pistol grip. The benefits to each
of these depend primarily on the intended application and the lubrication technician’s
personal preference. One other major variation to the grease gun is how the grease is
to be loaded: by suction fill, cartridge or bulk.

a. Manual (Lever) – This is the most common type of grease gun and can supply
around 1.28 grams of grease per pump, which is forced through an aperture
from hand pumps.
b. Manual (Pistol Grip) – This variation of the lever-type grease gun allows for the
one-handed pumping method, which is very common. It provides
approximately 0.86 grams per pump.
c. Pneumatic (Pistol Grip) – This grease gun uses compressed air directed into the
gun by a hose activating a positive displacement with each trigger.
d. Battery (Pistol Grip) – This is a low-voltage, battery-powered grease gun that
works comparably to the pneumatic grease gun. It offers the advantage of being
cordless.

Figure 3.7 Types of pressure grease gun

Anatomy of a Grease Gun

• The lever is used in manual configurations of the grease gun for hand-pumping the
grease from the barrel to the hose or tube.
• The trigger and handle are used in manual configurations of the grease gun for hand-
pumping the grease from the barrel to the hose or tube in a similar way as the lever.
P a g e | 13

• The barrel is the exoskeleton of the grease gun that houses either the grease tube or
the grease supplied from bulk storage.
• The grease tube (or cartridge) is an inserted housing of grease that is replaceable
when grease is depleted.
• The hydraulic coupler (or connector) is the connection point that holds the hose or
fixed tube attached to the head of the grease gun.
• The head of the grease gun contains grease pathways and valves that allow the
pumping of grease to travel from the barrel into the flexible hose or fixed tube.
• The filler nipple is the injection point for grease from a filler pump.
• The air-release nipple allows air to escape after new grease has been added to the
grease gun and pumped into the head.
• The spring provides the pressure onto the plunger.
• The follower rod (piston rod, barrel rod, plunger rod) helps the plunger follow a
uniform path as it keeps pressure on the bottom end of the grease tube. It also acts
in pulling back the spring prior to inserting a new grease tube.
• The follower handle offers a grip when pulling the follower rod prior to inserting a
new grease tube.
• The plunger provides uniform pressure to the back end of the grease tube as grease
is depleted.
• The flexible hose is used interchangeably with a fixed tube for flexible positioning of
the connector or coupler.
• The fixed tube is a rigid form of a flexible hose.
P a g e | 14

Figure 3.8 Anatomy of a grease gun

3. Splash Lubrication

The method is well known and generally used for the lubrication of internal
combustion engine components. The closed crank case holds the lubricating oil up to
such level that the crank pin dips into the oil. In each revolution of crank, the pin dips
in the oil and splashes on the surface of cylinder liner, piston, gudgeon pin, piston
rings, and crank shaft bearing. The excess splashed oil returns back to the crank case.
Figure 3.9 shows that splash lubrication system has been used for the lubrication of
single cylinder internal combustion engine.

A scoop is connected in the lower part of the big end of the connecting rod.
When engine runs and the lower part of the big end comes down nearer to the oil level,
P a g e | 15

a scoop attached with the big end dips in oil and splashes the oil from oil trough engine
parts to be lubricated. It is the simplest and cheapest method of lubrication.

Figure 3.9 Splash lubricator

4. Gravity / Drip feed lubrication

Some bearings are installed in systems where low loads and low-to-moderate speeds
are expected. This type of bearing requires small quantities of oil, applied at regular
intervals. In the past, this type of lubrication was predominantly performed by hand,
as is still the case in some applications. However, applying lubrication by hand poses
several risks such as under- or over-lubricating the bearings and missed lubrication
schedules. Drip feed lubrication systems are commonly used in these applications to
supply the correct amount of oil at the correct intervals.

Gravity feed systems, consist of a loosely covered cup or manifold of oil placed
above the bearing that meters out oil at a set interval. The supply to the bearing is
controlled by a needle or conical valve, and can be adjusted as necessary. A drip feed
reservoir can be connected to only one bearing, called a single point system, or
connected by pipes or ducts to several bearings, which is referred to as a multiple point
system. A drip feed system can also be pressurized to supply oil to a bearing system
under pressure. The reservoir is partially or completely transparent, and is refilled by
hand when it reaches a certain level.
P a g e | 16

Figure 3.10 Gravity / Drip feed lubricator

5. Wick feed lubrication

Figure 3.11 show the assembled drawing of wick feed lubricator. The working of this
lubricator is based on the siphon principle. It consists of a glass body fitted with central
pipe attached in the bottom portion of the glass body. The lower portion of the body
has the provision to fix the threaded nipple to the machine components and the
machinery to be lubricated. The threaded nipple will have an oil hole through which
the oil drops down. A cotton wick hangs about 40 mm below the oil level. The cotton
wick gets soaked in the oil. The oil is dripped off by gravity and vibration caused by
the motion of the machine components. The flow rate depends on the type and twist
of the rope. A wire hook is provided to take out the wick when machine is in idle
conditions. Wick feed lubricators are used for the lubrication of slides, guides,
spindles, and plain bearings.
P a g e | 17

Figure 3.11 Wick feed lubricator

6. Side Feed lubricator

Figure 3.12 Side feed lubricator

7. Ring Oil Lubricator

Ring oil lubricator is shown in Figure 3.13. It consists of an oil trough to keep sufficient
oil in it. The trough acts as storage of oil and is placed below the shaft to be lubricated.
A metallic ring hangs over the shaft and the bottom portion of the ring hangs in oil.
P a g e | 18

When the journal rotates, the ring also rotates and it carries oil from the oil bath and
spreads the oil. The oil is placed on top of the bearing. The oil is further distributed to
the bearing through the oil grooves. The excess oil spread drops down in the oil trough.
The system is found suitable for slow-speed horizontal shaft. For high-speed engine
shaft, the ring slips due to excess centrifugal force developed due to high rotation. In
place of ring, steel chains can also be used. The sheet chains carry more lubricating oil.

Figure 3.13 Ring oil lubricator

Corrosion
It is defined as a natural process that causes the transformation of pure metals into
undesirable substances when they react with substances like water or air. This reaction
causes damage and disintegration of the metal starting from the portion of the metal
exposed to the environment and spreading to the entire bulk of the metal.

Corrosion, in general, is a process through which refined metals are converted


into more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulphides, or metal
hydroxides. Likewise, the rusting of iron involves the formation of iron oxides via the
action of atmospheric moisture and oxygen. If we look at the science behind corrosion
then we can say that it is a spontaneous/ irreversible process wherein the metals turn
into a much stable chemical compound like oxides, sulphides, hydroxides, etc.

Corrosion is usually an undesirable phenomenon since it negatively affects the


desirable properties of the metal. For example, iron is known to have good tensile
strength and rigidity (especially alloyed with a few other elements). However, when
subjected to rusting, iron objects become brittle, flaky, and structurally unsound. On
the other hand, corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process and that it mostly occurs on
exposed surfaces. Therefore, in some cases, attempts are made to reduce the activity
of the exposed surface and increase a material’s corrosion resistance. Processes such as
P a g e | 19

passivation and chromate conversion are used. However, some corrosion mechanisms
are not always visible and they are even less predictable.

Alternatively, corrosion can be classified as an electrochemical process since it


usually involves redox reactions between the metal and certain atmospheric agents
such as water, oxygen, sulphur dioxide, etc.

Metals placed higher in the reactivity series such as iron, zinc, etc. get corroded
very easily and metals placed lower in the reactivity series like gold, platinum and
palladium do not corrode. The explanation lies in the fact that corrosion involves the
oxidation of metals. As we go down the reactivity series tendency to get oxidised is
very low (oxidation potentials is very low).

Note: Aluminium doesn’t corrode unlike other metals even though it is reactive. This
is because aluminium is covered by a layer of aluminium oxide already. This layer of
aluminium oxide protects it from further corrosion.

Corrosion Reactions

Here are some of the typical examples of corrosion as seen mostly in metals.

1. Copper Corrosion

When copper metal is exposed to the environment it reacts with the oxygen in the
atmosphere to form copper (I) oxide which is red in colour.

2Cu(s) + ½ O2(g) → Cu2O(s)

Cu2O further gets oxidised to form CuO which is black in colour.

Cu2O(s) + ½ O2(g) → 2CuO(s)

This CuO reacts with CO2, SO3 and H2O (present in the atmosphere to form Cu2(OH)2(s)
(Malachite) which is blue in colour and Cu4SO4(OH)6(s) (Brochantite) which is green in
colour.

This is why we observe copper turning bluish-green in colour. A typical example of


this is the colour of the statue of liberty which has the copper coating on it turning
blue-green in colour.

2. Silver Tarnishing

Silver reacts with sulphur and sulphur compounds in the air give silver sulphide
(Ag2S) which is black in colour. Exposed silver forms Ag2S as it reacts with the H2S(g)
in the atmosphere which is present due to certain industrial processes.

2Ag(s) + H2S(g) → Ag2S(s) + H+2(g)

3. Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)


P a g e | 20

Rusting of iron which is the most commonly seen example happens when iron comes
in contact with air or water. The reaction could be seen as a typical electrochemical cell
reaction.

Other examples include,

• Corrosion of Zinc when it reacts with oxygen and HCl to form white coloured
ZnCl2.
• Corrosion of Tin to form black coloured Na2[Sn(OH)2].

Corrosion Rate

The corrosion rate, or the rate of material removal as a consequence of the chemical
action, is an important corrosion parameter. This may be expressed as the corrosion
penetration rate (CPR), or the thickness loss of material per unit of time. The formula for
this calculation is

CPR = KW/𝜌At

where W is the weight loss after exposure time t; 𝜌 and A represent the density and
exposed specimen area, respectively, and K is a constant, its magnitude depending on
the system of units used. The CPR is conveniently expressed in terms of either mils per
year (mpy) or millimetres per year (mm/yr). In the first case, K = 534 to give CPR in
mpy (where 1 mil = 0.001 in.), and W, 𝜌, A, and t are specified in units of milligrams,
grams per cubic centimetre, square inches, and hours, respectively. In the second case,
K = 87.6 for mm/yr, and units for the other parameters are the same as for mils per
year, except that A is given in square centimetres. For most applications, a corrosion
penetration rate less than about 20 mpy (0.50 mm/yr) is acceptable.

The following table is a summary of units for the two corrosion penetration rate
schemes:

Factors Affecting Corrosion

1. Exposure of the metals to air containing gases like CO2, SO2, SO3 etc.
2. Exposure of metals to moisture especially salt water (which increases the rate of
corrosion).
3. Presence of impurities like salt (e.g. NaCl).
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4. Temperature: An increase in temperature increases corrosion.


5. Nature of the first layer of oxide formed: some oxides like Al2O3 forms an insoluble
protecting layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others like rust easily crumble
and expose the rest of the metal.
6. Presence of acid in the atmosphere: acids can easily accelerate the process of
corrosion.

Types of Corrosion

1. Crevice Corrosion

Whenever there is a difference in ionic concentration between any two local areas of a
metal, a localized form of corrosion know as crevice corrosion can occur. In a simple
instance, this form of corrosion mostly occurs in confined spaces (crevices).

Crevice corrosion is a particular form of localized corrosion which occurs in narrow


gaps. The crevice corrosion mechanism includes four steps:

• depletion of oxygen inside the crevice by its consumption in a cathodic reaction


that eventually converts the metal inside the crevice to an anode
• the anodic process increases the levels of metal cations and hydroxyl ions. These
stay in solution within the crevice and are not exchanged with external material
• a breakdown of the passive film because pH increases above the critical value
• propagation of corrosion and delamination.

Figure 3.14 Crevice corrosion of steel

Examples of areas where crevice corrosion can occur are gaskets, the under surface of
washers, and bolt heads. All grades of aluminium alloys and stainless steels also
undergo crevice corrosion. This is mainly because of the formation of a differential
aeration cell that leads to the formation of corrosion inside the crevices.

2. Stress Corrosion Cracking


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Stress Corrosion Cracking can be abbreviated to ‘SCC’ and refers to the cracking of the
metal as a result of the corrosive environment and the tensile tress placed on the metal.
It often occurs at high temperatures.

SCC is believed to be nucleated at pitting damage sites and develops under local
tensile stresses as a highly branched network of fine cracks. At each crack tip, the
combined action of the tensile stress and specific ions in the corrosive media cause
continual crack propagation with little evidence of local deformation.

Figure 3.15 Branching of cracks

Example:

• Certain austenitic stainless steels and aluminium alloys crack in the presence of
chlorides. This limits the usefulness of austenitic stainless steel for containing water
with higher than a few parts per million contents of chlorides at temperatures
above 50 °C (122 °F);
• mild steel cracks in the presence of alkali (e.g. boiler cracking and caustic stress
corrosion cracking) and nitrates;
• copper alloys crack in ammoniacal solutions (season cracking);
• high-tensile steels have been known to crack in an unexpectedly brittle manner in
a whole variety of aqueous environments, especially when chlorides are present.
3. Intergranular Corrosion

Intergranular corrosion occurs due to the presence of impurities in the grain


boundaries that separate the grain formed during the solidification of the metal alloy.
It can also occur via the depletion or enrichment of the alloy at these grain boundaries.

Example: In nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels, where chromium is added for
corrosion resistance, the mechanism involved is precipitation of chromium carbide at
the grain boundaries, resulting in the formation of chromium-depleted zones adjacent
to the grain boundaries. Aluminium-base alloys are affected by IGC.
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Figure 3.16 Microscope view of a polished cross section of a material attacked by


intergranular corrosion

4. Galvanic Corrosion

When there exists an electric contact between two metals that are electrochemically
dissimilar and are in an electrolytic environment, galvanic corrosion can arise. It refers
to the degradation of one of these metals at a joint or at a junction. A good example of
this type of corrosion would be the degradation that occurs when copper, in a salt-
water environment, comes in contact with steel.

Example: When aluminium and carbon steel are connected and immersed in seawater,
aluminium corrodes faster and steel is protected.

5. Pitting Corrosion

Pitting Corrosion is very unpredictable and therefore is difficult to detect. It is


considered one of the most dangerous types of corrosion. It occurs at local point and
proceeds with the formation of a corrosion cell surrounded by the normal metallic
surface. Once this ‘Pit’ is formed, it continues to grow and can take various shapes.
The pit slowly penetrates metal from the surface in a vertical direction, eventually
leading to structural failure it left unchecked.

Example: Consider a droplet of water on a steel surface, pitting will initiate at the
centre of the water droplet (anodic site).

6. Uniform Corrosion

This corrosion results from the continual shifting of anode and cathode regions of the
surface of a metal in contact with the electrolyte and leads to a nearly uniform
corrosive attack on the entire surface.
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Example: A piece of zinc and steel immersed in diluted sulphuric acid would usually
dissolve over its entire surface at a constant rate.

Example: Rusting of steel plate in seawater.

7. Hydrogen Grooving

Hydrogen grooving is a form of corrosion that occurs to carbon steel in concentrated


sulfuric acid service when the iron sulphate film is scrubbed off the pipe wall by
hydrogen bubbles, which form as a reaction product when carbon steel is exposed to
concentrated sulfuric acid.

8. Metal Dusting

Metal dusting is a damaging form of corrosion that occurs when vulnerable materials
are exposed to certain environments with high carbon activities including synthesis
gas. The corrosion results in the break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. Corrosion
occurs as a graphite layer is deposited on the surface of the metals from carbon
monoxide (CO) in the vapour phase. This graphite layer then goes on to form meta-
stable M3C species (where M is the metal) that usually moves away from the metal
surface. In some cases, no M3C species may be observed. This means that the metal
atoms have been directly transferred into the graphite layer.

The metal dusting phenomenon has been observed in austenitic stainless steels, ferritic
steels and various nickel (Ni)-based materials in petrochemical and chemical plants
while hydrocarbons or other high-carbon-activity atmospheres are processed at an
elevated temperature of 400 to 900 degrees Celsius.

Figure 3.17 Metal dusting of Inconel in ammonia plant

9. Microbial Corrosion / microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC)

Microbial corrosion is the corrosion brought about by the activities and presence of
microbes. This process of degeneration primarily acts on metalloids, metals and rock-
based matter. Apart from bacteria, microbial corrosion can also be influenced by micro
P a g e | 25

algae, inorganic and organic chemicals. microbial corrosion can accelerate a number
of other corrosion processes, including: Pitting corrosion, Crevice corrosion, Galvanic
corrosion, Intergranular corrosion, Stress corrosion cracking, Uniform corrosion.

This form of corrosion affects entities like power plants and chemical industries,
as well as facilities that make use of cooling towers. Microbial corrosion can occur in
various environments, including seawater, freshwater, soils, foodstuffs,
demineralized water, sewage, aircraft petrol, human plasma, and process chemicals.
This means it's a potential concern for a vast range of industries.

Microbial corrosion is not caused by one microbe, but can be attributed to


several microbes. These are usually grouped by main characteristics like the effect on
compounds and by-products. In general, the microbes responsible for microbial
corrosion can be categorized in two groups according to oxygen requirements:

a. Aerobic (needing oxygen): like bacteria capable of sulphur oxidizing


b. Anaerobic (needing no or little oxygen): like bacteria that are sulphate reducing

Almost all microbial corrosion takes the appearance of pits forming underneath living
matter colonies, minerals, and bio deposits. This results in a biofilm that results in a
confined environment where the conditions can be corrosive. This, in turn, hastens the
corrosion process. The development of microbial corrosion happens in three stages:

a. Microbe attachment
b. Growth of initial pit and nodule
c. Maturation of nodule and pit

Microbial corrosion can be a severe problem in inactive water systems. Utilizing


mechanical cleaning techniques and biocides can lessen microbial corrosion. However,
any area collecting stagnant water is very susceptible to microbial corrosion.

Furthermore, microorganisms that are capable of utilizing hydrocarbons like


pseudomonas aeruginosa can be found in aviation fuel. These forms dark brown or green
mats similar to a gel, and leads to microbial corrosion on the rubber and plastic parts
of the fuel system of an aircraft.
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Figure 3.18 Contaminated fuel filter (Source: Duncan Aviation)

10. High-temperature Corrosion

High-temperature corrosion is a chemical attack from gases, solid or molten salts, or


molten metals, typically at temperatures above 750ºF (400°C). Different types of high-
temperature corrosion include:

• Carburization
• Chlorination
• Flue gas and deposit corrosion
• Nitridation
• Oxidation
• Sulphuration

High-temperature corrosion is also known as dry corrosion or scaling. High-


temperature corrosion is a mechanism of corrosion that can take place in gas turbines,
diesel engines, furnaces or other machinery coming in contact with hot gas containing
certain contaminants.

Fuel sometimes contains vanadium compounds or sulphates which, having a low


melting point, can form compounds during combustion. This liquid melted salts are
strongly corrosive for stainless steel. The same kind of attack are observed for
potassium and magnesium sulphate.

Almost all metals, alloys and materials of technological interest oxidize and
corrode at high temperatures. Oxidation is by far the most common form of high-
temperature corrosion—almost all useful metals and alloys oxidize above a certain
temperature, leading to:

• Scaling
• Loss of material
• Changes in physical properties
P a g e | 27

Furthermore, high-temperature corrosion is not restricted to the gaseous phase—


solid ash and salt deposits contribute to the corrosive effect, with associated erosion
and removal of scale. In the liquid phase, molten metals and molten salts pose their
own unique challenges, causing highly complex and environment-dependent
corrosion. Gaseous attack is not limited to oxygen however, with sulphur-bearing
gases, carbon oxides and many other elements all attacking materials in different
manners.

Effects of Corrosion

Corrosion can have a varying degree of effect on a lot of things. As such, it mainly
causes waste of natural resources. Additionally, it can further cause hazardous
situations such as building structures becoming weak and unstable, accidents caused
by corroded parts as well as other unwanted failures such as cracked pipelines, bridge
collapsing, transport vehicle crashes or other catastrophes. It is therefore important to
check and prevent corrosion at all costs.

Prevention of Corrosion

Preventing corrosion is of utmost importance in order to avoid huge losses. The


majority of the structures that we see and use are made out of metals. This includes
bridges, automobiles, machinery, household goods like window grills, doors, railway
lines, etc. While this is a concerning issue, several treatments are used to slow or
prevent corrosion damage to metallic objects. This is especially done to those materials
that are frequently exposed to the weather, saltwater, acids, or other hostile
environments. Some of the popular methods to prevent corrosion include;

1. Electroplating- It is a process in which a metal is coated with another metal's thin


layer by electrolysis.
2. Cathodic Protection- In this technique, two types of metals are used, one is base
metal while another is sacrificial metal. The base metal is connected with sacrificial
metal in such a manner, corrosion takes place in sacrificial metal and the base metal
is protected. This happens because sacrificial metal is more reactive, it will lose
electrons easily as compared to the base metal. Thus, base metal is protected.
3. Galvanization- It is a process which includes zinc and iron. It involves the dipping
of iron into molten zinc. Due to this process, iron is protected from being corroded.
4. Painting and Greasing- When the surface of any metal is painted or greased, it has
no effect on the atmospheric condition on them. Thus, they prevent corrosion.
5. Using Corrosion Inhibitor- It is a chemical which is added to the metal to lower
the effect of corrosion.
6. Make use of the Right Material- There are many materials which resistant to
corrosion like aluminium.

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