GLOSSARY OF TERMS – ULTRASONIC

A' SCAN DISPLAY

A cathode ray tube display in which pulse amplitude is represented as a displacement along
one axis (usually the y-axis) and the travel time of the ultrasonic pulse is represented as a
displacement along the other axis (usually the x-axis).
ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE MATCHING
The coupling of two media using layers of material with suitable impedances so as to provide
optimum transference of acoustical epergy , between them.
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
The angle which the axis of an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal to a tangent plane to a
surface at its point of impingement as it travels towards that surface
ANGLE OF REFLECTION
The angle which the axis of an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal to the tangent plane
to a reflecting interface, at the point of impingement of the incident wave, as it travels
away from that interface in the same medium.
ANGLE OF REFRACTION
The angle which the axis of an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal to a tangent plane at
an interface as it travels away from that interface into the second material.
NOTE: A synonymous term is 'beam angle'.
ANGLE OF SQUINT
The angle between the side edge of the probe and the projection of the beam axis on the
plane of the probe face. NOTE: For angle probes this normally relates to deviation in the
lateral direction.
ANGLE PROBE
A contact probe from which the main lobe of waves propagates at any angle, other
than 0° or 90°, to the normal to the tangent plane to the surface at the place where the
probe is positioned.

ATTENUATION
A diminution in the level of acoustic energy as it propagates through material.

ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT
A factor which is determined by the diminution in the amplitude of a wave per unit distance
traveled.
NOTE The attenuation coefficient is composed of two parts, one part being proportional to
frequency and termed absorption, the other part being dependent on the ratio of grain size to
wavelength and arising from scatter.
ATTENUATOR
An electrical device by which the amplitude of an ultrasonic signal can
be adjusted by calibrated increments.
AVG/DGS DIAGRAM
A series of curves which shows the relationship between distance along a beam to gain in dB
compared to a particular back-wall echo and the size of a particular flat bottomed hole reflector.

B-SCAN DISPLAY
A two-dimensional graphical plot showing the apparent size and position of reflectors in the test
piece on a cross-sectional plane which is normal to the test surface and contains the beam axis of
the probe during a single line scan.

BACK WALL ECHO

A pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from the boundary of a body directly opposite to the
surface on which the probe (or probes) is positioned and returned to that surface by the
shortest possible path.

BEAM AXIS
The locus of points of maximum intensity in the far field in a beam of
ultrasonic waves, and its geometrical prolongation into the near field.

BEAM INDEX
The point on the surface of a body through which the beam axis passes. (cf.'probe index').

BEAM SPREAD
The divergence of the main lobe of an ultrasonic beam in the far field. NOTE: The beam
spread is proportional to the ratio of the wavelength to the diameter of the ultrasonic crystal.

BOUNDARY ECHO (FIRST)

A pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from any boundary of a body to the surface on which
the probe (or probes) is positioned and returned to that surface by the shortest possible path.
NOTE: The term is generally restricted to shear and surface waves.

C-SCAN DISPLAY
A two-dimensional graphical projection of the test surface showing in plan view the
apparent size and position of reflectors in the volume inspected by scanning an area of test
surface.

CALIBRATION BLOCK
A piece of material of specified composition, heat treatment, geometrical form and surface
texture by means of which the performance of ultrasonic flaw detection equipment can be
assessed and calibrated for the examination of material of the same general composition. NOTE:
For specification and use of calibration blocks, see respectively BS2704 and BS 4331.
CALIBRATION REFLECTOR
A reflector of ultrasonic waves, such as a drilled hole, a machined slot
or the end face of a specimen representative of the material under test,
which can be used to calibrate or set up equipment for inspection
purposes.
COMPRESSIGNAL WAVE
A form of wave-motion in which the particle displacement at each point in a material is
parallel to the direction of propagation. NOTE; A synonymous term is 'longitudinal wave'; it
is also sometimes referred to as 'dilational wave', or 'irrotational wave'.

CONTACT SCANNING
Scanning carried out by means of an ultrasonic probe (or probes) in
contact with the body under examination.

CONVERGENCE POINT
The point of intersection of the axes of the transmitting and receiving
sound fields in a double crystal probe.

CORNER EFFECT
The reflection of ultrasonic energy back to a point coincident with, or very close to, its point
of origin, after impinging successively on two or three orthogonal surfaces.

COUPLANT
A liquid or pliable medium interposed between two solids to assist the 'passage of ultrasonic
waves between them. NOTE: In the majority of cases, the couplant is a liquid interposed
between the probe and the body under examination. Synonymous terms are 'coupling film' and
'coupling medium'.

COUPLING LOSSES
The reduction in amplitude of ultrasonic waves as a result of their
passage through the couplant.

CRITICAL ANGLE
The angle of incidence of a beam of ultrasound on to an interface at which one of the refracted
wave modes has an angle of refraction of 90°

CROSS TALK Acoustical or electrical signal leakage across as intended barrier NOTE:
It is sometimes referred to as 'cross noise'

CRYSTAL (ULTRASONIC)
Part of a single crystal or polycrystalline plate having piezo-electric
properties, used for the generation and/or detection of ultrasonic waves.
CRYSTAL BACKING The material attached to the rear surface of a crystal to
increase
damping.
DAMPED TRAIN A wave-train in which the amplitude of successive waves
diminish.

DEAD ZONE
The region in a material adjoining the surface of entry from which no direct echoes from
discontinuities can be detected due to the characteristics of the ultrasonic equipment in
association with the material under test and its surface condition.

DECAY TECHNIQUE
A technique of using ultrasonic waves to assess the quality of a material
or a bond by studying the amplitudes of successive echoes.

DECIBEL (dB)
A unit used to express the magnitude of a change in the amplitude of an
ultrasonic signal, defined by the equation:
dB = 20 log1o (AI / AZ)
where
A1 and A2 are the amplitude of the ultrasonic
signals and A1 ^ A2.

DEFECT DETECTION SENSITIVITY

The particular level of sensitivity setting of an ultrasonic flaw
detector for revealing the presence of defects in a given application.

DIFFUSE REFLECTION
Reflection of an ultrasonic wave from a rough surface in a manner such that the reflecteed,energy is
detectable over a range of angles on either side of the theoretical angle of specular reflection, i.e.
reflection in a non-specular manner.

DISPLAY
The form in which ultrasonic data is presented for interpretation,
generally on a cathode-ray tube (see A-scan display,
B-scan display, C-scan display, D-scan display)

DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORRECTION

Change in amplification of ultrasonic signals to provide equal amplitude
from equal reflectors at different distances.

DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CURVE

A curve constructed from the peak amplitude responses from reflectors of
equal area at different distances in the same material.

DOUBLE CRYSTAL PROBE

A probe comprising two separate crystals in a single housing; one acting
as a transmitter and the other as a receiver.
NOTE: Synonymous terms are 'twin crystal probe' and 'combined double
probe'

DOUBLE PROBE TECHNIQUE

An ultrasonic testing technique involving the use of one probe for
transmission and the other for reception.

DOUBLE TRANSCEIVER TECHNIQUE

An ultrasonic testing technique involving the use of two probes; each
being used simultaneously as a transmitter and receiver.

DYNAMIC RANGE
The range of signal amplitude that can be handled by electronic or ultrasonic equipment
without overloading or excessive distortion and without being too small for detection. NOTE:
It is usually expressed in decibels (dB)

ECHQ A distinct pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from any surface or

discontinuity.

ELECTRONIC NOISE
Unwanted, random signals that vary rapidly with time, caused by
electronic pick-up and thermal noise in the amplifier of the flaw
detector.

EXPANDED TIME-BASE SWEEP

An increased speed of time-base spot sweep which enables echoed from a selected region within
the thickness or length of a body to be displayed in greater detail on the screen of the ultrasonic
flaw detector. NOTE: A synonymous term is 'scale expansion.

FAR FIELD
The region in an ultrasonic beam where the intensity is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance. NOTE: It is sometimes referred to as the 'Fraunhofer region'.

FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE

A cylindrical blind hole with a flat bottom, the flat bottom being used
as the ultrasonic reflector.

FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE EQUIVALENT

The size of flat bottomed hole which gives an ultrasonic indication equal
to that from the discontinuity, at the same range.

FOCUSED PROBE
A probe incorporating an acoustic lens of a suitably curved crystal, so
as to produce focussing of the ultrasonic beam.
FRESNEL REGION See
'near field'.

FULL-SKIP TECHNIQUE
An ultrasonic testing technique whereby the inspection of a surface region of a body is
accomplished by using shear waves entering the same surface at a point one skip distance away.

GAP SCANNING
A form of scanning in which the probe carrier follows the contour of the material under
examination but the probe, whilst not in direct contact with its surface, is coupled to it through a
layer or jet of liquid which ,is maintained between the surfaces of the probe and the material.

GATE
An electronic means of monitoring a selected region of the cathode-ray
,tube display of an ultrasonic flaw detector.

GHOST ECHO
An indication arising from an incorrectly matched combination of pulse
repetition frequency and time-base frequency.

GRASS
Spatially random signals arising from the reflection of ultrasonic waves
from grain boundaries and/or microscopic reflectors In a material.

HALF-SKIP TECHNIQUE
An ultrasonic testing technique in which the inspection of a surface region of a body is accomplished
by using a shear-wave beam entering from the opposite surface at a point corresponding to the half-
skip distance.

HARD-FACED PROBE
A probe in which the contact surface is of hard material, such as steel
or ceramic, to minimize wear. .
IMMERSION PROBE A compressional-wave probe designed to be used when immersed in a liquid.

IMMERSION TESTING
An ultrasonic testing technique in which the material under test and the
probe(s) are immersed in a tank of water or other liquid.

INTERFACE
The transition region between two materials of different characteristic impedance in acoustical contact.

INTERNAL ECHOES Unwanted signals generated within an ultrasonic probe.

LAMB WAVE
A term applied to those modes of vibration which propagate in a plate.
NOTE: l.A synonymous term is plate wave'
 2.In general, both compressional and shear elasticity are involved, together with plate thickness
and frequency, and the wave propagation shows dispersion.

LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFIER
An amplifier where the output is related logarithmically to the amplitude
of the input signal.

LONGITUDINAL WAVE
See 'compressional wave.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
A transducer in which the application of a magnetic field on the active element of the transducer
produces mechanical deformation of the active element, thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and
vice versa.

MAXIMUM WORKING RANGE

The total distance that a probe will transmit sufficient energy to find
the smallest reflector to be detected.

MODE TRANSFORMATION
The process by which a wave of a given mode of propagation is caused to
generate waves of other modes by refraction or reflection at a surface or
boundary.

MULTIPLE ECHO
The repeated reflection of an ultrasonic pulse between two or more surfaces or discontinuities in
a body.

N--DISTANCE
The distance from the probe to the N-point (See British Standard M36)

N--POINT
The position in an ultrasonic beam where the intensity of sound on the beam axis reaches a final
maximum before beginning a uniform reduction with distance (See British Standard M36)

NEAR FIELD
The region in an ultrasonic beam that is subject to variations of
intensity due to diffraction effects, extending from the source of
radiation to the last axial maximum in intensity.
NOTE: Synonymous terms are 'near zone' and 'Fresnel region'.
NORMAL PROBE A probe from which waves propagate at 90° to the contact surface.

OPERATING FREQUENCY
The centre frequency of a pulse spectrum generated by an ultrasonic probe. NOTE: The frequency is
determined by a number of factors including the electrical circuit connected to the probe, the thickness
of the piezoelectric material and its backing.
PIEZO-ELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
A transducer in which the application of an electric field across the active element produces
mechanical deformation of the active element thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and vice
versa.

PITCH AND CATCH TECHNIQUE An ultrasonic testing technique involving the use of two
separate probes;
one probe being used to transmit the ultrasonic energy into a body and the other being positioned so as
to receive the reflected energy from a discontinuity. NOTE: In variations of the technique, more than
two probes may be used.

PLANE WAVE A wave in which points of the same phase lie on parallel plane surfaces.

PROBE
An electro-mechanical device, usually incorporating one or more ultrasonic crystals, and functioning
as a generator and/or receiver of Ultrasonic waves.

PROBE ARRAY An array of probes which may comprise:

(a) probes in a mechanical holder which scan together and are used sequentially
individually and/or in pairs

(b) a single unit comprising probes used as in (a) above.

PROBE FACE
That part of a .probe through which ultrasonic waves are transmitted and
received.

PROBE INDEX
The point on a shear wave probe or a surface wave probe through which the energent beam axis
passes. NOTE: The index can vary slightly depending on the method of measurement.

PROBE SHOE
A shaped piece of solid material interposed between the probe and the
material under examination for the purpose of improving accoustical
contact.

PROBE SHOE DELAY

The time taken for the transmitted ultrasonic wave to traverse the probe
shoe and be reflected back to the ultrasonic crystal.
PULSE A short electrical or acoustical wave train.

PULSE AMPLITUDE
The pulse height of a signal, usually base to peak, when displayed in
A-scan.

PULSE ECHO TECHNIQUE

A technique in which the presence of a discontinuity in a material is
indicated by the reflection of pulses from it.

PULSE ENERGY
The total energy associated with a single pulse.

PULSE LENGTH
The time interval between the leading and trailing edges of a pulse, usually measured at the half-
amplitude value. NOTE: Synonymous terms are 'pulse duration ' and 'pulse width'.

PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (p.r.f.) The number of pulses

transmitted per second.

RANGE RESOLUTION
The ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate indication of discontinuities
situated close together in range and simultaneously within the sound beam.

RAYLEIGH WAVE
A particular type of surface wave which propagates on the surface of a
body with effective penetration of less than a wavelength.

REFERENCE PIECE
An aid to interpretation in the form of a test piece of the same nominal composition, significant
dimensions and shape as a particular object under examination. NOTE: Such pieces may or may not
contain natural or artificial imperfections.

REFERENCE STANDARD
An artificially produced imperfection of predetermined dimensions, usually a notch or a hole, used for
the sole purpose of establishing the test sensitivity of the ultrasonic equipment.

REFLECTING SURFACE
An interface at which the ultrasonic beam encounters a change in
characteristic impedance.

REFLECTION TECHNIQUE
A technique in which the presence of discontinuities in a material is
indicated by receiving the reflected energy from them.

REFRACTIVE INDEX
The ratio of the velocity of an incident wave in one material, to the velocity of a refracted wave in a
second material in acoustical contact with the first material.

RESONANCE TECHNIQUE
An examination technique which involves varying the frequency of ultrasonic waves to excite a
maximum amplitude of vibration in a body, or part of a body, generally for the purpose of determining
thickness from one side only.
RINGING TIME
The time during which the mechanical vibrations of a crystal continue after the electrical pulse has
stopped.

SCAN PITCH
The pitch or distance between lines of scan during passage of the
probe(s) over the scan area.

SCANNING
Systematic relative displacement of the ultrasonic beam and the material
under test.

SCATTER (ULTRASONIC)
Energy reflected in a random way by small reflectors in the path of a
beam of ultrasonic waves.

SHEAR WAVE
A form of wave motion in which the particle displacement at each point in
a material is at right angles to the direction of propagation. NOTE:
Synonymous terms are 'distortional wave', 'rotational wave', 'transverse wave'.

SHEAR WAVE PROBE A; probe for generating or detecting shear

waves.

SHORT PULSE
A pulse which has few (usually less than 1.5 cycles in the time interval
over which its amplitude exceeds half of its maximum amplitude.

SIDE LOBE
A peak of pronounced shoulder in an ultrasonic beam, lying to one side of
the main beam.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
The ratio of the amplitude of an ultrasonic echo arising from a discontinuity in a material, to the
amplitude of the average background noise.

SINGLE PROBE TECHNIQUE

A technique involving the use of a single crystal probe for both
transmitting and detecting ultrasonic waves.

SIZING TECHNIQUE
A technique which enables an estimate of the size of a discontinuity to be made from its ultrasonic
responses. NOTE: Examples of sizing techniques are '6 dB drop (half maximum) technique', '20 dB
drop technique', 'maximum amplitude technique*.
SKIP DISTANCE
For a beam of shear waves entering a body, that distance measured over the surface of the body
between the probe index and the point where the beam axis impinges on the surface after a single
reflection from the opposite surface

SOFT-FACED PROBE
A probe in which the contact surface is a flexible membrane and the space
between the crystal and the membrane is filled with a liquid couplant.

SOFT TIPPED PROBE

A probe in which a thick flexible medium forms the coupling between its crystal and the surface of the
material under test.

SPECIFIC ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE

A property of a medium which determines the amount of reflection that occurs at an interface with
another medium. NOTE: It is defined mathematically as the product of the density of the medium
and the velocity of the wave travelling through it.

SPECULAR REFLECTION
A mirror-like reflection of an ultrasonic beam such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.

SPHERICAL REFLECTOR
A surface of spherical, or near-spherical, form, separating two media of
different characteristic impedances.

SPURIOUS ECHO
A term used for any indication not obviously associated with a
discontinuity or boundary. NOTE: A synonymous term is 'parasitic echo'.

STAND-OFF
A block, usually of plastics material, which serves to separate the ultrasonic crystal(s) from the surface
of the test piece. NOTE: The use of such blocks is generally confined to compressional wave probes.

SUPPRESSION
The reduction of 'grass' by the elimination of all signals below a
predetermined amplitude. NOTE: A synonymous term is 'rejection'.

SURFACE NOISE
Unwanted signals at very short range, produced by ultrasonic waves being
reflected within the coupling film and from irregularities of the surface.

SURFACE PREPARATION
The processing of a surface necessary to render it suitable for providing
good accoustical coupling for ultrasonic testing.
SURFACE WAVE An ultrasonic wave which propagates on the surface of a body.
SURFACE WAVE PROBE
A probe for generating and/or detecting surface waves.

SWIVEL SCAN
A shear wave technique used to provide information about the form of a previously located
discontinuity, the probe(s) being positioned at a constant distance from, and directed at, the
discontinuity and rotated through an angle up to 360°.

TANDEM PROBE TECHNIQUE

A technique involving the use of two probes; one transmitting the ultrasonic energy into the body and
the other positioned so as to pick up any energy reflected from a discontinuity. NOTE: The probes are
usually scanned together at fixed separation and the technique is usually used for the detection of
vertically oriented, through-wall, planar defects.

TEST SURFACE
The surface of a piece of material through which ultrasonic waves pass.

THRESHOLD
The minimum signal amplitude that is regarded as significant in a
particular ultrasonic examination.

TIME BASE
A trace on the screen of a cathode ray tube which is generated in such a
way that distance along it is proportional to time.
TIME BASE/RANGE The maximum ultrasonic path length that can be displayed on a particular

time base.
SINGLE NORMAL COMPRESSION PROBE

The contact face of the probe is usually a hard wearing ceramic such as alumina. It not only protects the
crystal but also acts as an impedance transformer, matching the impedance of the crystal to that of the
material under test. It can be designed through choice of material and thickness (and with consideration
of the glue line), to increase the bandwidth, shorten the pulse length and improve the overall efficiency
(gain) of the probe.

PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENT

Generally for contact testing a ceramic material is used as it is readily matched to metals. The type of
inspection determines the frequency and diameter according to depth of penetration, defect size and area
of coverage etc.
Crystal thickness is often quoted in terms of frequency. A resonance occurs when the thickness of the
crystal equals one half wavelength. This is approximately the operating frequency of the probe.

ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

Electrical connections are made to the crystal in order to transmit the excitation pulse and receive the
response. The two large sides of the crystal have nickel and/or silver evaporated electrodes. In most
cases wires are soldered to each side As the crystal is required to be in intimate contact with the wear
face both connections are on the back face of the crystal. The back face electrode covers all but a small
section. In this area the plating from the front face continues up the side of the crystal and onto the back.
Another method
of making the front face connection is done by using thin tape bonded in place.
The front face connection is traditionally the earth and is connected via the co-axial connector to the
housing.

The front face connection is traditionally the earth and is connected via the co-axial connector to the
housing.

DAMPING
\
In order to prevent ringing within the crystal thickness and to help eliminate low frequency radial modes
a damping plate is bonded to the back face. This must be acoustically matched to the crystal so
reflections do not occur at the interface. Usually a heavy metal loaded epoxy is used as this also serves
to scatter and attenuate the sound. Damping will reduce the pulse length at the expense of the overall
efficiency of the probe.
TUNING

As the front and back faces are damped and matched the peak frequency of the probe will be altered.
The crystal has now become part of an electrical and mechanical circuit. The gain, frequency, bandwidth
and pulse shape can be optimised by tuning this circuit. Mechanical tuning i.e. damping and matching
has been mentioned. Electronic tuning is usually an inductor connected in parallel with the crystal to
shunt the capacitance and mainly effects the peak Frequency, bandwidth and pulse length. A resistor is
also sometimes used and acts in a similar manner to the damping.

POTTING
 Full encapsulation of the internal components ensures that the transducer is robust. For SN compression
probes the potting has no significant effect on the performance. However, in the case of angle shearwave
probes the potting acts as a secondary damping medium, attenuating and scattering internal acoustic
echoes.
Potting can also affect the electronic noise level. Particularly in transmit/receive probes (twin) where the
coupling between the two sides is increased.

HOUSING

Designed for easy handling and to suit the environment where the probe is likely to be used. The
materials used are plastics or metal. This choice can affect the electronic and acoustic noise levels of the
probe.

COAXIAL CONNECTOR/CABLE
The connector and cable forms the transmission system between the flaw detector and transducer,
allowing voltage pulses (up to several hundred volts) to be transmitted and received with as little
distortion and loss as possible. The characteristic impedance is usually 75 ohms
Crystal material properties
PROPERTY UNITS PZT BaTiO3 pbnb206 LiSO4 SiO2 LiNb03 Lead Barium Lead
Lithium Quartz Lithium ziconate titanate meta sulphate niobate
titanate niobate

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate titanate Barium titanate Lead meta niobate Lithium quartiz Lithium
sulphate niobate

Density
g/cm3 7.5 5.4 6.2 2.06 2.65 4.64

Acoustic
velocity 4000 5100 3300 5460 5740 7320

c m/s

Acoustic
impedance,
30 27 20.5 11.2 15.2 34
3
Z lO^Ns/m

Resonant
frequency of a
2.0 2.55 1.65 2.73 2.87 3.66
plate
1mm thick
f MHz
Critical temp. 190-350 120 >400 130 576 1210
°C
 Lower Z gives better acoustic coupling to water or plastics and greater mechanical damping. PZT and
BaTio3 have high Z thus require damping, in the form of attenuative material adhered to the back of the
crystal and matching to the Z of the test material. LiSO4 is soluble in water and must therefore be fully
encapsulated if used for immersion probes.

Lower f gives thinner crystal at higher frequencies: thus Lead metaniobate is thinnest of the above at
any given frequency and therefore less easily handled.

Critical
temperature °C 190 to 120 >400 130 576 1210 350

LiSO4 breaks down into a powder of lithium sulphate and water whereas the other ceramics are deponed
at their critical temperatures. Low temperature solder must be used when soldering electrical
connections to BaTiO3 and LisO4 during transducer manufacture. LiNbO3 is suited to high temperature
testing.

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate titanate Barium titanate Lead meta niobate Lithium quartiz Lithium
sulphate niobate

Dielectric constant
400 1000 300 10.3 4.5 30

Higher value gives greater capacitance. Important where small element sizes are required such as
medical transducers. Also significant when determining the tuning of a transducer to a resonant
frequency, i.e. in KLM equivalent circuit modelling.

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate titanate Barium titanate Lead meta niobate Lithium quartiz Lithium
sulphate niobate
Internal
damping
1.008 TO 1.2 1.009 1.3 1.0003
coeffiecient

Lead metaniobate has a lower Z and due to its high internal damping can give short pulse lengths
without damping.

Electro-mechanical

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate Barium titanate Lead meta niobate Lithium quartiz Lithium
titanate sulphate niobate

Electro-mechanical
coefficient of coupling for 0.45 0.10 0.20
0.6 to 0.7 0.4 0.38
thickness oscillations
 2
K33

this is the efficiency of energy transfer, between ewlectrical and mechanical energy and visa versa. PZT
is the most effiecient of the above.

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate Barium titanate Lead meta niobate Lithium quartiz Lithium
titanate sulphate niobate

Coefficient of
coupling for radial
oscillations 0.3 0.1
0.5 to 0.6 0.07 0
(interfierring
oscillations) kp

Efficiency of coupling energy into (undesirable) radial modes. These may be parrically damped at the
back of the crystal. However, for Barium titanate this combined with the poor internal damping resuls in
short pulse lengths not being possible.
 Piezoelectric modulus for thickness oscillations

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate Barium titanate Lead meta Lithium quartiz Lithium

titanate niobate sulphate niobate

Piezoelectric modulus
for thickness 125 to 190 2.3 6
150 to 593 85 15
oscillationsd33 10-12m/v

Large value means that for the same transmitting voltage a greater thickness changer occurs i.e. a
better transmitter. PZT and barium titanate are the best, with lead metaniobate also being a good
tansmitter.

Piezoelectric pressure constant

PZT BaTio3 PbNb2o6 Liso4 Sio2 LiNbo3

Lead ziconate Barium titanate Lead meta Lithium quartiz Lithium

titanate niobate sulphate niobate

Piezoelectric pressure
constant g 33 10-3 vm/N 14 to 21 57 23
20 to 40 32 156

Measure of acoustic pressure receiver. Lithium sulphate is the best of the above.
Lead Zirconate Titanate
Good working temperature range
Poor acoustic coupling Efficiency high
Very good transmitter
Average receiver
High radial modes

Barium Titanate
Lower temperature range
Poor acoustic coupling
Lower efficiency
Very good transmitter
Poor receiver
High radial modes
Low internal damping

Lead meta niobate

Lower Z- better coupling
High internal damping
Less efficient than PT
Good transmitter
Average receiver No radial modes
PIEZOELECTRIC POLYMERS
Another group of materials which exhibit piezoelectric effect are certain polymers. Natural occurring
organic materials such as wood, silk, wool and bone have been shown to demonstrate small effects.
Manufactured polymers such as PVDF (poly vinylindene fluoride) are comparable to ceramic
piezoelectric.

The polarising procedure is as follows

Uni-axially stretch a PVDF film to up to 4 times its original length (a thickness of 20 microns for
resonant frequency of 50MHz). Evaporate gold electrodes on both sides of the film. Polarise in a
high DC field at 80-100°C for 1 hours.
2 Polymers are fundamentally less efficient (lower k33 ) than ceramic piezoelectric materials.
However, the acoustic impedance (Z) is low enough to ensure that coupling to water or .other low
impedance material is extremely efficient Their inherent damping characteristics results in short
pulse lengths of 1 to 2 cycles being possible without damping or matching. Among the advantages
of polymers is its flexibility which enable it to be formed into focused transducers and probe arrays.
The electrodes can be deposited in patterns to allow ease of electrical connections and to produce the
optimum beam profile, this is possible as, unlike ceramics, only the material between the electrodes
transmits and receives ultrasound. Polymer transducers are particularly suited to high frequency
immersion testing up to 80MHz where thin ceramics are impractical.

SIMPLE PROBE CHARACTERISATION

Ensure that all tests are performed with a calibration flaw detector and calibrated test blocks. Record
any settings etc. which will affect the results such as couplant, pulse energy, reject, filtering and
amplifier bandwidth.

OVERALL GAIN
For zero degree compression wave probe (single or twin): Couple probe to large face of VI test block
and peak signal from 25mm backwall. Set to 50% full screen height. Record gain-in-hand (Maximum
dial reading minus present dial setting) in dB's and target.

For angle beam shear wave probe:

Couple probe to top edge of VI test block and peak signal from 100mm radius. Set to 50%
full screen height.
Record gain-in-hand in dB's and target

20dB PULSE LENGTH For zero degree compression wave probe (single or twin) or angle shear
wave probe:
Calibrate timebase for 2 microseconds full screen width for 5MHz probe, or 4us FSW for 2MHz
using RF display. Couple probe to test block and peak signal from large reflector. Adjust screen
delay until echo is displayed.
Set amplitude to ± 1 vertical division; RF trace should be along the set amplitude centre line. Add
20db (increasing displayed signal amplitude by 20Db). Measure the time period peak to peak where
the trace exceeds ±1 vertical division. The delay control can be used to shift the first peak to say
screen zero. Count the number of cycles within this time period. Frequency (MHz) = number of
cycles/pulse length (us)
SIGNAL AND NOISE CURVES
For zero degree compression wave probe (single or twin) or angle shear wave probe.
Steel test block required with 1.5mm diameter cross drilled holes at various depths e.g.
BCBN-3. Calibrate screen 0 to 100mm steel.

Signal curve:
Peak signal from each hole in turn and set to 50% FSH Record gain-in-hand and range.

Noise curve:
Remove probe from test block and wipe all couplant from shoe. Increase gain until internal
echoes are displayed. Set each noise peak to 50% FSH and record gain-in-hand and range.
Continue until noise peaks are at the electronic noise level of the flaw detector.
Record this level also.
Note this gives no information on the noise due to the test piece e.g. surface waves, grass.

The two curves and the electronic noise level can be plotted on the same graph with gain-in-hand
(db) along the vertical axis and range (mm) along the horizonal axis.
I. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND 1. Frequency,

sound velocity and wave length.

How does the sound travel from an oscillating membrane (e.g. loud speaker) as .transmitter to
our ear as receiver The oscillating membrane excites the neighbouring air particles into
oscillations and pressure fluctuations occur. As the air particles are not rigidly but elastically
connected to each other we can use balls connected by springs as a model (Fig 1.)

For this purpose we look at Figure 2. At moment zero (1st row) all balls are at rest. The
oscillating process is started by pushing the left ball to the left, moment I. As the left ball is
connected to the neighboring ball by a spring the movement is slowed down up to moment II and
finally reversed. Due to the spring connection also the second and then successively all other
balls at the right are being moved. A wave motion develops. Another examination of the figure
shows that each ball oscillates around its rest position by a certain amount, i.e. merely the
condition of oscillation propagates along the direction of propagation. Only the energy and not
 the mass is transported. In the period from moment III to moment XV the particle has carried out
one complete oscillation.

The time required is the period of oscillation T. On the momentary representation XV we see that
particles zero and twelve are just experiencing their maximum deflection to the left, i.e. they are in
the same condition of oscillation. The distance between two particles which are in the same condition
of oscillation is the wave length Line XV shows, that the condition of oscillation has propagated by
the distance in the period T. Thus the following formula applies to the propagation
velocity c: c=A
—————— T
From the period of oscillation T the number of oscillations per second can be calculated by the
formula:

f = 1/T

f is the frequency of the oscillation, its unit is "number of oscillations/ second". This unit is
named after the physicist H Hertz and is abbreviated Hz.

1 Hz = 1 oscillation p. second
1 kHz = 1000 Hz = 1000 oscillations p. second
1 MHz = 1000000 Hz = 1000000 oscillations p. second

Thus the following formula applies to the propagation velocity of the wave:
C=f.λ
This equation a (wave equation) applies to all wave processes.

2. Definition of the term ultrasound.

The frequency of a sound impression (tone) is a direct measure for the pitch of a tone. The higher
the frequency the higher the tone. The pitch of a tone which can be received by the human ear
has an upper limit. For young people the limit is approximately 20,000 Hz = 20 KHz. Sound
having higher frequencies is called ultrasound.

Audible sound: f = 20 - 20,000 Hz

Ultrasound: f 20,000 Hz = 20 kHz

As we have learned from the spring model energy propagation as a sound wave is possible only
when constituent particles are connected to each other by elastic forces. In the case of the sound
transmission from the loud-speaker to our ear the air molecules serve as transmitting medium.
Liquids and solid matter are also suitable media for the sound transmission. In a vacuum (space)
no matter exists and thus no sound transmission is possible. The satisfactory sound conductivity
of liquids and solid matter is nowadays technically utilized in various sectors:
1. Types of oscillation.
The sound propagation demonstrated by the spring model is possible in all media. It is characterized
by the fact that the direction of oscillation of the particles runs along the direction of propagation of
the wave. Thus zones with small particle distance and zones with large particle distance are created.
Therefore this type of wave is called Compression wave or Longitudinal wave. If we do not look at
the momentary representation but at the dynamic process of the propagation of the longitudinal
wave we see that the compressions and rarefractions Factions move through the test object at an
unchanging distance.•

The velocity at which they move is the sound velocity cL of the longitudinal wave. This sound
velocity is a material constant, i.e. in a test object completely made of the same material it can be
considered constant, e.g.

for steel: CL = 5 920 m/s

=
for aluminium: CL 6 300 m/s

In solid matter the density is very high when compared with that of liquids and gases, i.e. the
distance between the atoms of molecules is very small. Moreover, they are arranged in a crystal
lattice and the elastic linkage forces between the atoms (molecules) are particularly strong. Due to
these two facts the sound can propagate in various ways in solid matter. We already became
acquainted with one type of wave, namely the longitudinal wave. Another type of wave is called
shear wave or transverse wave. In the case of a transverse wave the particles oscillate vertically to
the direction of propagation of the wave. Now we look again at the spring chain.

Looking at the dynamic process of the wave train we find out that both wave crests and wave troughs
move through the test object at an unchanging distance. The distance between two neighbouring
wave crests is the wave length The energy transmission of the transverse wave is lower due to the
transverse oscillation of the atoms than that of the longitudinal wave. Therefore the propagation
velocity of the transverse wave is considerably lower than that of the longitudinal wave, e.g.

Steel: CL = 5 920 m/s

CT = 3 250 m/s

The velocity of the transverse wave, too, is a material constant.

Longitudinal and transverse waves can propagate through the whole volume of a workpiece. At the
interfaces or surfaces of the workpieces further types of waves may occur:

The surface wave or Rayleigh wave propagates only at the surface of the workpiece. On the
momentary representation such a surface wave is shown. The particles on the surface oscillate on
elliptic courses in the Rayleigh wave

Just below the surface the particles are nearly in their rest position again. The wave penetration
depth of the surface wave lies in the order of one wave length.

In thin test objects a pure surface wave cannot propagate unless its wave length is much smaller than
the plate thickness. Thus a plate wave or Lamb wave occurs There are two different basic types of
this wave: the symmetrical plate wave (also called dilatational wave) and the asymmetrical plate
wave (also called bending wave). In the area of the plate centre the particles carry out pure
longitudinal oscillations in the case of the dilatational wave and pure transverse oscillations in the
case of the bending wave. The other particles oscillate on elliptical courses as in the case of the
surface wave. In the case of plate waves the sound velocity generally depends on the frequency and
the plate thickness.

SOUND WAVES
4. PLATE
(LAMB) SURFACE WAVES AS SUCH CANNOT EXIST IF THE PLATE
THICKNESS APPROXIMATES TO ONE WAVE LENGTH. THE PLATE ACTS AS A
WAVE GUIDE THROUGH WHICH SYMETRICAL AND ASYMETRICAL MODES PASS
CREATING A VERY COMPLEX RESULT.
 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTION

Using the sonic depth finder the distance up to the sea bed is measured or shoals of fish are
located.

Using Sonar instruments submarines and ships at large distances are

In 'the case of the sonic depth finder use is made of another characteristic of -the wava
propagation, namely the reflection of the sound wave from the sea bed. For this purpose a short
sound pulse is emitted by a transmitter located at the ship's hull. The sound pulse reflected from
the sea bed is received by a receiver. At the same time the transmit time of the pulse is
measured. Using the known sound velocity in water, the water depth can easily be calculated.

The good sound conductivity in solid matter is also utilized for material testing. For this
purpose also, use is made of the reflection characteristics of sound waves. Workpieces can thus
be checked for internal flaws in a non-destructive manner. Material testing using ultrasonics
aims at obtaining high sound intensities in the workpiece. As sound intensity increases with the
square of the frequency material testing is carried out by ultrasonics with frequencies between
approximately 0.5 - 25 MHz.

One, method of non-destructive testing using ultrasonics, the pulse echo method, comprises the
transmission of the sound into the object to be tested and the measurement and interpretation of
the variation which the sound undergoes in the test object. In this most frequently applied
method the sound portion reflected from the interface or flawed area in the test object is
received again then electronically evaluated. In this connection two values are of particular
interest:

The transit time of sound travelling from the surface of the workpiece to the reflector and back
and the intensity of the reflected sound signal. The transit time of sound is a measure for the
depth of the reflector, the intensity of the signal is a measure for the reflection characteristics of
the,detected reflector.

It is obvious that continuous sound is not suitable for a transit time measurement as only in the
case of short sound pulses a defined period between transmitting and receiving is measurable.
In the case of the pulse echo method an ultrasonic transmitter thus has to generate short sound
pulses.

It can be seen that the screen presentation varies considerably with changes in orientation
and area of reflector.

Figure 2 having a 'LARGE' reflector (larger than the beam of sound) shows all the sound
returning to the probe from the reflector generating a signal whose screen distance
relates to the depth of the reflector.

8 screen divisions (sd) = Material thickness 4 screen

divisions (sd) = Half material thickness

Figure 3 having a 'SMALL' reflector (smaller than the beam of sound) shows some of
the sound returning from the small reflector but the remainder carries on to the backwall
before returning and giving the backwall echo. The amplitude of this backwall echo will
be reduced when compared with the original backwall echo because of the reduced
amount of sound returning to the probe.
Figure 4 shows no change in screen presentation from the reflector free material. The reason for
this is that the reflector is presenting no area to the sound, the sound therefore has nothing to
reflect from. This effect is obviously extremely important when considering the most effective
way to inspect an object.
Through Transmission Technique

The second method, the Through Transmission Technique employs two probes one of which is
transmitting the ultrasonic sound energy, the other receiving the sound on the other side of the
material.

The disadvantages of this method of inpsection when compared with the pulse reflection
technique are:-

1. Depth of defect is not determined

2. Access is required to both sides of the material

This method can be used Co inspect thick, highly attenuating materials. It is also useful on
some automative ultrasonic systems i.e. Plate Testing during production where the detection of
defects is paramount and the location of the defects is of secondary importance.
GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC SOUND

Sound is a mechanical vibration. Therefore the methods of generating sound all rely on starting
the particles in a material oscillating. The direction of this particle movement determines the
mode of sound i.e. longitudinal or transverse.

When we speak the generators of the sound are our vocal chords producing longitudinal waves
at low frequency. The human voice must be producing longitudinal waves as transverse waves
do not travel in air. Therefore, any species producing shear waves would not be able to
communicate by speech. You may be of the school of thought which would consider this to be
a good thing

To produce sound in the-ultrasonic range we employ transducers. A transducer being a device

which converts one form of energy to another, i.e. electrical to mechanical. We will look at two
transducers used to produce ultrasonic sound. These are:

1. Magnetostrictive devices
2. Piezo Electric crystals

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
Nearly all ferromagnetic materials are deformed mechanically when placed into a magnetic
field. This phenomenon is called magnetostriction. In the magnetostriction the deformation
occurs mainly in the direction of the field. It depends on the magnetostrictive constants of the
material.

In practice magnetostrictive transmitter probes have been utilized already for the generation of
sound of high output at low frequencies (around 100 kHz). For the excitation it is necessary to
magnetize the magnetostrictive body in the direction of the oscillations. Similarly as in the case
of piezoelectric oscillators, magnetostrictive oscillators are operated at their natural mechanical
resonance in order to amplify the desired effect.

The advantage of oscillators of this type compared with piezoelectric generation of sound
results from their higher Curie point (for nickel 360°C).

Similarly, ferrites have high magnetostriction and if suitable materials are developed, this should
make it possible to generate higher frequencies.

With ferromagnetic materials the magnetostrictive effect can also be used for the direct method.

An example of the use of magnetostrictive devices is seen in the Krautkramer wire tester,
the Ferrotron.
PIEZO ELECTRIC
Certain crystaline materials exhibit this effect in that when they undergo a mechanical
deformation they will produce an electrical potential. These materials also exhibit the opposite
effect that when an electrical potential is applied across the material, mechanical deformation
occurs.

Materials exhibiting this effect fall into two categories,

(a) Naturally occuring crystals

(b) Polarised ceramic crystals (man made)
Naturally occuring crystals include quartz, lithium sulphate, and rochelle salt. Commonly
used polarised ceramics are barium titanate, lead zirconate titanate and lead metaniobate.

A piezoelectric crystal occuring naturally is the quartz (rock crystal) which was used as crystal
material in the beginning of ultrasonic testing. Depending on whether longitudinal waves or
transverse waves are to be generated the quartz plates have either been sawed vertically to the
X-axis of the crystal (X-cut) or vertically to the Y-axis (Y-cut) out of the rock crystal.

In modern probes quartz is hardly used, instead sintered ceramics or artificially produced
crystal are employed. The most important materials for ultrasonic crystals as well as their
characteristics are stated in the table below.
 • ...... .....
Lead zirconate Barium titanate Lead Lithium Quartz Lithium
titanate metaniobate sulphate niobate

sound velocity 4000 5100 3300 5460 5740 7320

c rn/s

acoustic
30 27 20.5 11.2 15,2 34
impedance
Z 106 kg/m2 s

electronechanic
0,6 - 0.7 0,45 0.4 0.38 0.1 0,2
coqpling factor
k

piezoelectric;
modulus 150 - 593 125 - 190 85 15 2,3 6
d
piezoelectric
deformation 1.8- 4.6 1,1 - 1.6 1.9 8.2 4,9 6.7
constant
H

coupling factor
for radial 0,5 - 0,6 0,3 0,07 0 0,1
oscillations -
P

The efficiency during the conversion from electrical into mechanical energy and vice versa differs according
to the crystal material used.

The properties, piezoelectric modules 'd' and piezoelectric deformation constant *H1 are the most important.
Where 'd' determines the Transmission property and 'H' the Receiving property
In ultrasonic flaw detection all crystals used produce compressional waves.

The ceramic materials i.e. barium titanate when produced artificially do not exhibit the piezo electric effect.
In order for them to be made to exhibit this effect they must first be polarized. During the polarizing process
the ceramic disc is heated to above its upper curie temperature and a DC voltage of approximately 2000
volts per mm thickness of crystal is applied across the material and it is then cooled to its lower curie
temperature. During the cooling period, displacement of the titanium atoms occur forcing the crystal
domains into a degree of parallel alignment. At this point the DC voltage is taken off the crystal. The
crystal will now exhibit piezo electric properties.

It can be seen from this process that if during an Inspection the crystal is heated it will depolarize and no
sound will be produced in the material, thus, great care must be taken when inspecting hot materials.

OPERATING FREQUENCY
In common with all other materials which convert energy into sound e.g. a bell, when a piezo electric
material is struck by a 'spike' of electrical energy it will vibrate at its resonent or natural frequency. At the
resonent frequency the impedance of the material is at a minimum with the result that the material will give
maximum amplitude oscillations. This occurs when the wavelength of vibration is twice the thickness of the
material. By transposing the formula WAVELENGTH = VELOCITY - FREQUENCY to THICKNESS OF
CRYSTAL = therefore, THICKNESS OF CRYSTAL = ^VELOCITY - TWICE FREQUENCY.

t = velocity
2 x frequency

It can be seen from this formula that the frequency is inversely

proportional to the thickness, therefore, the higher the frequency the thinner the crystal. This fact
emphasizes the need for care when using high frequency probes in contact testing.
 ACOUSTIC VELOCITIES IN COMMON MATERIALS

MATERIAL CL MFTRES/SEC CT METRES/SEC.

STEEL 5900 3230
AL. 6320 3130
H20 1483 0
AIR 330 0
LEAD 2160 700
BRASS (70/30) 4372 2100
PERSPEX 2730 1320
 NORMAL PROBES

Calibration with straight beam probes

Three conditions are important for calibration:

1. For calibration we require at least two echoes.

2. The initial pulse must not be used for the calibration.

3. The thickness of the calibration block must not be greater than the

test range. Ideally not more than half the range.

Locating reflectors
To test the work piece we couple the probe onto its surface. If we have chosen a suitable test
range we should now obtain the first back wall echo on the screen. If the first back wall echo
is preceded by another echo then this echo comes from a reflector in the work piece. For the
evaluation we only use that range before the first back wall echo because in the range behind it
secondary echoes may occur due to split transverse waves and sidewall echoes.

The operator's task is now to. exactly determine the location of the reflector. By slightly
moving the probe on the surface of the work piece the reflector echo can be optimized (or
maximized). At the probe position with the highest echo amplitude the reflector stands exactly
on the central axis of the sound beam, i.e. perpendicular under the centre point of the probe.
The last step is to determine the exact depth position of the reflector. Either use the screen
scale for direct reading or use the screen division method.

The scale position SR of the echo is read off from the left flank of the reflector echo.
Provided the correct test range has been calibrated this scale position SR corresponds exactly to
a certain beam path to the reflector and therefore to the depth of the reflector under the
workpiece surface. The beam path is calculated from the read off scale position SR by:

s: sonic distance
k: scale factor
s = K. SR
SR: scale position (screen reading)

By this method we can mark the projection point on the work piece surface and note the depth of the reflector next to
it; the projection point is that point on the surface which is exactly perpendicular above the reflector.
reflector echo back wall echo
k=10mm/s.div.
thickness = 8 div. 10 mm/div.
= 80 mm
reflector depth = 5.2 div. 10mm/div.
= 52 mm
When testing a work piece It is important that the first back wall echo is visible
on the screen for the following three reasons:

• Only then is it possible to scan the work piece completely through to the
opposite surface.

• Insufficient coupling of the probe is immediately recognized by a decline 4.n the back wall
echo height.

• Some types of flaws such as shrink holes have very insufficient reflection abilities due to
their rugged surface, i.e. from such flaws we receive only very small echoes or none at all.
However, these flaws normally cast a shadow on the back wall of the test piece and this
shadow appears on the screen in the form of a declining amplitude of the back wall echo.
With larger flaws of this type it may even occur that the back wall echo disappears
completely.
Testing with twin crystal probes (TR technique)
Straight-beam and angle-beam probes are equipped with only one crystal which has both the
transmitting and receiving function. Depending on the length of the delay line, this has the
effect that the initial pulse is displayed either fully or partially on the CRT-screen, and,
consequently, echoes from near-surface flaws are not or not definitely traceable (dead zone,
initial pulse influential zone). In practical testing, however, we often meet with situations
where we have to test thin parts or where especially near-surface flaws are to be detected. In
these case's, we use a probe with 2 crystal units which are electrically and acoustically
separated, i.e. one only transmits sound pulses and the other one has only a receiver function.

a) The TR Probe
Each crystal unit consists of a perspex delay line having the shape of a semi-cylinder. The
crystal, which is semi-circular, is bonded to the delay line.
Both crystal units, separated from each other by an acoustic separation layer, are built into a
probe housing and are connected with 2 electronically separated sockets. An additional increase
in sensitivity within the near surface zone is attained by a slight inclination of the crystals
towards each other. This angle of inclination, which we also call roof angle, varies in size from
on the purpose of application and probe.

If we wish to operate a TR probe in connection with an ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTOR then the
instrument must be switched to TR-operation (twin crystal operation). At one connection socket
stands the initial pulse and at the other connection socket is the input of the amplifier
(receiver). The ultrasonic pulses are generated in transmitter part of the probe and transmitted
into the delay line. Echoes from the delay line, however, are not displayed on the CRT-screen due
to the fact that the transmitter crystal has no receiving function. If we now couple the .probe
onto a plane parallel plate we then receive an echo because the sound pulse, being reflected on
the back wall, is directed into the receiver part of the probe. That means, the sound pulse has
passed through the delay lines of the probe as well as through the work piece.
Due to the relatively long delay lines, the distance between the electrical zero point (initial pulse) and the
mechanical zero point (surface of the workpiece) is rather great. For this reason the initial pulse drifts to the left so
far out of the CRT-screens that the near-surface area is no longer being covered.

electrical Mechanical . zero

However, with a high instrument gain there is an interference echo in the near-surface area. This interference echo
is caused by small sound portions which, traveling through the acoustic separation layer or along the surface
through the coupling medium, reach the receiver crystal. This interference echo, occurring with TR probes, is
designated cross-talk echo because it concerns a direct cross—talk of sound pulses. In general, however, the
cross-talk echo does not affect the detectability of small near-surface reflectors.
This design of the probe results in a very good near resolution power. On the other hand, it also
results in a further interference effect which makes the calibration of the test range more
difficult. The fact that the two crystals of TR probes are slightly inclined towards each other
causes a refraction and splitting of the ultrasonic waves at the transition from plexiglass to
steel (a).

interference
echoes

However, it is not only the transition from plexiglass to steel where a wave splitting occurs but
also on the back wall of the work piece since both waves strike the back wall at an angle. That
means: a total of 4 signals return from the backwall of the work piece (b). Several interference
echoes appear after the first backwall echo so that the second backwall echo from the workpiece
is no longer clearly identifiable. However, all interference echoes always occur only behind the
first backwall echo since the velocity of the transverse wave is smaller than that of the
longitudinal wave. When calibrating instruments which operate with TR robes we therefore do not
use the first and second backwall echoes from the same reference path but the first backwall echo
from two reference paths having different thicknesses. For calibrating the test range and
checking the calibration we use a stepped reference block e.g. the stepped block VW which has 8
steps from 1 mm - 8 mm.
b) Calibration Using a TR Probe
When calibrating with a TR probe we choose two suitable steps of the stepped reference block which
are included in the desired test range. First we couple the probe to the smaller step and, using
the zero point shift, (delay) bring the backwall echo to the corresponding scale position.

Now we couple the probe to the larger step and, using the spread (range) control, bring the
echo to the corresponding scale position. These two adjusting steps are repeated until
both echoes stand on the right scale positions.

Example Test range : 0 - 10 mm

Probe : MSEB 4 H

Stepped reference block : VW

Calibration paths : 4 mm and 8 mm

1. Couple the probe to the 4 mm step.

2. Shift the first backwall echo to scale position 4.
3. couple the probe to the 8 mm step.
4. Spread the first backwall echo on scale position 8.
5. Repeat, starting with point 1 etc., until in both probe positions the echoes stand on
the corresponding scale positions 4 & 8.
NOTE:
If the gain adjustment is too high a cross talk echo can occur and can be mistaken for the
backwall echo. You can identify the cross-talk echo by two features: It always occurs at
the same scale position, independent of the thickness of the workpiece, and it shows a
strong reaction when a finger is placed on the coupling surface.

Due to the small test ranges, which are usually calibrated in connection with TR probes,
the node jump can cause a relatively big measuring error in both the calibration and
locating of reflectors. The operator must then take care, by a suitable gain adjustment,
that the echoes used continuously reach approximately the same height or that they
continuously have the same number of high frequency nodes.
c) Measuring Accuracy with TR Probes
In addition to the influences on the measuring accuracy which we already know from the single
crystal probes another systematic error occurs with TR probes. The reason for this is the
constructional fact that the sound pulses no longer take the shortest travel path through the
workpiece. Instead the sound travel path is now v-shaped so resulting in a longer beam path
length. This additional distance which the sound pulse must travel is called detour (V-path).
The actual beam path (S) is also dependent on the thickness (T) of the workpiece as well as on
the distance (C) between the probe indices of sound exit and sound entrance or the formal
connection.

The detour U which the sound pulse additionally travels on its V-shaped beam
path, consequently equals:

For c + 4mm and wall thicknesses from 9mm - 1mm the corresponding values are given in the opposite table.
Thereby; T = thickness of the steps
s = actual beam path length
u = measuring error related to T
% = measuring error related to T
d = 2 x T
The table shows that the deviations with large wall thicknesses are rather small, however,
with small wall thicknesses the measuring errors to be expected are of considerable site
(100% and more).

However, the actual measuring error occurring with an instrument which has been correctly
calibrated is smaller than that calculated in the table. This is due to the fact that, when
calibrating with the two calibration steps, the detours of these two steps are automatically
compensated for since the echoes are brought exactly to the corresponding scale positions. In
the foregoing example we adjusted the echo from the 8 mm step exactly on scale division 8 and the
echo from the 4 mm step exactly on scale division 4 - with the result that the steps are
displayed on the correct positions although the associated beam path lengths are 6.2 mm and 4.5
mm.

Within the interval of 8 - 4 mm we can consider the Increase of the detour at a first
approximation as being linear which means that it is possible to determine exactly all values
measured on wall thicknesses between 4 & 8 mm. i.e.:

A measuring error which is due to the detour of the sound pulse becomes negligibly small if
the distance to be measured lies within the two wall thicknesses used for the calibration and
if the interval of the two calibration paths has not been chosen too large.

For practical application this means that, before starting to test with a TR probe, the operator
must know from which depth range he can expect measured values. After this he chooses the two
calibration lines which are required to calibrate the test range. All measured values which are
now included in the interval of the two calibration lines are exact values within the usual
tolerances. Measured values, which are smaller than the smaller calibration line, are indicated
too large. The measuring error increases the smaller the real measuring distance is.
d) Field of Application for Twin Crystal Probes
The remaining wall thickness measurement on tubes and containers which are exposed to CORROSION
OR EROSION IS ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL FIELDS OF APPLICATION. The main advantage is the fact that
the installations or plants to be tested do not need to be put out of operation and therefore no
standstill losses will occur. The measuring accuracy is 1/10 mm with wall thicknesses from 0.5
mm onwards and measurements are possible on systems which have temperatures of up to

TWIN CRYSTAL PROBES

Twin crystal probes are often operated in combination with digital wall thickness gauges.
After coupling the probe a digital display indicates directly the wall thickness in nun,
or inches.

Due to the high sensitivity of twin crystal probes regarding the near-surface zone they are also
suitable to trace very small flaw locations from a depth of approximately 0.6 mm. Twin crystal
probes are therefore employed for flaw detection on thin parts. Flat flaws which run parallel to
the surface such as laminar defects in plates are reliably traceable and accurately measurable
with a twin crystal probe because, in its most sensitive zone, it has an extremely narrow sound
beam. Using the half value method (scanning with a 6 dB drop of the echo amplitude) a relatively
accurate determination is possible of the edge of the flat flaw.

For surfaces which have a convex curvature, e.g. tubes, twin crystal probes are also suitable.
Here, proper coupling of the probe is rather important in order to obtain definite and reliable
test results. The acoustic separation layer (barrier) must run along the direction of the
curvature (transverse to the tube axis) because this guarantees that the probe indices have a
direct contact with the surface. If we couple the probe so that the separation layer runs along
the tube axis then the probe indices will form a wedge-shaped gap which results in unstable
coupling and measuring errors. In case of very strong curvature radii or concave surfaces it is
possible to grind the delay line of the probe so that it matches the individual surfaces in order
to guarantee an optimal coupling of the probe.
Through Transmission
The through transmission technique is the oldest method applied in ultrasonic testing. One probe
is used to transmit sound into the test object and another probe at the opposite side receives
it. Using this method we compare the sound intensity from a flaw-free zone with that from a
flawed zone. A flaw in the sound field shades a portion of the sound energy off so that the
intensity measured at the receiver is lower as compared with a flaw-free zone. The shading
effect is only large with flaws which are large in comparison with the wave length as otherwise
the shaded zone would be totally or partially recovered with sound on account of the diffraction
phenomena. This intensity method is further limited by the variation of the amplitude which is
due to coupling variations and different geometries of the test objects. If we use continuous
sound for the through transmission then standing waves could develop depending on the test
frequency and the dimensions of the test piece. These standing waves could immediately cause
amplitude variations of the through transmission indication even if there are only small
thickness variations in the test piece. Standing waves can be avoided by wobbling of the
frequency or by short pulses. Amplitude variations which are due to a flaw can therefore only be
recognized as such if the variations are greater than the systematic ones just described. A
further disadvantage of this method is that no statement can be made regarding the depth and the
extension of the flaw. Despite these disadvantages the through transmission method is still in
use, mainly for testing thin plates or saucer type test objects which are accessible on both
sides and have flat flaws extending parallel to the surface. This concerns mainly plates of the
whole thickness range which have laminar defects and short tubular bodies such as bearing bushes,
laminated plastics and platings. To avoid high coupling variations these objects are normally
tested in the immersion technique.
THROUGH TRANSMISSION
ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE
When a wave Impinges at a right angle to the interface between two different media, one portion of
the wave is reflected and the other portion is transmitted into the second medium. For the
determination of this effect the phenomena Z (specific acoustic impedance) is used. It is defined
as the product of the sound velocity C and the density /O of the medium.

Z: impedance
/O: density
Z «°/o.c C: sound velocity •->' . r

The relation between the reflected wave (R) and the incident- wave is calculated by the formula
R = Z2 – Z1
Z2 + Z1
R is also called reflection factor. The relation D of transmitted sound pressure to incident sound pressure is
calculated by the formula
D = 2 Z2
Z2 + Z1

D means transmission factor. The example of the Interface steel/water produces the following values:
That means that approx. 9A% of the sound pressure of the incident wave is reflected from the Interface steel/water and only approx.
67. penetrates the water. The negative sign concerning R means that the condition of oscillation of the wave (the phase) is reversed
at the interface. An oncoming wave crest becomes a reflected wave t rough (phase reversal).
 For further advanced study of this subject on the effect of transmission from elastic to non-elastic
media and vice versa, refer to the Krautkramer book "Ultrasonic Testing of Materials" 2nd edition,
page 25 from which this figure is taken
Sound pressure Sound pressure

Fig. 2.1 Sound pressure values in the case of reflection on the interface
steel/water, incident wave in steel (a) or in water (b)
 3. A-scan representation
The standard application of the pulse echo method normally uses ultrasonic flaw detectors having a CRT-screen with A-scan representation. The
A-scan shows the amplitudes of the echo signals in the vertical Y-direction and the distance of the corresponding reflectors are represented in the
horizontal X-direction
This allows a direct allocation between the echoes on the screen and the depths of the associated reflectors.
4. Measuring accuracy with the A-scan representation

The scale position of the left edge (flank) of a reflector echo, which is displayed on the screen, is a measure for the distance from the reflector to
the probe, in other words: by means of this position on the screen we can locate the reflector. As is the case with any type of measurement it is
important to know how large the measuring tolerance is.

The measuring tolerance is determined by three factors;

A) the reading accuracy
B) node errors
C) distortion due to the geometry of the CRT-screen

A) Reading accuracy
Most instruments have a CRT-screen which is divided into 10 scale divisions which in turn are subdivided into 5 scale marks. This graduation is
large enough to decide whether an echo is exactly positioned on one of these marks or between two of them so that the achievable reading
accuracy is 1/100 of the total CRT-screen width equaling to 1 % of the screen width. For the calibration of the instrument we must bring certain
echoes to previously calculated scale positions. Already in doing this the reading error can occur and it can occur a second tune when reading off
the position of a reflector echo on the CRT-screen. In the most unfavorable case it can occur that these two reading errors add up so that the re-
sulting deviation could amount to a max. of 2 I of the CRT-screen width.
Page 1 of 52

B) Node error

The remaining HF-nodes of an echo can also influence the measuring accuracy. Depending
on the adjusted amplification such an HF-node could occur from the time base or it could
remain invisible below the time base of the screen. This effect can cause a shift of the echo
base on the screen when changing the amplification. To avoid such nodal jumps it must be
ensured by the appropriate gain adjustment that no more nodes occur above the time base
or drop below it.

C) Distortion due to the geometry of the CRT-screen

A cathode ray tube operates in principle like an indicator instrument. The equivalent to the
indicator is the electron beam (cathode ray) which one can imagine to be rotatably located
between the two pairs of deflection plates. The scale of an indicator instrument is arranged
circular around the indicator's center of rotation according to the circular motion of the
indicator tip. The CRT-screen itself should also have such a curvature, however, its plane
surface causes a distorted display which, in the center of the screen, equals nil but
increases towards the edge of the screen. So this geometry-dependent measuring error
affects the reading accuracy mainly at the edges of the screen-

B-scan representation

Especially for semi or fully automatic tests, the ultrasonic testing technique uses special
instruments which allow a special type of displaying the test results- Instruments with B-
scan representation display a cross-section of the test object on the screen after the probe
has been moved on a scanning track running across the test object. The probe movement is
mostly displayed in the X-direc-tion while the distance of. occurring reflectors is displayed in
the Y-direction.

M.GANZ Page 1 15/02/2003

Page 2 of 52

6. C-scan representation

If the whole volume of a workpiece is to be covered it is necessary to scan at least one

surface completely. E.g. an automatic plate testing machine scans the whole plate using a
great number of probes and a meandering scanning track. The test results can then be
displayed by the C-scan representation for which one normally uses an X-Y recorder or
printer. The workpiece is represented in a top view in which the flaw locations can then be
marked true-to-scale. The use of printers allows the Indication of further information (e.g.
the depths of reflectors, echo amplitudes) by means of various symbols.

7. Monitor function

In case of a manual test using an Ultrasonic Flaw Detector, the operator scans the
workpiece with the probe and simultaneously observes the CRT-screen thereby
concentrating on echo indications which originate from the interior of the workpiece or, in
other words, from the flaw expectancy range. Geometry—dependent indications such as the
M.GANZ Page 2 15/02/2003
Page 3 of 52

backwall echo or echoes from drilled holes or edges must be recognized as such to ensure
a correct interpretation of the test results. Many instruments are equipped with a monitor
function which facilitates observing the flaw expectancy range. The start and end of the flaw
expectancy range can thereby be marked by means of a step on the base line of the screen
or an additionally displayed bar on the screen- If now an echo appears within this range
then this releases a visible and/or audible alarm signal. The response threshold of the
monitor is also variable so that an echo indication only releases the alarm when it has
reached a certain height.
In addition to the monitor function, most of these instruments have a control output which
can be used to further process the information.

M.GANZ Page 3 15/02/2003

Page 4 of 52

As soon as an echo eppars within the monitor threshold a voltage is fed to the control output .which
is proportional to the echo height and which can be immediately used for automatic recording. By
means of this monitor function together with a path pick-up which is fixed onto the probe, C-scans
of workpieces can be easily printed on an X-Y recorder. They can be regarded as test reports and
filed.

8. Test mechanis.m

All cases where continuously large amounts of equa;

parts are tested are suitable for automatic testing machines. These consist essentially of one or
several probes which are coupled to the test specimen by a control unit and are moved,across the
tes-object according to a predetermined scanning pat-* tern. The ultrasonic signals are processed by
the evaluation unit (e.g. an ultrasonic flaw detector) and displayed on a CRT-screen if available. All
measured data are fed to a computer where they are further processed and evaluated. At the sane
time information about the probe position is also fed to the computer. The test report is produced by
means of a printer. .The, computer controls addi-tionally the marking and sorting device which
mark;
the flaw locations on test objects. Test objects which have unacceptable flaws are rejected. A
further task of the computer is to control the transport of the workpiece and to signal defined test
conditions.

M.GANZ Page 4 15/02/2003

Page 5 of 52

TIME BASE CALIBRATION USING VI TEST

BLOCK for Compressionol and Shear Waves.

(a) Compressional Waves.

(i) For ranges below 200 mm, the probe is placed at position A. The screen
appearance shows multiple echo signals at intervals each equivalent to a
range of 25 mm in steel. The equipment is then adjusted to make the signals
correspond with suitable graticule divisions, e.g. for a range of 100 mm full
graticule width, four echo signals will be presented after the initial pulse as
shown in Figure (a).
(ii) For ranges of 200 mm and above, the probe is placed at position B. The screen
appearance shows multiple echo signals at intervals each equivalent to a range
of 100 mm in steel. The equipment is "then adjusted to make the signals corres-
pond with suitable graticule divisions, e.g. for a range of 500 mm full graticule
width, five echo signals will be presented af+er the initial pulse as shown in
Figure (b). Non-linear presentation is indicated in Figure (c), where the signals
are not equally spaced. For these calibrations, the left-hand side of the echo
signals must always be taken as the calibration points. The initial pulse should be
ignored as its zero point is situated somewhere within the pulse width and
therefore the above procedure ensures that the zero point of this pulse coincides
with the zero point of the graticule.

(b) Shear Waves.

It is not thought that there is need for a test range of less than 100 mm in steel
and the following technique is, therefore, put forward because it is suitable for all
ranges.
A longitudinal wave probe is first placed at position C and the screen shows
multiple echo signals at intervals equivalent to 50 mm shear waves (91 mm for
compressional waves). The equipment is adjusted for graticule coincidence, e.g.
for a range of 250 mm full graticule width, five echo signals will be presented after
the initial pulse as shown in Figure (d). Change the longitudinal wave probe to the
required shear wave probe and place at position D. Move the probe to obtain the
maximum echo signal from the 100 mm radius and using the zero shift control
only, adjust the echo signal to correspond with the 100 mm shear wave graticule
division, as shown in Figure (e).

M.GANZ Page 5 15/02/2003

Page 6 of 52

M.GANZ Page 6 15/02/2003

 Page 7 of 52

• BOTH LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE

WAVES ARE REFLECTED AND REFRACTED
AT AN INTERFACE ACCORDING TO
SNELL'S LAW.
TRANSVERSE WAVES CANNOT BE
TRANSMITTED THROUGH LIQUIDS OR
GASES.

M.GANZ Page 7
Page 8 of 52

M.GANZ Page 8 15/02/2003

Page 9 of 52

M.GANZ Page 9 15/02/2003

Page 10 of 52

M.GANZ Page 10 15/02/2003

Page 11 of 52

M.GANZ Page 11 15/02/2003

Page 12 of 52

M.GANZ Page 12 15/02/2003

Page 13 of 52

M.GANZ Page 13 15/02/2003

Page 14 of 52

M.GANZ Page 14 15/02/2003

Page 15 of 52

M.GANZ Page 15 15/02/2003

Page 16 of 52

M.GANZ Page 16 15/02/2003

Page 17 of 52

Amplifier

The associated control is the gain control – this is also called the dB – control because it can
be used vary the amplification in defined dB units.

Modern instruments are frequently equipped with more than one gain control – one for the
adjustment of large variations in gain ( e.g. 20 dB steps ) , one for the adjustment of smaller
gain steps (i.e.1 or 2 dB) , and finally , one which is continuously adjustable . changes in gain
in dB units are regulated to the proportion of two values, e.g. the echo amplitudes displayed
on the CRT- screen .

The gain difference ∆v = 20 log A2/A1

∆v = gain difference
A1 = echo amplitude 1
A2 = echo amplitude 2

The dB unit is a logarithmic unit related to the ratio between two quantities and is used in
many fields of the measuring technique .

The advantage of the dB- unit are that

a) Large voltage ratios can be given in small figures, e.g.

1000 : 1 = 60 dB
1000000 : 1 = 120 dB

b) A reversal of the voltage ratios only requires a change of the sign , e.g.

10000 : 1 = 80 dB
1 : 10000 = -80 dB

c) A multiplication of the voltage ratio corresponds to a simple addition of a dB value ,

e.g.
Gain factor 2 + 6 dB
Gain factor 10 + 20 dB
Gain factor 100 + 40 dB

The gain difference in dB is in most cases easy to calculate from the voltage ratio , without
using any electronic pocket computer . as a first step one reduces this ratio into simple factors
,.e.g.

625 = 1.25 * 5 * 10 * 10

56 dB = 2 dB + 14 dB + 20 dB + 20 Db

M.GANZ Page 17 15/02/2003

Page 18 of 52

M.GANZ Page 18 15/02/2003

Page 19 of 52

M.GANZ Page 19 15/02/2003

Page 20 of 52

British Standard Methods for

Assessing the performance characteristics of ultrasonic flaw detection equipment
1. Range of checks
Linearity of the time base. Calibration of the time base. . Linearity of equipment gain.
Probe index (S).
Beam angle (S.
Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio. Beam alignment (squint) (S). Beam width in vertical
plane (S). Pulse duration.

NOTE: (S) represents shear wave probes (angle probes) only.

2. Linearity of the^time base

2.1 General
The linearity shall be checked over a range at least equal to that which is
to be used in subsequent testing.

2.2 Method
2.2.1 Place the compresslonal wave probe on the calibration block in a position
where the range is equal to or exceeds the range over which the linearity has to
be checked.

2.2.2 Bring successive backwall echoes, in turn, to approximately the same

height, e.g. 80% full screen. The leading edge of each should line up with the
appropriate graticule line.

2.3 Frequency of checking

The check shall be carried out at least once per week.

3. Calibration of the time base 3.1
General
The calibration is achieved by positioning the probe on a standard calibration block
in such a manner that a series of echo signals is obtained at well-defined, known
ranges from the entry point.
3.2 Method
3.2.1 Hay,ing first set the suppression to zero, position the probe on the
A2 block to obtain the multiple echo pattern required. For example:
for compressional wave probes, a face, side or end of the block may be
used.
for shear wave probes, the probe should be placed so that the ultrasound pulses are
directed into the cylindrical reflector (quadrant) of the block

M.GANZ Page 20 15/02/2003

Page 21 of 52

3.2.2 Carefully manipulate the probe to identify and maximise the

chosen signals. Then adjust the time base controls (e.g. 'delay' and 'range multiplier') so
that the first of the multiple echoes (not the transmission, pulse) coincides with the zero
graticule mark and a subsequent echo 'coincides with an appropriate graticule mark at the
right hand end of the screen.

3.2.3 When the correct spacing of echoes has been established, adjust the 'delay' only so
that the first of the multiple echoes is placed at the graticule mark which is to correspond it
its true range. The zero mark will then correspond to the effective point of entry of the
ultrasound pulses into the material.

3.3 Frequency of checking

The check shall be carried out whenever the probe is changed, or daily,
whichever is more frequent.

4. Linearity of equipment gain

4.1 General
4.1.1 This is a check on the combined result of two characteristics which affect
linearity of equipment gain, i.e. linearity of amplifier and the accuracy of the calibrated
control.
4.1.2 The linearity shall be checked with the flaw detector controls (frequency, range, pulse
energy, etc) switched to positions to be employed in subsequent testing. Variable
suppression and swept gain controls shall be switched to 'off'.

4.2 Method
4.2.1 Position the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a small
reflector e.g. the 1.5 mm hole in the A2 block or the 1.5 mm or 5 mm hole in the A4 block.

4.2.2 Adjust the gain to set this signal to 80% of full screen height and note the
value of the calibrated control. Adjust the calibrated control to increase the gain by
2 dB. The signal should increase to full screen height. Restore the gain to its
original value and then reduce it by a further 6 dB. The signal should fall to 40% of
full screen height. Reduce the gain by a further 12 dB. The signal should fall to
10% of full screen height. Reduce the gain by a further 6 dB. The signal should fall
to 5% of full screen height.

4.3 Frquency of checking

The check shall be carried out at least once per week.

5. Probe index

5.1 General
This check applies only to shear wave probes. The probe index may be checked on
the standard A2 or A4 calibration block each of which has a cylindrical reflector
M.GANZ Page 21 15/02/2003
Page 22 of 52

(quadrant).

5.2 Method

5.2.1 Position the probe on the appropriate side of the block to

obtain a reflection from the quadrant. Move the probe backwards and forwards to
maximise the amplitude of the reflected signal, taking care to move the probe parallel
to the block sides.

5.2.2 When the signal is at maximum, the probe index will correspond to the engraved
line on the block which marks the geometrical centre of the quadrant.

5.3 Frequency of checking

This will depend on the rate of probe wear due to usage and to the roughness of the
testing surface. When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check
be carried out at least every few hours, ortherwise, a daily check is recommended.
6. Beam angle
6.1 General
Beam angle can be checked on several standard calibration blocks. The A5 block is
particularly useful for this purpose as it permits accurate measurements of beam angle
at a series of ranges by sighting the probe on a series of small diameter transverse
holes. Careful measurement and plotting (or calculation) is, however, necessary to
obtain beam angle because the block does not have calibrated graduations or
reference marks.
6.2 Method
Place the probe in such a position as to receive a reflected signal from the selected
transverse hole in the calibration block. Move the probe backwards and forwards
to maximise the signal from the hole. When the signal is maximised, the beam
angle can be measured using the probe index position determined as described in
5.1.

6.3 Frequency of checking

Frequency of checking will depend on the rate of probe wear due to
usage and to the roughness of the testing surface. When a probe is in continuous
use, it is recommended that the check be carried out at least every few hours;
otherwise, a dally check is recommended.

7. Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio

7.1 General
7.1.1 The main objective of this check is to provide the operator with a simple method
which will allow a deterioration in sensitivity of the probe and the flaw detector in
combination to be identified. A simple method for checking sensitivity is given but it is
not intended as a method of defining working sensitivity which should be set according
M.GANZ Page 22 15/02/2003
Page 23 of 52

to the requirements of the job and the testing standard being applied.

7.1.2 The standard A2 calibration block, using the 1.5 mm diameter hole, or the A4
block, using the 1.5 mm or 5 mm diameter hole, are suitable.
7.1.3 The sensitivity shall be checked with the relevant flaw detector controls, e.g.
frequency, pulse, energy, suppression/reject, pulse repetition frequency range setting,
set to the positions to be used in subsequent testing.

7.2 Method
7.2.1 Place the probe on the chosen calibration block and adjust its position to
maximise the signal from the transverse hole to be used as a sensitivity check. Adjust
the calibrated control (dBO to set this signal to a low but clearly readable screen
height, e.g. 20% and note the setting. Using the calibrated control, increase the gain
until the overall system noise (electronic noise or grain structure grass) at the same
range as the target hole reaches the same chosen height and note the new setting.

7.2.2 The first gain measurement noted provides a check on the

sensitivity of the probe and flaw detector and the difference between the first and
second measurements (dB) gives the signal-to-noise ratio. In each case, check
these parameters at the particular range selected.
7.3 Frequency of checking
Unless otherwise agreed, the check shall be carried out once per probe per day.

8. Beam alignment (squint)

8.1 Method
8.1.1 Squint may be checked in the course of carrying out the checks on probe index or
beam angle. If the probe beam is correctly aligned, the maximum reflected signal from
the quadrant of the ——— A2 or A4 blocks will be obtained with the edge of the probe
parallel to the edge of the block. If this is not the case, the beam alignment (squint) angle
can be estimated by measuring the angle between the two edges.

8.1.2 For shear wave probes, the method described in 8.1.1 will detect a squint angle of
about 5°.

8.2 Frequency of checking

Unless otherwise agreed, the check shall be carried out once per week and when probe
wear/damage is suspected.

M.GANZ Page 23 15/02/2003

Page 24 of 52

9. Beam width in vertical plane

9.1 General
The check can be carried out using the standard A2, A4 (with 1.5 mm diameter hole)
or A5 calibration block, each of which incorporates a small transverse hole at a
convenient range.

9.2 Method
Measure the distance between the positions (forward and backward for shear wave
probes) at which the signal falls to one tenth (i.e. by 20 dB) of its maximum.

9.3 Frequency of check

This will depend on the rate of probe wear due to usage and to the roughness of the
testing surface. When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check
be carried out at least every few hours, otherwise, a daily check is recommended

10.1 General

10.1.1 This check on the probe and flaw detector in combination,

measures the effect on the displayed signal of probe damping, matching, amplifier
bandwidth, built-in suppression and smoothing circuits.
10.1.2 The pulse duration check requires only the display on the
calibrated time base of the reflected signal from a transverse hole in a standard A2 or A4
calibration block for shear wave probes, or a backwall echo for compressional wave
probes.

10.1.3 The check should be made with the relevant flaw detector controls e.g. frequency,
pulse energy, suppression/reject level, set to the positions to be used in subsequent
testing and the probe should be connected in the same manner (cables, connectors,
matching coils, etc.) as will subsequently be used.

10.2 Method
Having calibrated the time base in millimetres, display the required signal and set its
peak to 100% screen height. Measure the width of the signal in millimetres at the 10%
screen height position.

M.GANZ Page 24 15/02/2003

Page 25 of 52

10.3 Frequency of checking

Unless otherwise agreed, the check should be carried out daily and, for shear wave
probes in conjunction with the check on probe index.

M.GANZ Page 25 15/02/2003

Page 26 of 52

Range of checks Frequency of check

Linearity of the time base ( at least once a week )
Calibration of the time base ( whenever a probe is changed or daily )
Linearity of equipment gain ( at least once a week )
Probe index (s) ( a daily check is recommended )
Beam angle (s) ( a daily check is recommended )
Sensitivity and signal – to – noise ratio ( once per probe per day )
Beam alignment (squint ) ( at least once per week )
Beam alignment in vertical plane(s) ( a daily check is recommended )
Pulse duration ( daily in conjunction with check on probe
index.
Note . s represents angle probe

BEAM PROFILE
The sound beam emitted from a single crystal probe conforms to this idealized shape very
approximately.

It can be seen that the near field boundary is approximately parallel and that the beam
diverges in the far field .

This divergence is according to the law of diffraction and applies to light as well as to sound .
the law governing this angle is sinγ = k x λ/DIA where k is a factor dependent upon the
percentage energy content at the extreme edge of the beam. For example for an infinitely low
level of energy the k factor is 1.22 but for a more practicable and workable level of 10% the k
factor is 1.08 for transmission . as we work in reflection the correct factor is 0.87 .
Thus the standard form is :
Sinγ20 = 0.87* λ/ D=0.87*C/D*f

Sinγ 6 = 0.51* λ/ D=0.51*C/D*f

In the far field energy returned to the probe from reflectors will be proportional to the area of
the reflectors and to the distance of the reflectors from the probe.
The usual distance laws are obeyed in the far field , small reflectors following the principle of
the inverse square law whereas large reflectors diminish at a rate which is inversely
proportional to increasing distances.
The near field length can be calculated from the formula :

NF = D2/4* λ Or D2 * F/4*C WhereD is the effective dia. Of the probe crystal

F = frequency c = velocity
In the near field of the beam , reflectors encountered during a search , return energy to the

M.GANZ Page 26 15/02/2003

Page 27 of 52

probe which bears no relation to the distance laws and a chart such as the D G S diagram
should be consulted . from the D G S diagram it will be seen that very small reflectors will
have the greatest variation of amplitude whilst the larger reflectors have a more equal
response at any distance in the near field .

the reference system for the sound beam of probes MB 4 S – N

M.GANZ Page 27 15/02/2003

Page 28 of 52

WELLS KRAUTKRAMER*
The Use of the Krautkramer D.G.S. Diagram for the Measurement of
Attenuation and the Calculation of Equivalent Flaw Size
The D.G.S. diagram provides information on the intensity of sound reflection from discs
of different diameters at different distances, relative to the intensity from a back wall
echo. Normalised units are used for distance and size, so that the D.G.S. diagram can
be used for probes of differing crystal sizes and frequencies.
ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
1. Choose a flawless section of the material. Select two back echoes of distance
ration 2:1, the first to be at least 3 near zones distance.

2. With the calibrated gain control, measure the dB difference between the two
selected echoes.

3. Because the two selected distances are in the ratio of 2:1, deduct 6dB from (2) to
allow for beam spread.

The remaining dB value is the attenuation resulting from the passage of the ultrasonic
energy travelling twice the distance between the chosen back echoes.

4. The attenuation for material at the frequency of the probe in use in dB/mm is
therefore:-

Measured dB difference between back echoes - 6 dB (beam spread)

Twice the distance between back echoes selected This is the material attenuation

factor, and is expressed in dB/mm @ MHz.

M.GANZ Page 28 15/02/2003

Page 29 of 52

FLAW SIZING

1. .Calibrate the flaw detector for distance.

2. Adjust the first back wall echo to say 80% F.S.H., with the calibrated and
uncalibrated gain control.

3. By probe manipulation obtain maximum echo height from flaw in material. From the
screen of the flaw detector, measure the distance between the flaw and the back
echo. Multiply twice this distance by the material attenuation factor calculated in
(4) of attenuation measurement.

We intend to compare the flaw echo height' with that from a back wall at the same
distance as flaw. So:-

4. Measure the dB value required to bring the flaw echo to 80% F.S.H. (The back wall
echo height in (2).

N.B. If the flaw echo is greater than the back echo,, the dB difference would be a
minus value.

The flaw echo height is now being compared with that from the specimen back wall.
The height of this back wall echo is less than it would be at the flaw distance, because
the ultrasonic energy has been attenuated in travelling from the flaw, to and from the
back of the specimen. The magnitude of attenuation was calculated in (3). Therefore:-

5. Add the dB value measured at (4) to that calculated at (3) to give a

corrected gain distance between the flaw and a back echo at exactly the same
distance.

Now refer to the D.G.S Diagram

6. Express distance of flaw from probe in mm.

7. Express the back wall echo distance in mm.

Deduct the corrected gain (5) from the Back Wall Echo line at this distance.

Project the point found to the left until the flaw distance (6) is reached.

8. The S line value intersecting this point indicates the equivalent flaw diameter
expressed in terms of the probe diameter.

M.GANZ Page 29 15/02/2003

Page 30 of 52

M.GANZ Page 30 15/02/2003

Page 31 of 52

M.GANZ Page 31 15/02/2003

Page 32 of 52

M.GANZ Page 32 15/02/2003

Page 33 of 52

M.GANZ Page 33 15/02/2003

Page 34 of 52

THE WELLS-KRAUTKRAMER ULTRASONIC TESTING SCHOOL

A) Lamination Testing
3 samples, painted yellow, to be examined (2 steel and 1 aluminium).
i) Measure thickness of plate.
ii) Measure depth of defect.
iii) Where possible, record plan of laminations.
B) Friction Welded Pieces (Green Identificatiion) 5 off i) Test for lack of fusion.
C) Aluminium Block (Yellow Spot Identification)
i) Note defect orientation.
D) Steel Ball
i) Is it flawless ii) What is its diameter?
E) Red Cylindrical Test Block Green Cylindrical Test Block
i) Measure velocity.
ii) Find flaw depth.
iii) What is the dB difference between the flaw echoes?
iv) What conclusion do you draw from this difference?
v) What is the diameter of each block?
F) Steel Block for Defect Size Assessment (Use 4 Mc/s l0mm probe)
i) Measure attenuation of steel block.
ii) Measure dB difference between holes 2 and 3 and relate their diameter.
iii) iMeasure absolutely the size of the holes 1 and 2 using the AVG diagram.
G) Centre Line Defects in Bar
1) 3 Brass Bars
a) Test for continuous or separate defects in the center of the bars.
b) Measure the length of each bar.
2) 4 Steel Bars
a) Test for centre line defects.
b) Measure diameter of three different bars.
H) , Adhesion
1 - Test 1 set of Contacts
2 - bearing Shells
I) 2 Forgings
Develop technique to Indicate incorrect heat treatment (large grain) at the sawn ends.
J) 2 Bi-metal Parts (AL./Steel)
Test for bonding.

M.GANZ Page 34 15/02/2003

Page 35 of 52

THE WELLS-KRAUTKRAMER ULTRASONIC TESTING SCHOOL

Angle Probes
Beam profile plotting utilising the Calibration Block BS2.704-A5' I.O.W. Block).

This method may be used with normal as well as angle probes.

The beam profile produced can have a 10% edge (20 dB) or a 50% edge (6dB) and the method
of technique required is described on sheet A.P.I.
The results obtained from this test will then be plotted on the beam profile chart provided, or any
proprietary chart.

A practical use for this beam profile is for the popular 20 dB drop method of flaw sizing and the
technique for this is described on Sheet A.P.2.
AP1 Procedure for Plotting 20 dB Edge Beam Profile
Using Beam Calibration Block (I.O.W.)
1) Calibrate screen for suitable beam path distance (100mm - 200mm).
2) Select radially drilled hole in I.O.W. block and measure depth with ruler from scan
face.

3) Pick up maximised signal from selected hole and carry out the following actions:

i) Note beam path (screen) reading.

ii) Note amplitude of signal (adjust to convenient amplitude if necessary).

iii) Mark block opposite the probe index.

4) Move probe forward until amplitude of signal noted in 3 (ii) reduces by ,20 dB (10/1).

5) Mark block opposite probe index.

6) Return probe to position in (3) and then move probe backward until ;amplitude
noted in 3 (ii) reduces by 20 dB.

7) Mark block opposite probe index.

8) . Measure and note forward and backward movements of probe.
9) Tabulate results.

10) Carry out actions 2) - 9) for as many holes as required.

M.GANZ Page 35 15/02/2003

Page 36 of 52

11) Plot results onto beam plot chart.

N.B. Forward movement of probe measures rear of beam

Backward movement of probe measures front of beam

M.GANZ Page 36 15/02/2003

Page 37 of 52

PROCEDURE FOR CHECKING BEAM PLOT

45°PROBE

1. Using the I.O.W. calibration block and the six drilled holes as reflectors (Fig.l)

2. Construct a right angle on perspex sheet using corner 'a' :

of test block.
3.' Corner reflector 'b' at half skip should give a reading of approximately 112 mm. range
from the CRT screen.

4. Locate centre of beam to centre of reflectors "c". Maximise reflection, the record
range and stand off. Mark index of probe position on block.

5. Locate top edge of reflectors bottom of beam 20 dB down from - centre. Record stand
off and range. Mark probe index position on test block.

6. Locate bottom of reflectors with top of beam. Record stand off and range. Mark probe
index position on block.

7. Transfer the above measurements to the previously constructed

right angle on perspex sheet marking stand off positions first.

8. .Lay the transparency-over beam plot position B coinciding with

beam zero point, measure range along bottom of beam. Accurately mark this position on

M.GANZ Page 37 15/02/2003

Page 38 of 52

transparency.

9. Move transparency to align position T at beam zero point,

measure range along top of beam and accurately mark position.
10. Transfer and align transparency on test block to check accuracy of beam plot.

NOTE For 70 probe, follow the above procedure using the four
drilled holes in the I.O.W, calibration block as reflectors.

ULTRASONIC TESTING SCHOOL I RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE FOR

ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING
1. Check Parent Metal.

Prior to weld testing the parent metal on both sides of the weld should be tested for
laminations.

2. Prepare Test Procedure.

The parent metal on both sides of the weld is cleaned in the area between half skip
and full skip distance. This area should be free of dirt, rust, loose scale and weld
spatter. Mark the limits of the scanning track and apply couplant.

3. Probe Selection.

The choice of angle probe depends on the plate thickness. See the plate thickness/probe
angle tables which apply to flat plate and the testing of circumferential welds in pipes. If
the welds are at right angles to the curvature (e.g. longitudinally welded tubes) the probe
angle selected will be smaller than that chosen for flat plate. The appropriate probe
angle results from considerations of the ratio of weld thickness to tube diameter O.D.

Minature probes (type MWB) are often used because of their excellent resolution.

Large probes (type WB) are used when penetration is important and large areas have to be
covered.

4. Time Base Calibration.

Precise calibration is necessary where the test requirements include flaw location.

Calibration techniques, previously described, include:-

1) Beam Path

M.GANZ Page 38 15/02/2003

Page 39 of 52

2) Projection Distance
3) Projection distance from front of probe - -1%
4) Point calibration.

5. Sensitivity Setting

a) Ideally to set the test sensitivity a reference specimen with 'reference defects' must be
available.
b) Alternatively use the VI or V2 test-block and adjust the echo from the 1.5 nun hole or
the rear wall radius, (100 mm or 25 mm) to an appropriate height. Refer now to the
D.G.S. chart and make allowance for Transfer Loss and Attenuation.
c) Another alternative is to use the appropriate D.G.S. scale and attach it to 'the Flaw
Detector.
d) A rough setting is achieved if the gain is adjusted until a 'noise' signal from the weld
metal is seen. on-the base line of the C.R.T.

6. Flaw Estimation.

Accurate flaw analysis may not be necessary on low rated — welds and can be processed
on a simple GO/NOGO standard. Higher rated welds will be analysed according tothe
pattern indicated in the Welding Institute publication •Ultrasonic Testing of Butt Welds' and
shown in brief on hand-out 24.
The probe movements - lateral - traversing - orbital and rotational if performed will help
to confirm the defect
type.

Flaw size estimation can be done by referring to a reference-standard or D.G.S,,

chart. If the beam profile
is known then the 10% edge of the beam may be- used to 'size'

the inclusion.
A large reflector will be 'sized' using the 6dB drop or / 50% technique. Experience is the
most essential factor at-. this stage. The use of flaw location aids, flaw location I
rules, perspex slides etc, can help at this time.
Test Result Record.
The weld testing results should be entered either in a record form by the test operator, or
a record chart should be produced, with flaw indication which can be evaluated later.

Each record should contain information about the flaw detector employed, the probe, the
calibration, the method of adjusting test sensitivity, the evaluation method.
Note also the weld reference number and the weld section reference.
A record chart shows in diagrammatic form the location of inclusions in the weld.
The most suitable diagram will show a cross-section of the weld, a plan view and a

M.GANZ Page 39 15/02/2003

Page 40 of 52

longitudinal view showing depth.

A typical diagram is illustrated. If the flaw detector includes a proportional output monitor
it can be arranged for a paper record to be produced on a
pen-recorder as performed by the USK5MR & Recorder.
1 Place: Letchworth Date: March 31st, 1971 test operator G.S.

,2. Test object : weld sample S.C./O.G. 3171

dimensions : 250 x 300 x 20 mm (10 x 12 x 0.8")

material quality : Mild Steel

shaping : flame cut

surface : as rolled

3. Test requirement : 1) flaw detection in the weld

2) flaw size determination according to the half value method (6dB drop)

FLAW DETECTOR: USM2

probe : MWB 70
calibration : In projection distance 0 - 150 mm (0 - 6")
sensitivity

adjustment : echo from the 1.5 mm (1/16") diameter bore hole of the V 2. test block to 1/2 CRT-screen height
evaluation : half-value depth extension:

half-value longitudinal extension:

transverse extension

RESULTS
From the tabulated results obtained a record chart shown below could be produced I-t will be seen that defects occurred between:

1) 5 - 45 mm 2) 105 - 145 mm 3) 205 - 220 mm

M.GANZ Page 40 15/02/2003

Page 41 of 52

M.GANZ Page 41 15/02/2003

Page 42 of 52

Determination of Probe Angle and Skip Distance for Curved Surface

As will be seen from fig 1 the value pg and Sg obtained for plane sheets must be corrected for curved sheets (e.g. pipes) by
being multiplied by factors fp and fs. These factors depend upon the external pipe diameter. They can be taken from figs. 2
and 3.

EXAMPLE; In the case of a plate 40mm thick using a 45° probe we obtain skip distance and beam path values pe = 80mm and Se =
57mm. For a pipe of similar thickness 40/300 (wall thickness 40mm external diameter 300mm) the value pe and ee must be
multiplied as shown in figs. 2 and 3 by the factors fp = 1,86 or fs - 1,32 so that for this pipe the values pr -149mm and sr. = 75mm
are obtained. The limits of the graphs (figs. 2 and 3) are obtained when the centre if the incident ultrasonic beam just grazes the
OD
inner wall of the pipe. This occurs, for instance, at a t = 0.03 for a 70° probe.

It is not possible to test a pipe where t>0.03 with a 70° angle probe
OD

when we are searching for flaws at the inner wall. Nevertheless the angle of the beam itself of some 6,50° permits some
exceeding of this limiting value of t_ OD

M.GANZ Page 42 15/02/2003

Page 43 of 52

M.GANZ Page 43 15/02/2003

Page 44 of 52

M.GANZ Page 44 15/02/2003

Page 45 of 52

M.GANZ Page 45 15/02/2003

Page 46 of 52

M.GANZ Page 46 15/02/2003

Page 47 of 52

M.GANZ Page 47 15/02/2003

Page 48 of 52

Distance Amplitude Correction (D.A.C.) Curves

:Reference reflector: A5 block 1.5 mm Cross Drilled Holes (C.D.H.).

Reference curves: Primary reference curve determined by minimum of 3 C.D.H. from A5
block. Screen calibrated to 100 mm Full Screen Width (F.S.W.).

Method: 1. First hole selected at 13 mm deep.

2. Set to 80% F.S.H. by use of attenuator. Plot on plastic insert.
3. Repeat for other C.D.H.
4. Record attenuator reading along with probe number and set type on plastic
insert.
5. Produce 20% reference curve by using same C.D.H., with signal reduced by
14 dB.
6. Produce a set of curves for 45°, 60°, 70°, angle probes.
7. Produce for timebases of 100, 200 mm F.S.W.
8. Repeat 1-5 for compression probe to depth required.

Acceptance levels: 1. All cracks rejectable.

2. Flaw echo above Reference Level (R.L.) rejectable. Flaw echo below (R.L.)
but above 20% R.L. recordable.
3. All flaw echoes under 5 mm in length only recorded if above R.L.
, Search Sensitivities: Between 6 - 10 dB may be added for search purposes, this addition must
be recorded.
Sizing methods:
1. All sizing to be carried out at the reference :level (P.R.L.).
2. Where possible always size and record dB on half skip.
3. Use 6 dB and 20 dB sizing methods.

M.GANZ Page 48 15/02/2003

Page 49 of 52

THE WELLS-KRAUTKRAMER ULTRASONIC TRAINING SCHOOL

Angle Probes
To test welds, castings of forgings and the assess the size of the faults it is important to establish
the correct Sensitivity Level otherwise the operator will either under or over estimate the
significance of the flaw echo.

•Sensitivity in this context means the ability to detect small reflectors at the appropriate distance.
The creation of a distance, amplitude (D.A.C.) corrected curve on the screen of the ultrasonic
equipment by the operator, as described on Sheet A.P.3., gives a visual reminder of the fall off of
amplitude of echo with distance within the testing range.

This method of approach to sensitivity levels is extremely Important with

angle probes.

An alternative to the D.A.C. curves is the D.G.S. Scale (see AP4 for use). A scale is chosen for
the angle probe and the range of test and the set-up procedure establishes sensitivity levels
related to F.B.H. sizes at relevant distances. An advantage for the prepared D.G.S. scales would
be absolute repeatability for each test/operator. N.B. The D.G.S. scales use F.B.H. as their
targets and D.A.C. normally uses the side drilled hole. These target types are not equal in
amplitude for the same diameter holes at equal distance apart from the 20 dB drop, 6 dB drop
D.G.S. and comparator block methods of flaw size estimation. A technique known as the
maximum amplitude or max. amp. method is also favoured by some technicians.

Maximum Amplitude depends upon the operator observing that as the probe is manipulated
around the flaw the echoes received fluctuate in height due to the irregularity of the surface of the
fault.

If the operator takes a reading at each maximum point i.e. (surface distance and beam path)
then all of these readings are plotted out on a Beam Plotting Chart using only the beam centre
line.

B.S. 3933 Pt I 1986 has introduced a new concept in the evaluation of imperfections in welds
where the operator is Invited to study the echodynamic pattern (see AP5).

It will be easier to visualise these shapes if a USD10 digitised equipment is used with the peak
C.R.T. facility which freezes the envelope'.

M.GANZ Page 49 15/02/2003

Page 50 of 52

1) : Reference echo from 1.5 mm hole in V2 block.

2) Range Calibration marks.
3) Amplitude curies for transfer loss.
4) . Table of dB values added to change value of curves I, II, III.
5) Curve I = recording level Curve II = Curve I = 12 dB

a) A V2 block is used to calibrate the line base by using the markers 2).

b) Next the echo from the 25 mm radius is set to the circle R2 1).
c) An increase in gain by the number of dB obtained from. the table 4) so that the curves I, II or
III relate to a F.B.H. dia.

d) An allowance for transfer (dB) from the calibration block to the workpiece may be made
utilizing the chain dotted curves 3).

Finally flaws may now be evaluated

M.GANZ Page 50 15/02/2003

Page 51 of 52

General guide

High frequency : less beam spread

Greater sensitivity

Greater resolution

Greater attenuation

Pour penetration

Low frequency : deeper penetration

Less attenuation

Greater beam spread

Less sensitivity

Less resolution

Usually desirable to test at the lowest frequency that will locate specified minimum sizes
and types of discontinuity consistently

Small grain size steels 2.25 to 5 mhz

Microscopic inclusion 10mhz

Medium carbon steel castings 1 to 5mhz

Small forgings 5 to 10 mhz

Large forgings 2.25 to 5mhz

High carbon steel 500khz

Cast iron less than 500khz

M.GANZ Page 51 15/02/2003