MENSCHEN FÜR MENSCHEN

FOUNDATION
AGRO-TECHNICAL AND TECHNOLOGY
COLLEGE

Department of Manufacturing Technology

Lecture Notes
On
Maintenance of Machinery
(MANF 5317)

Compiled by: Tesfaye G/Michael

HARAR, ETHIOPIA

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 MANF 5317 Maintenance of Machinery
1. Basic Information on the Subject

College/School Agro – Technical and Technology College, Harar

Degree Course B.Sc. in Manufacturing Technology

Semester I

Course Code MANF 5317 Maintenance of Machinery

Credit (ECTS) 3 (5)

Contact hours 7

Status* Compulsory

Number of 27
Participants

Responsible Lecturer

Involvement of other staff Assistant for practical/tutorial Computer Programming

members Applications

2. Course will be taken in the following degrees:

B.Sc. in Manufacturing Technology

3. Competence to be attained in the subject / contribution to the qualification of the degree:

The course enables students to understand:

 To enable students to carry out maintenance on an asset, for example a machine, in order to
ensure that it continues to perform its indented function. It involves the service, repair,
adjustment etc. Of equipment to ensure it keeps on achieving its designed function. It often
includes such action like plant modification; Installation and commissioning all of which often
come under the maintenance remit.

4. Participation requirements/pre-requisite/
Senior standing

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5. Examination details:

Exam. number Examination Duration in Participation Percentage of final

type minutes requirements grade

MANF 5317 Practical 90 None 15

Practical 90 None 15

Written 120 None 30

Practical 180 None 40

6. Total Student workload for the courses

Course Teaching Contact hours Student Total Credit (ECTS)

method additional workload
Hours Total workload
hours
/week

Lecture 1 16 30 46

Tutorial

Practical 6 96 96

Home study

Total 7 112 30 142 3 (5)

7. Detailed description of the course contents

Proper installation and layout; Continuous monitoring of safe working; Effective planned
maintenance; Corrective maintenance procedures; Fault-finding and diagnostic techniques;
Ensuring quality output and standards; History of operation, failure and operating costs;
Purchasing and budgetary considerations

Course Content

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Course Outline:
1. Introduction
1.1.Maintenance functions
1.2.Maintenance costs
1.3.Organization for maintenance
2. Reliability
2.1.Reliability engineering and reliability functions
2.2.Useful life
2.3.Repair time distribution
2.4.Weibull application
2.5.Standby systems
2.6.Maintainability and availability
3. Maintenance Policies
3.1.Maintenance types
3.2.Preventive maintenance
3.2.1. PM for functional characteristics and large-scale systems
3.2.2. Repair policy
3.2.3. PM and break down maintenance
3.2.4. Statistical applications
3.2.5. Replacement models
3.3. Defects/ failure list generation and failure analysis
3.3.1. Failure generation
3.3.2. Failure reporting & collection
3.3.3. Failure analysis
4. Logistics
4.1.Spare parts control
4.2.Overall/optimum availability
4.3.Maintenance planning

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 4.3.1 Priority rules
4.3.2 Maintenance staffing
4.3.3 Maintenance manual
5. Advanced Techniques
5.1.Condition monitoring
5.2.Vibration monitoring
5.3.Over All equipment effectiveness (OEE)
6. Layout of Workshops
6.1.Principles of layout
6.1.1. Product layout
6.1.2. process layout
6.1.3. fixed position layout

7. Machine Installation and Commissioning

7.1. Introduction
7.2. General Requirement
7.3. Machine Installation Guideline
7.4. Machine Foundation
7.5. Leveling and Elevation
7.6. Machinery Mounts
7.7. Epoxy Grouts
7.8. Commissioning

Teaching methods/size of class/necessity of tutorials

 Lectures supported by tutorials

 Group project work
 Individual assignment
 Practical project work

General conditions/organisational necessities

 Minimum of 90% attendance during lecture hours; and 100% attendance during project work
sessions, except for some unprecedented mishaps

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Literature and Materials

Text:
Maintenance Planning and Control- A. Kelly, East West Press.

References:
 Maintenance Fundamentals, R. Keith Mobley
 Maintenance and Spare Part Management, P.
 Gopalakrishnan, A.K. Banerji
 Quality Management of Maintenance Process, Eichler
 Management of Industrial Maintenance, Kelly A., Harris, M.J.

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CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction
Definition: Maintenance is:
 Continuing repair work: work that is done regularly to keep a machine, buildings, or
pieces of equipment in good condition and working order.
 Up keep: the general condition of something with respect to repairs.
 Continuation of something: the continuation or preservation of something unchanged or
unimpaired.
 Provision of the means to support life.
 Cause to continue; keep up (an activity, operation etc.)
 Assert as true.
 Preserve in good repair.
The old concept of maintenance was "maintenance is about preserving physical assets".
However, the new concept is that "maintenance is about preserving the function of assets".
Today, engineers are giving rise to concepts like "asset care", which, as the name implies, seeks
to care for assets. They have also led maintenance strategists to believe that maintenance is all
about preserving the inherent reliability or built-in capacity of any asset. When we maintain an
asset, the state which we wish to preserve must be one in which it continues to do whatever its
user want it to do. This in turn implies that we have to focus our attention on maintaining what
each asset does rather than what it is.

Actually, maintenance is an age-old function, which developed and progressed, knowingly or

unknowingly, along with the operation of the equipments/ machines. In early ages, maintenance
was not a separate identify but the job of maintenance was considered as part and parcel of
operator's job. This was possible because of simplicity and openness of the machines.

However, with the growth of industrialization, the complexity and sophistication of the
machines increased and the machines become less open. This started creating problem for the
operating personnel and the concept of maintenance as a separate identity and separate
discipline started. Maintenance prevention was probably known first in 1960s from a factory
magazine in United States, which said that maintenance prevention meant design and
manufacture or purchase of equipment which are almost free of maintenance.

The growth and speed of inflation of 1970s gave rise to new awareness of the rising cost of
downtimes or loss of use. Also, the asset and equipment/ component replacement cost become
so inflated and increased that well managed maintenance programmers, to enhance the life of
the existing equipments/ components become the essential aspects of all maintenance strategies.

Today, in most industries, plant engineering is probably the biggest force to increase
productivity (other than the motivated operating force) and maintenance engineering/
management is the most important component of plant engineering. Maintenance is an

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investment that buys/ gives more production time. With the increased complexity,
sophistication and automation of the equipments and systems, a very serious burden falls on
maintenance engineers regarding the quality and quantity of maintenance, maintenance aids and
their documentation etc. Again, we cannot cope up today's jobs and problems with yesterday's
tools and techniques. As such continues development is needed in maintenance areas also for
developing new tools and techniques to tackle today's need and also anticipated need of
tomorrow.

1.1. Maintenance Functions

To get a smooth, reliable and cost-effective maintenance in a company, different functions in
the company has to be coordinated and not only the maintenance department alone. primarily it
affects questions of economical, technical and organizational nature at a system level.
Maintenance function is the more dominant amongst those. Earlier the objective of maintenance
function was considered to optimize plant availability at minimum cost. Today it is being
considered as "maintenance affects all aspects of business effectiveness and risk-safety,
environmental integrity, energy efficiency, product quality and customer services, not just plant
availability and cost.

Maintenance function can be grouped in two categories-- Basic Functions (job-wise) and
Composite functions.

A) Basic Functions
These normally include following types of jobs/functions (No 1 to 4 are normally main
functions and others are associated functions).
1. Replace. To remove unserviceable item and install a serviceable counterpart in its place.
2. Repair. The application of maintenance services, including fault location / troubleshooting,
removal installation, and disassembly/ assembly procedures, and maintenance actions to
identify troubles and restore serviceability to an item by correcting specific damage, fault,
malfunction, or failure in a part, sub-assembly, module (component or assembly), end item,
or system.
3. Overhaul. That maintenance effort (service/action) prescribed to restore an item to a
completely serviceable/operational condition as required by maintenance standards in
appropriate technical publications. Overhaul is normally the highest degree of maintenance
performed by the industry. Overhaul doesn't normally return an item to like new condition.
4. Rebuild. It consists of those services/ actions necessary for the restoration of unserviceable
equipment to a like new condition in accordance with original manufacturing standards.
Rebuild is the highest degree of material maintenance applied to any equipment. The rebuild
operation includes the act of returning to zero those age measurements (hours/ K.ms, etc.)
considered in classifying equipment/components. Reconditioning, renovation or other such
items are also used for rebuild.
5. Service/ Lubricate. Operations required periodically to keep an item in proper operating
condition, i.e., to clean (includes decontaminate, when required), to preserve, to drain, to

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 paint, or to replenish fuel, lubricants, chemical fluids, or gases. Lubrication is introduction
of any of various substances between sliding surfaces to reduce wear and friction
6. Inspect. To determine the serviceability of an item by comparing its physical, mechanical,
and/or electrical characteristics with established standards through examinations.
7. Test. To verify serviceability by measuring the mechanical or electrical characteristics of an
item and compare those characteristics with prescribed standards.
8. Adjust. To maintain, with in prescribed limits, by bringing in to proper or exact position, or
by setting the operating characteristics to specified parameters.
9. Align. To adjust specified variable elements of an item to bring about optimum or desired
performance.
10. Calibrate. To determine and cause corrections to be made or to be adjusted or instruments
or test, measuring, and diagnostic equipment used in precision measurement. consists of
comparison of two instruments, one of which is a certified standard of known accuracy, to
detect and adjust any discrepancy in the accuracy of the instrument being compared.
11. Install. The act of emplacing, seating, or fixing in to position an item, part, or module
(component or assembly) in a manner to allow the proper functioning of an equipment or
system, etc.

B) Composite Functions
These include functions like:
1. Protecting the buildings, structures and plants/ factories.
2. Reducing downtimes and increasing equipment availability; also helping in increasing
equipment utilization.
3. Controlling and directing labor forces.
4. Economy in maintenance department.
5. Maximizing utilization of available resources.
6. Ensuring safety of installation and reducing environmental pollution.
7. Cost reduction and cost control; Also helping in costing of individual jobs and departments,
8. Preparing maintenance budgets.
9. Waste reduction and waste recovery.
10. Improving technical communication.
11. Training of maintenance personnel on related jobs, etc.

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Purpose of Maintenance
The main purpose of maintenance in an industrial perspective is to reduce the business risks, In
general, operation and maintenance is synonymous with high level of availability, reliability
and assets operability linking directly with productivity and business profit.

1.2. Maintenance cost

A maintenance cost is the total cost in doing and getting done the maintenance jobs and keeping
a maintenance organization. In addition to maintenance and up keeping plant's equipments,
facilities and utilities, often, maintenance department is also charged with the responsibility of
construction, modification, rearrangement and buildings, equipments and other assets. The
treatment of costs, associated with such activities, depend on the nature of jobs undertaken.

Cost of inadequate maintenance or no-maintenance are in the nature of "opportunity lost cost",
which are, normally, not recorded in any system of cost accounting as part of regular reporting
system. "Opportunity lost costs" is the difference between what the company could have
produced and earned throughout the lifecycle or designated shorter period and what is actually
earned as a result of no or improper maintenance action during that period. It may also include
cost/loss due to lower rate of output, poor quality of products, wastages, defectives, damage to
equipments and reduction in useful life of equipments, arising from inadequate maintenance.
Policy must minimize the total maintenance cost and also cost of inadequate maintenance.

Types of Maintenance Costs

Different maintenance costs are of complex nature and, so, generally following three
classifications are used to identify and account those costs for different purposes.

1. Fixed & Variable Costs

For planning and control purpose, maintenance costs are generally divided in to two types-
"Fixed" and "Variable"; in the same way as they are used in other departments like production
and sales etc. of course, many maintenance costs fall in grey or overlapping area of "Semi-
variable".

A Plant/ industry, generally, has to have a maintenance department/ section/ service, with
necessary tools, facilities/ equipments with necessary workmen/ technicians and supervisors in
readiness to attend breakdowns, urgent repairs/ adjustments and to render other services,
demands of which may arise in course of operation of equipments or as demanded by the
operating personnel the equipment. Such" ready to serve" men and facilities are "fixed costs",
which have little relationship with the actual amount of work done during a given period of
time. However, other maintenance costs, such as cost of major repairs and overhauls and costs
of maintenance spares, materials and facilities etc, tend to vary directly with the level/ amount
of maintenance activities. These costs are termed as "variable costs". Some maintenance actions

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like small PM, PDM, and condition monitoring etc. fall in "semi-variable cost" type/ category,
as they vary only little and again not in proportionate to the level of production.

This classification can be further divided depending up on two types of assets; one is
"Maintenance cost for fixed assets" which covers buildings, shop structures, drinking water,
electrical power for buildings and shops etc, which has little relationship with scale of
operation/ production or output. The other one is "maintenance cost for production Assets &
Facilities", which covers maintenance cost of all other equipments and facilities, including raw
water or production water, electrical power for equipments and fuel costs etc and they tend
to vary with the level of production. This cost needs to be analyzed more seriously and
controlled.

2. Direct/ Indirect (Apparent/ Hidden) Costs

In this classification all costs are divided in to "Direct" or "Apparent" costs and "indirect or
hidden" costs. "Direct maintenance costs" are those which are essentially required to keep the
equipments and systems operable. The results from periodic inspection, condition monitoring,
PM, PDM, corrective maintenance, major repairs and overhauls etc come in this category.
These are easily visible and apparent. "Indirect maintenance costs" are again of two types;
"Extra costs" and "Penalty costs" and are generally not clearly visible. Extra include extra costs
for standby equipments to put on line when primary equipment is inoperable or is under
maintenance, standby equipments for regular rotation and many other such costs. "Penalty
costs" include production loss when primary equipment is out of service and there is no
standby, excess inventory, waste generation and many others.

The interactions between these three costs are complex. Again, the direct cost and extra cost are
controllable but the penalty is not so controllable.

3. Revenue/ Capital costs

Another way of classifying the total maintenance cost as either "Revenue Expenditure/ Cost" or
"capital Expenditure/ cost". Revenue expenditure includes all costs which are covered by
revenue budget allocated for various maintenance activities for a group of equipments/ sections
or shops. In revenue budget, some minor adjustments of cost/ expenditure is possible from one
equipment to another or from one type of job to another. Revenue budget is normally allocated
for one year and almost all normal maintenance jobs are to be done with in that. Any leftover
revenue budget is, normally, not carried over to next year.

Capital expenditure/ cost are covered by capital budget, which are specifically sanctioned for
specific job on specific equipment, generally in connection with "Addition, Modification and
replacement" schemes, other new jobs or few jobs of heavy nature, which are generally not
taken in regular course of maintenance. No adjustment of capital budget is permissible from one
equipment to another or from one job to another.

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 Maintenance Cost Components
Basing on classification and types of costs, maintenance cost includes huge number of
activities, few of which are enumerated herewith:
1. Cost of "ready to serve men, tools and facilities etc,
2. Cost of men, equipment and facilities for CM and other diagnostic monitoring,
3. Cost of PM, CBM, and PDM etc, intended to minimize breakdowns,
4. Cost of corrective maintenance and such other repairs,
5. Cost of major repairs, overhauls, revamping and other such activities,
6. Cost of materials (spares, consumables, tools, tackles); cost of storing & transportation,
7. Cost of diagnostic and monitoring equipments/ tools,
8. Cost of overtime for different reasons,
9. Cost of captive shops and other central services/ facilities, attached to maintenance
organization/ department,
10. Cost of external agencies and services for monitoring, testing, calibrating and guiding,
11. Cost of other direct and indirect men, including clerical staff,
12. Cost of contractors and other maintenance outsourcings,
13. Cost of, books, literature, standards, guides purchased, cost of stationary and printing
various formats,
14. Cost of training and development of maintenance personnel (inside or outside plant),
15. Regulatory and statutory expenditures and fines and cost for safety & environmental
protection;
16. Insurance liability for automobiles and other equipments, health and life of workmen and
workers compensation; etc.

Cost Control in Maintenance

Companies today are placing great emphasis on controlling costs in all aspects of its activities.
While focusing on human capital cost control opportunities in the area of benefits, compensation,
utilization and other key human capital areas, it also focuses on other areas like materials,
services and administration etc. It also helps in implementing appropriate strategies to maximize
those areas and helps companies improve efficiencies, eliminate waste and enhance the bottom
line.

Maintenance plays a great part in any industry and has enough, rather continuous scope for cost
control. It basically needs strict discipline (technical and other wise) in carrying out the jobs.
Evolving good standard operating practices (SOP), standard maintenance practice (SMP), work
instructions and job manuals are prelude to that. Few specific principles/ areas of maintenance
cost control are given herewith:

1. Keep breakdown cost separate from PM, PDM, and CBM costs and ensure that ratio is
not exceeded. Breakdown maintenance cost tries to maintain the status-que and do not

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 add any value to the equipment/ process/ product. If the distinction and the ratio between
the two types of costs are not controlled. Tendency will be to take more break- down or
ad hock jobs and differ other jobs to reduce total cost and that would be very harmful in
the long run.
2. Extra cost-consciousness on part of maintenance engineers does not often bring in good
result. Extra cost-conscious person tends to use inferior (but cheaper) material and
replace the part only it has completely worn-out and beyond reclamation, both being bad
in the long run. They should be more quality-conscious, which automatically leads to
cost-consciousness.
3. Cost presentation must precede cost control in maintenance. The final task for
maintenance personnel is to prevent breakdown cost by improving technical systems and
practices and taking preventive action in time. Again, all preventive and predictive
maintenance cost to be analyzed for their essentiality. Thus, breakdown cost to be
prevented and preventive/predictive maintenance costs to be controlled.
4. Planning and installing new cost reduction measures, which are also known as cost
control measures on the basis of performance analysis, failure analysis and RCA etc. such
cost reduction measure call for improvement over existing equipment/system, where
earlier mentioned cost prevention has limited scope.
5. Waste reduction and waste recovery-Lot of waste material are generated in course of
maintenance, e.g. used engine oil, lubrication oil, welding electrode ends/butts, used tool-
bits, small cut plates and industrial water etc. various measures can be taken to reduce
such wastes; such as using high performance and long drain interval oils to change oils
less frequently, using more automatic and semiautomatic welding with wire feeder in
place of manual welding, using proper planning and templates before cutting plates,
necessary inline cleaning and recycling of industrial water, etc. Even after taking waste
reduction measures, some waste will be generated. Waste Recovery measurement
including collection of such waste and recycling/recovering those so that those can be
used subsequently either in place of original application or for other applications.
Recycling (refining and regenerating used industrial oils (lubricating, engine or hydraulic
oils) and reclamation of tool-bits etc are few examples.
6. Salvaging of spare sub-assemblies-Though repair of components and subassemblies is a
regular maintenance job, salvaging involves bigger and intricate assemblies or
subassemblies which, normally, cannot be done within the plant. Today many costly
subassemblies can be salvaged by techniques in chapter 3 or otherwise.

Salvaging brings huge cost saving. However, salvaging jobs are only taken if the
salvaging cost is not more than 45% of cost of new part or the part is "difficult to
procure" or has become obsolete; etc.

Maintenance Budget
Budget is a forecast of expenditure and revenues (i.e. itemized estimate of income and spending)

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for a specific period of time. It is the list of proposed expenditures and expected receipts of any
person, enterprise, industry or government for a specific period, usually one year. Budget
estimates are based on the expenditure and recipients of a similar previous period, modified by
any expected changes.

Budgeting of maintenance costs is very essential and also very beneficial to control maintenance
costs as maintenance is a service organization and, probably, no better way is available to control
its cost. Other benefits of maintenance budgeting are: -

1. It improves the system effectiveness and efficiency of maintenance organization. Increase of

expenditure over budget is. Generally, because of inadequate/wrong/ untimely planning.
2. As maintenance personnel know their budget in advance, they plan their expenditures
(spares, materials, contract, jobs etc) judiciously and timely so that no job is held up for
shortage of funds.
3. It is very effective technique for projecting future and additional requirement of fund.

However, disadvantage and problems are faced if budgeting has been done properly and with
foresight and if the budget is not flexible. In that case, maintenance in-charge has to run from
pillar to post to carry some urgent job and also face lot of delay.

1.3. Organizations for Maintenance

Organizing is the process of arranging resources (people, materials, technology etc.) together to
the organization’s strategies and goals. The way in which the various parts of an organization are
formally arranged is referred to as the organization structure. It is a system involving the
interaction of inputs and outputs. It is characterized by task assignments, workflow, reporting
relationships, and communication channels that link together the work of diverse individuals and
groups. Any structure must allocate tasks through a division of labor and facilitate the
coordination of the performance results. Nevertheless, we have to admit that there is no one best
structure that meets the needs of all circumstances. Organization structures should be viewed as
dynamic entities that continuously evolve to respond to changes in technology, processes and
environment.
Frederick W. Taylor introduced the concept of scientific management (time study and division of
labor), while Frank and Lilian Gilbreth founded the concept of modern motion study techniques.

The contributions of Taylor and the Gilbreths are considered as the basis for modern
organization management Until the middle of the twentieth century maintenance has been carried
out in an unplanned reactive way and for a long time it has lagged behind other areas of
industrial management in the techniques and/or information technology. With realization of the
impact of poor maintenance on enterprises’ profitability, many managers are revising the
organization of maintenance and have developed new approaches that foster effective
maintenance organization.

Maintenance cost can be a significant factor in an organization’s profitability. In manufacturing,

maintenance cost could consume 2–10% of the company’s revenue and may reach up to 24% in

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the transport industry (Chelson, Payne and Reavill, 2005). So, contemporary management
considers maintenance as an integral function in achieving productive operations and high-
quality products,
while maintaining satisfactory equipment and machines reliability as the era of automation,
flexible manufacturing systems (FMS), “lean manufacturing”, and “just-in-time” operations.

However, there is no universally accepted methodology for designing maintenance systems, i.e.,
no fully structured approach leading to an optimal maintenance system (i.e., organizational
structure with a defined hierarchy of authority and span of control; defined maintenance
procedures and policies, etc.).

Identical product organizations, but different in technology advancement and production size,
may apply different maintenance systems and the different systems may run successfully. So,
maintenance systems are designed using experience and judgment supported by a number of
formal decision tools
and techniques. Nevertheless, two vital considerations should be considered: strategy that
decides on which level within the plant to perform maintenance, and hence outlining a structure
that will support the maintenance; planning that handles day-to-day decisions on what
maintenance tasks to perform and providing the resources to undertake these tasks.

The maintenance organizing function can be viewed as one of the basic and integral parts of the
maintenance management function (MMF). The MMF consists of planning, organizing,
implementing and controlling maintenance activities. The management organizes, provides
resources (personnel, capital, assets, material and hardware, etc.) and leads to performing tasks
and accomplishing targets.

In designing the maintenance organization there are important determinants that must be
considered. The determinants include the capacity of maintenance, centralization vs.
decentralization and in-house maintenance vs. outsourcing. A number of criteria can be used to
design the maintenance organization. The criteria include clear roles and responsibilities,
effective span of control, facilitation of good supervision and effective reporting, and
minimization of costs.

Maintenance managers must have the capabilities to create a division of labor for maintenance
tasks to be performed and then coordinate results to achieve a common purpose. Solving
performance problems and capitalizing on opportunities could be attained through selection of
the right persons, with the appropriate capabilities, supported by continuous training and good
incentive schemes, in order to achieve organization success in terms of performance
effectiveness and efficiency.

Maintenance Organization Objectives and Responsibility

A maintenance organization and its position in the plant/whole organization is heavily impacted
by the following elements or factors:
 Type of business, e.g., whether it is high tech, labor intensive, production or service;
 Objectives: may include profit maximization, increasing market share and other social
objectives;

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  Size and structure of the organization;
 Culture of the organization; and
 Range of responsibility assigned to maintenance.
Objectives are heavily impacted by maintenance and therefore the objectives of maintenance
must be aligned with the objectives of the organization. The principal responsibility of
maintenance is to provide a service to enable an organization to achieve its objectives. The
specific responsibilities vary from one organization to another; however, they generally include
the following:

1. Keeping assets and equipment in good condition, well configured and safe to perform
their intended functions;
2. Perform all maintenance activities including preventive, predictive; corrective, overhauls,
design modification and emergency maintenance in an efficient and effective manner;
3. Conserve and control the use of spare parts and material;
4. Commission new plants and plant expansions; and
5. Operate utilities and conserve energy. The above responsibilities and objectives impact
the organization structure for maintenance.

Determinants of a Maintenance Organization

The maintenance organization’s structure is determined after planning the maintenance capacity.
The maintenance capacity is heavily influenced by the level of centralization or decentralization
adopted. In this section the main issues that must be addressed when forming the maintenance
organization’s structure are presented. The issues are: capacity planning, centralization vs.
decentralization and In-house vs. outsourcing.

Maintenance Capacity Planning

Maintenance capacity planning determines the required resources for maintenance including the
required crafts, administration, equipment, tools and space to execute the maintenance load
efficiently and meet the objectives of the maintenance department. Critical aspects of
maintenance capacity are the numbers and skills of craftsmen required to execute the
maintenance load. It is difficult to determine the exact number of various types of craftsmen,
since the maintenance load is uncertain. Therefore, accurate forecasts for the future maintenance
work demand are essential for determining the maintenance capacity. In order to have better
utilization of manpower, organizations tend to reduce the number of available craftsmen below
their expected need. This is likely to result in a backlog of uncompleted maintenance work. This
backlog can also be cleared when the maintenance load is less than the capacity. Making long
run estimations is one of the areas in maintenance capacity planning that is both critical and not
well developed in practice.
Centralization Vs. Decentralization
The decision to organize maintenance in a centralized, decentralized or a hybrid form depends to
a greater extent on the organization's philosophy, maintenance load, size of the plant and skills of
craftsmen.

The advantages of centralization are:

1. Provides more flexibility and improves utilization of resources such highly skilled crafts
and special equipment and therefore results in more efficiency;

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 2. Allows more efficient line supervision;
3. Allows more effective on the job training; and
4. Permits the purchasing of modern equipment.

However, it has the following disadvantages:

1. Less utilization of crafts since more time is required for getting to and from jobs;
2. Supervision of crafts becomes more difficult and as such less maintenance control is
achieved;
3. Less specialization on complex hardware is achieved since different persons work on the
same hardware;
4. More costs of transportation are incurred due to remoteness of some of the maintenance
work.

In a decentralized maintenance organization, departments are assigned to specific areas or units.

This tends to reduce the flexibility of the maintenance system as a whole. The range of skills
available becomes reduced and manpower utilization is usually less efficient than in a centralized
maintenance. In some cases, a compromise solution that combines centralization and
decentralization is better. This type of hybrid is called a cascade system. The cascade system
organizes maintenance in areas and whatever exceeds the capacity of each area is challenged to a
centralized unit. In this fashion the advantages of both systems may be reaped.
.
In-house Vs. Outsourcing
At this level management considers the sources for building the maintenance capacity. The main
sources or options available are in-house by direct hiring, outsourcing, or a combination of in-
house and outsourcing. The criteria for selecting sources for building and maintaining
maintenance capacity include strategic considerations, technological and economic factors.
The following are criteria that can be employed to select among sources for maintenance
capacity:

1. Availability and dependability of the source on a long-term basis;

2. Capability of the source to achieve the objectives set for maintenance by the organization
and its ability to carry out the maintenance tasks;
3. Short term and long-term costs;
4. Organizational secrecy in some cases may be subjected to leakage;
5. Long term impact on maintenance personnel expertise; and
6. Special agreement by manufacturer or regulatory bodies that set certain specifications for
maintenance and environmental emissions.

Examples of maintenance tasks which could be outsourced are:

1. Work for which the skill of specialists is required on a routine basis and which is readily
available in the market on a competitive basis, e.g., Installation and periodic inspection
and repair of automatic fire sprinkler systems; Inspection and repair of air conditioning
systems; Inspection and repair of heating systems; and Inspection and repair of main
frame computers etc.
2. When it is cheaper than recruiting your own staff and accessible at a short notice of time.
.

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Design of the Maintenance Organization
A maintenance organization is subjected to frequent changes due to uncertainty and desire for
excellence in maintenance. Maintenance and plant managers are always swinging from
supporters of centralized maintenance to decentralized ones, and back again. The result of this
frequent change is the creation of responsibility channels and direction of the new organization’s
accomplishments vs the accomplishments of the former structure. So, the craftsmen have to
adjust to the new roles. To establish a maintenance organization an objective method that caters
for factors that influence the effectiveness of the organization is needed. Competencies and
continuous improvement should be the driving considerations behind an organization’s design
and re-design.

Basic Types of Organizational Models

To provide consistently the capabilities listed above we have to consider three types of
organizational designs:
.
A) Centralized maintenance. All crafts and related maintenance functions report to a
central maintenance manager. The strengths of this structure are: allows economies of
scale; enables in-depth skill development; and enables departments (i.e., a maintenance
department) to accomplish their functional goals (not the overall Organizational goals).
This structure is best suited for small to medium- size organizations. The weaknesses of
this structure are: it has slow response time to environmental changes; may cause delays
in decision making and hence longer response time; leads to poor horizontal coordination
among departments and involves a restricted view of organizational goals
.
B) Decentralized maintenance. All crafts and maintenance craft support staff report to
operations or area maintenance. The strengths of this structure are that it allows the
organization to achieve adaptability and coordination in production units and efficiency
in a centralized overhaul group and it facilitates effective coordination both within and
between maintenance and other departments. The weaknesses of this structure are that it
has potential for excessive administrative overheads and may lead to conflict between
departments.

C) Matrix structure, a form of a hybrid structure. Crafts are allocated in some proportion to
production units or area maintenance and to a central maintenance function that supports
the whole plant or organization. The strengths of this matrix structure are: it allows the
organization to achieve coordination necessary to meet dual demands from the
environment and flexible sharing of human resources. The weaknesses of this structure
are: it causes maintenance employees to experience dual authority which can be
frustrating and confusing; it is time consuming and requires frequent meetings and
conflict resolution sessions. To remedy the weaknesses of this structure a management
with good interpersonal skills and extensive training is required.
Material and Spare Parts Management
The responsibility of this unit is to ensure the availability of material and spare parts in the right
quality and quantity at the right time at the minimum cost. In large or medium size organizations
this unit may be independent of the maintenance organization; however, in many circumstances

18
it is part of maintenance. It is a service that supports the maintenance programs. Its effectiveness
depends to a large extent on the standards maintained within the stores system.
Establishment of Authority and Reporting
Overall administrative control usually rests with the maintenance department, with its head
reporting to top management. This responsibility may be delegated within the maintenance
establishment. The relationships and responsibility of each maintenance division/section must be
clearly specified together with the reporting channels. Each job title must have a job description
prescribing the qualifications and the experience needed for the job, in addition to the reporting
channels for the job.
Quality of Leadership and Supervision
The organization, procedures, and practices instituted to regulate the maintenance activities and
demands in an industrial undertaking are not in themselves a guarantee of satisfactory results.
The senior executive and his staff must influence the whole functional activity. Maintenance
performance can never rise above the quality of its leadership and supervision. From good
leadership stems the team- work which is the essence of success in any enterprise. Talent and
ability must be recognized and fostered; good work must be noticed and commended; and
carelessness must be exposed and addressed.
Incentives
The varied nature of the maintenance tasks, and differing needs and conditions arising, together
with the influence of production activity, are not attuned to the adoption of incentive systems of
payment. There are, however, some directions in which incentives applications can be usefully
considered. One obvious case is that of repetitive work. The forward planning of maintenance
work can sometimes lead to an incentive payment arrangement, based on the completion of
known tasks in a given period, but care must be taken to ensure that the required standards of
work are not compromised. In some case, maintenance incentives can be included in output
bonus schemes, by arranging that continuity of production, and attainment of targets, provides
rewards to both production and maintenance personnel.
Education and Training
Nowadays it is also recognized that the employers should not only select and place personnel,
but should promote schemes and provide facilities for their further education and training, so as
to increase individual proficiency, and provide recruits for the supervisory and senior grades. For
senior staff, refresher courses comprise lectures on specific aspects of their work; they also
encourage the interchange of ideas and discussion.
The further education of technical grades, craft workers, and apprentices is usually achieved
through joint schemes, sponsored by employers in conjunction with the local education authority.
Employees should be encouraged to take advantage of these schemes, to improve proficiency
and promotion prospects. A normal trade background is often inadequate to cope with the
continuing developments in technology. The increasing complexity and importance of
maintenance engineering warrants a marked increase in training of machine operators and
maintenance craftsmen through formal school courses, reinforced by informed instruction by
experienced supervisors.
The organization must have a well-defined training program for each employee. The following
provides guidelines for developing and assessing the effectiveness of the training program:
 Evaluate current personnel performance;
19
  Assess training need analysis;
 Design the training program;
 Implement the program; and
 Evaluate the program effectiveness.
The evaluation is done either through a certification program or by assessing the ability to
achieve desired performance by persons who have taken a particular training program.
The implementation of the above five steps provides the organization with a framework to
motivate personnel and improve performance

Management and Labor Relations

The success of an undertaking depends significantly on the care taken to form a community of
well-informed, keen, and lively people working harmoniously together. Participation creates
satisfaction and the necessary team spirit. in modern industry, quality of work life (qwl)
programs have been applied with considerable success, in the form of management conferences,
work councils, quality circles, and joint conferences identified with the activities. The joint
activities help the organization more fully achieve its purposes.

20
CHAPTER 2
2. Reliability
Reliability can be defined as the probability that a system or product will perform in a
satisfactory manner for a given period of time when used under specified operating conditions in
a given environment. This definition stresses the elements of "probability", "satisfactory
performance", "time", and "operating conditions". These four elements are extremely important,
since, each plays a significant role in determining system/product reliability.

Probability: the first element in the reliability definition, is usually stated as a quantitative
expression representing a fraction or a percent signifying the number of times that an event
occurs(successes), divided by the total number of trials. For instance, a statement that the
probability of survival (ps) of an item for 80 hrs. is 0.75 (75%) indicates that the item will
function properly for at least 80 hrs., 75 times out of 100 trials. When there are a number of
supposedly identical items operating under similar conditions, it can be expected that failures
will occur at different points in time; thus, failures are described in probabilistic terms. The
fundamental definition of reliability is heavily dependent on the concept derived from probability
theory.

Satisfactory performance: indicates that specific criteria must be established to describe what is
considered as satisfactory operation. A combination of qualitative and quantitative factors
defining the function that the system is to accomplish, usually presented in the context of a
system specification, is required.

Time: is one of the most important since it represents a measure against which the degree of
performance can be related. One must know the "time" parameter in order to assess the
probability of completing a mission or a given function as scheduled. Of particular interest is
being able to predict the probability of an item servicing, without failure, for a designated period
of time (sometimes designated as R or P). Also, reliability is frequently defined in terms of mean
time between failure (MTBF), mean time to failure (MTTF), or mean time between maintenance
(MTBM); thus, the aspect of time is critical in reliability measurement.

The specified operating conditions: under which we expect a system or product to function
constitute the forth significant element of the basic reliability definition. These conditions
include environmental factors such as geographical location where the system is expected to
operate, the operational profile, the transportation profile, temperature cycles, humidity,
vibration, shock, and so on. Such factors must not only address the condition for the period when
the system is operating, but the condition for the period when the system (or elements thereof) is
in a storage mode or being transported from one location to another. Experience has indicated
that the transportation, handling, and storage modes are some times more critical from a
reliability standpoint than the condition experienced during actual system operational use.

21
These four elements are critical to determining the reliability of a system or product. System
reliability (or unreliability) is a key factor in determining the frequency of maintenance and
maintenance priorities which, in turn, have a significant impact on the requirements for system
support and ultimate life-cycle cost.

2.1. Reliability Engineering and Reliability Functions

Reliability:
Reliability is a broad term that focuses on the ability of a product to perform its intended
function. Mathematically speaking, assuming that an item is performing its intended function at a
time equal zero (i.e. assuming that the item is in a state to perform this required function at the
beginning of the time interval), reliability can be defined as the probability that an item will
continue to perform its intended function without failure for a specified period of time under
stated conditions (in specified environments, and with desired confidence that can be specified,
designed in, predicted, tested and demonstrated). The term product, defined here, could be
electronic or mechanical product / component, hardware, a soft product, a manufacturing
process, or service etc. Usually, unless stated to the contrary, reliability is deemed to include
durability.

The term reliability is also used as a reliability characteristic denoting a probability of success, or
a success ratio of following two types:
 Mission or assignment reliability. The ability of an item to perform its required
mission or assignment critical functions for the duration of specified mission or life
profile (e.g. missile or space ship etc.)
 Basic reliability. The ability of an item to perform its required function without failure
for the duration of a specified mission profile. (products/ processes/ services etc in
industries).

Reliability Engineering
Is the application of reliability concept in engineering or industries and in more concerned with
basic reliability i.e. life data analysis of inanimate objects, such as equipments, components,
system and processes etc. Reliability engineering covers all aspects of a product's life, from its
conception, subsequent design and production processes, as well as through its practical use life
time, with maintenance support and availability. Reliability engineering covers all three aspects
of RAM i.e. reliability, availability and maintainability and all three of these areas can be
numerically quantified with the use of reliability engineering principles and life data analysis.
Reliability engineering helps in striking a proper balance between reliability, customer
satisfaction, time to market, sales and features, and profitability.

We also often hear about "Human Reliability" and "Operational Reliability". Human reliability
can be defined as the probability of accomplishing a job or task successfully by human at any
required stage in system operation within a minimum specified time limit. Operational reliability
is actually amalgamation of "human reliability", "process reliability", "equipment reliability" and

22
"equipment maintainability". Operational reliability introduces a systemic approach to eliminate
the failure causes and bad reliability factors, affecting the critical processes and overall company
profitability. For achieving business excellence, operational reliability has to take care of all the
four components mentioned above.

Importance of Reliability
In today's highly competitive and technologically complex environment, there are a number of
reasons why reliability is an important product attribute, such as:
1. Reputation of the company/ industry.
2. Customer satisfaction.
3. Warranty costs, if a product fails to perform its function within the warranty period, the
replacement and repair costs will negatively affect profit.
4. Repeat business; improved reliability has a positive impact on future business.
5. Cost analysis; This life cycle cost analysis can prove that although the initial cost of their
product might be higher, the overall lifetime cost is lower than a competitor's because
their product requires fewer repairs or less maintenance.
6. Customer requirements. Many customers in today's market demand that their suppliers
have an effective reliability program.
7. Competitive advantage. Many companies will publish their predicted reliability numbers
to help gain an advantage over their competition who either does not publish their
numbers or has lower numbers; etc.

Difference between Reliability and Quality

Although the terms reliability and quality are often used interchangeably, there is a difference
between these two disciplines. While reliability is concerned with the performance of a product
over its entire lifetime, quality control is concerned with the performance of a product at one
point in time, usually during the manufacturing process. Reliability assures that components,
equipment and systems function without failure for desired periods during their design life, from
conception (birth) to junking (death). Quality control is a single, albeit vital, link in the total
reliability process. Quality control assures conformance to specifications. Quality control also
checks that the incoming parts and components meet specifications, that products are inspected
and tested correctly and that the shipped products have a quality level equal to or greater than
that specified. No product can perform reliably without the inputs of quality control, because
quality parts and components are needed to go into the product so that its reliability is assured.

Again, even though a product may have a reliable design, it may effectively be unreliable when
fielded, which is actually the result of a substandard manufacturing process. As an example, cold
solder joints could pass initial testing at the manufacturer, but fail in the field as the result of
thermal cycling or vibration. This type of failure did not occur because of an improper design,
but rather it is the result of an inferior manufacturing process. As such, a highly reliable product
is only as good as the inherent reliability of the product and the quality of the manufacturing
process/ installation etc.

23
Reliability Testing
Reliability testing is a combination of functional testing and performance testing, focusing more
on reliability aspects. Functional testing focuses solely on the outputs generated in response to
selected inputs and execution conditions and verifies that an application works as intended from
a user's perspective. Performance testing is a class of tests implemented and executed to
characterize and evaluate the performance-related characteristics of the target-of-test, such as the
timing profiles, execution flow, response times, and operational reliability and limits. Reliability
testing does both these, although it breaks down reliability in to integrity, structure, and stress
tests components etc.

Few Reliability Testing Methods

Category of tests Few specific tests

Mechanical integrity  mechanical shock
 Vibration, variable frequency
 Thermal shock
 Solderability; weldability & weld cross-section
 Constant acceleration/ centrifuge
 Particle Impact Noise Detection (PIND)
 Scalability etc.
Endurance  Temperature cycle
 Highly accelerated stress test (HAST)
 Highly accelerated life testing (HALT)
 Cyclic moisture
 Constant acceleration, accelerated aging; etc.
Electrical  E-beam testing and microcircuit isolation
characterization  Navigation & CAD Tools for circuit layout isolation
 Optical beam induced resistance change
 Resistive contrast imaging; etc.
Hermeticity  Fine leak detects (Helium)
 Gross leak detects (NID) negative ion detection; etc.
Special tests  ESD Threshold (HBM &MM)
 Environmental stress testing (EST); etc.

Often over-testing is done to determine the performance margin and to induce actual failure so
that mode of failure can be examined and possible corrective action can be taken. The tests may
be:
1. Abbreviated life tests; by predicting the characteristic failure patterns,
2. Failure - repair runs; by running till failure. Often the MTBF is considered as MTTF for
end use,

24
 3. Accelerated test; by developing ways to have continuous actuations or revolutions etc
what the equipment would have taken in two or more years. In these tests, units of MTBF
or MTTF are not time but number of actuations or revolutions; etc.
4. Test for increased severity; by increasing the required temperature, vibration, current
strength or dust concentration; etc.
5. Test for large sample size; etc.

Like quality assurance, the term reliability assurance is the planned and systematic set of
activities that ensure that process and products/ systems conform to requirements, standards, and
procedures. It normally includes activities involved in designing, manufacturing, installation,
coding, testing and maintaining etc. Occasionally a reliability assurance agreement is also made
with different agencies. Often, on high value contracts, contractors are required to submit
reliability test plans and environmental stress screening reports if burn-in is a requirement of the
item's technical data package.

Reliability prediction:
Reliability prediction and Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) calculations provide the basis
for reliability evaluation and analysis. Prediction techniques have a worldwide acceptance and
encompass a range of statistical models for various applications. By allowing you to assess the
reliability of your design prior to production, reliability predictions enable you to build with
confidence. You are able to pinpoint areas of concern, quickly analyze design changes, and
improve overall product reliability. It contains mainly the following components:
1. Prediction tool/ Method. It performs reliability allocation calculations, support de-rating
analyses, and provide a visual report designer to display your results in an informative
and professional style,
2. Parts libraries. It contains different components including electrical and mechanical part
types with their associated data parameters. By using standard, proven component
libraries you are able to accelerate the process of evaluating and modeling MTBF and
product reliability calculations, gaining a significant time saving.
3. Reliability prediction analysis. It provides you with a comprehensive solution to meet
all of your prediction needs.
4. Prediction models. It enables you to mix models (from standard known models) within a
single project, allowing you to select the model most appropriate to each section of your
design.

Reliability Functions
Failure Rate and Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF)
Failure rate and mean time between failure are the most commonly used reliability measures.
Failure rate (λ) simply refers to the frequency of failures, or the rate at which failures occur over
a unit interval of time. It may be defined in terms of number of failures per hour or per million
hours, or of percent failures per 1000 hours. Failure rate (λ) is expressed as:

25
 number of failures
λ=
total operating hrs .

Failure rate as a reliability measure can be adapted to a particular system or mission scenario. It
is often expressed in terms of a certain number of system operation cycles, mission phase, or
distance. While determining the number of system failure is usually not a problem, defining the
time variable could be. The time variable is impacted by the nature of the experimental
procedure, the component duty cycles, and mission scenarios. consider the case where the system
is repaired up on experiencing a failure and the test is continued to completion. The total time in
this case is the product of the test time and the number of units undergoing test. Next, consider
the case where failed units are not repaired and the time to failure in each instance is recorded. In
this case, the total time is the sum of the individual test times of failed units and the product of
the test duration and the number of units that successfully completed the test.

As an example, suppose 10 units were tested under specified operating conditions where the test
time is 600 hrs, and assume that failed units are not repaired. Failure occur as follows:
 Unit 1 failed after 75 hours
 Unit 2 failed after 125 hours
 Unit 3 failed after 130 hours
 Unit 4 failed after 325 hours
 Unit 5 failed after 525 hours
Five units successfully completed the test cycle. The failure rate (λ) , in number of failures per
hour, can be expressed as:
5 5
λ= = = 0.001196
75+125+130+325+525+ 5(600) 4180
As a second example, consider a given system with an operating cycle as depicted in figure 2.1.
The total operating time in this case is 152 hours and the system fail a total of six times as
indicated. The failure rate per hour is:
number of failures 6
λ= = = 0.03947
total operatin time 152
Further, assuming an exponential time density function, the system mean life or the mean time
before failure (MTBF) is:
1 1
MTBF = = = 25.3357 hours
λ 0.03947

26
 Figure 2.1 A Typical System Operational Cycle

Mean Time to Failure (MTTF) and Mean Time to First Failure (MTFF):
Mean time to system or component failure (MTTF) is often confused and used interchangeably
with MTBF. While it can be used for repairable systems, it is a common reliability measure for
no repairable systems and components such as light bulbs, transistors, and resistors etc. Mean
time to failure is defined as the mean time to system failure measured from a particular reference
point in time or mission state.
It can be expressed as:
MTTF =
Total number of operating hours for an equipment population
a particular reference time ¿
Total number of population failures ¿
Where the equipment item can be both repairable or non-repairable. Mean time to first failure
(MTFF) is another reliability measure often used for systems that exhibit a varying failure rate
characteristic of redundant systems. It can be defined as the mean time to system failure
measured from the reference point when the relevant systems are new and not used.

2.2. Useful life

Definition: The length of time that a depreciable asset is expected to be useable.

Useful life: An estimate of how long one can expect to use an income-producing item in a trade
or business setting. Useful life usually refers to duration for which the item will be useful (to the
business), and not how long the property will actually last. Many factors affect a property's
useful life, including the frequency of use, the age when acquired and the repair policy and
environmental conditions of the business. The useful life for identical types of property will
differ from user to user depending on the above factors, as well as additional factors such as
foreseeable technological improvements, economic changes and changes in laws.

What is useful life period? Beyond the infant mortality period, in the useful life period, the
failure rate is assumed to be determined by the exponential distribution. The failure rate here is at
its lowest and relatively constant during this period. It begins after 10,000 hours (or 1 year) of

27
device operation. Reliability during this period must be specified as a single, essential constant
failure rate. an operating temperature of 55 0c? an activation and normal voltage are used for life
time and reliability calculations.

Service life: A product service life is its expected life time, or the acceptable period of use in
service. It is the time that any manufactured item can be expected to be serviceable or supported
by its manufacturer.

2.3. Repair Time Distribution

Repair: Constitutes a series of corrective maintenance tasks required to return an item to a
serviceable condition. this may include the replacement of parts, the alteration of material,
fixing, sealing, fitting and so on.

Adequate Time to Repair

One of the fundamental reasons that most plants rely on breakdown maintenance is that tight
production schedules and management constraints limit the time available for maintenances. The
only way to reduce the number of frequencies of breakdown repair is to allow sufficient time for
proper maintenance.

Plant management must permit adequate maintenance time for all critical plant systems before
either preventive or corrective maintenance can be effective. In the long term, the radical change
in management philosophy will result in a dramatic reduction in the downtime required to
maintain critical production and manufacturing equipment. Machinery that is maintained in as-
new condition and not permitted to degrade to a point that breakdown or serious problems can
occur will require less maintenance than machinery maintained in a breakdown mode.

Estimating Time
Since inspection or preventive maintenance is a standardized procedure with little variation, the
tasks and time required can be accurately estimated. Methods of developing time estimates
include consideration of such resources as:

 Equipment manufacturers' recommendations.

 National standards such as means for facilities.
 Industrial engineering time-and-motion studies.
 Historical experience.
Experience is the best teacher, but the procedure determined from historical experience must be
carefully critiqued to make sure that it truly is the" best way" and that the pace of work is
reasonable.

The challenge in estimating is to plan a large percentage of the work (preferably at least 90%) so
that the time constraint is challenging but achievable without a compromise in high quality. The
trade-off between reasonable time and quality requires continuous surveillance by experienced
supervisors. Naturally, if a maintenance mechanic knows that his work is being time studied, he

28
will follow every procedure specifically and will methodically check off each step of the
procedure. Periodic checking against national or time-and-motion standards, as well as trend
analysis of repetitive tasks, will help keep preventive task times at a high level of effectiveness.

Maintenance Time Standards (MTS)

Maintenance time standards (i.e. standard times for various maintenance jobs) is an effective
means for planning, scheduling and controlling in order to cut down costs, not only in terms of
money but also in terms of mental stress, strain and frustration that a chaotic control cause.

However, occasionally it is questioned that it is feasible to set maintenance time standard and
often following arguments are put forward for that:

 In maintenance, the variety of jobs are too many and many jobs are non-repetitive, unlike
the case in production/operation and so the setting of time standards is very difficult.
 The work conditions are not fixed and vary from time to time. As an example, in one
case, a bolt may be opened in one minute using simple tool while, in another case, the
similar bolt may not get opened by common tools due to jamming and may have to be
chopped-off. As such, how a uniform maintenance time standard can be established even
for repetitive jobs?
 Another problem is the variability in the methods used by different workmen. In
maintenance, it is difficult to specify the job motion by motion as is possible for other
repetitive jobs.

Yet it is possible to develop maintenance time standards with reasonable accuracy. The above-
mentioned arguments are mere apprehensions and, even if serious deviation occurs because of
those, the percentage of such cases will be very less.

Following are some of the techniques for setting up (arriving at) maintenance time standards:

 Breaking down the job in to small elements: Even if most of the jobs may be of non-
repetitive nature on over all basis, if the job is broken down in to smaller measurable
elements (like tightening bolt, removing cover plate or welding 50mm long seam of 8mm
fillet etc.), time standard can be set for each element and logical sum of times of all the
elements will give the maintenance time standard for the job.
 Range of time: Instead of setting up exact time standards a close range of time is set up as
maintenance time standard for that job. As an example, a work man may be allowed 4 to
5 hours for total job of changing of one valve in a pipe line system. This range of time is
not the optimistic and pessimistic time of PERT but a close range. Though 95% of jobs
may be completed in this time range. Some problems may be faced later in project work
or major repair work when times for all such jobs are to be added to find the time of total
project/job.
 Statistical analysis of past records: This would need segregation and analysis of past
records of considerable period during which each job was done for at least 3to4 times,

29
 However, maintenance time standard, calculated in this way, will be less challenging as
all the past delays would be legalized and assumed to occur again.
In the methodology of setting up maintenance time standard, analysis of all (100%) jobs may not
be possible as either that would be too much of a job or some job might not have occurred so far.
Generally, a number of key jobs (bench mark jobs) are analyzed and their time standards are set
up. These standard times (or key jobs) are then synthesized in some formulae to find out the
standard time of other jobs. Alternatively, the work content of unmeasured jobs is compared with
the work content of measured key jobs and then the maintenance time standard for un-measured
job is given. while setting up such time standard time likely to be consumed in non-productive
activities (e.g. obtaining instructions, travel time & collecting tools etc.) are also to be
considered.

Such maintenance time standards are quite beneficial as these would lead to:

 Increase performance with decrease cost.

 Reduction in delays through improved planning and scheduling.
 Better supervision etc.

2.4. Weibull Application (or life data analysis)

It is the process of discovering the trends in product or system failure data, by statistical means,
and using them to predict future failures in similar situations. By learning these trends, you can
attempt to correct or compensate for them, thereby improving product reliability. It can be used
to study variety of fields, practices, and disciplines. Weibull distribution is one of the most
widely used distributions for failure data analysis, especially useful for mechanical, chemical,
electrical, electronic, materials, and human failure analysis.

Weibull analysis can help us in finding the followings-

 What type of failure mechanism is the root cause?

 How many failures are expected?
 How reliable is the existing part compared to a possible new design?
 When should I replace an existing part with a new one to minimize maintenance costs?
Weibull analyses study the relationship between product reliability and product lifespan. They
provide insight in to the decrease in reliability as the usage of a product or system increases. The
primary advantage of Weibull analysis is that it can provide reasonably accurate failure analyses
and failure forecasts with extremely small data samples. This facilitates cost-effective and
efficient component testing.

The steps of Weibull analyses is generally the followings-

1. Gather life data for the product,

2. Select a lifetime distribution that will fit the data and model the life of the product,
3. Estimate the parameters that will fit the distribution to the data,

30
 4. Generate plots and results that estimate the life characteristics, like reliability or mean
life, of the product; Etc.
For further reading about this analysis, refer to standard books on statistics of reliability.

Standby System
 A person or thing available as a substitute or in an emergency
 To be in state of readiness
A system is said to have units which are reliability wise in standby when there is an active unit or
subsystem to which are attached units or subsystems which standby idly during the mission,
either in a quiescent, non-operating or warm-up mode, until they are called up on to operate at
the specified output level by a sensing and switching subsystem when the active unit or
subsystem, which operates from the start of the mission, fails before the mission is completed.
The function of the sensing subsystem is to detect a failure in the active unit or subsystem and
command the switching subsystem to switch in the standby unit or subsystem.

Maintainability and Availability

Maintainability
Maintainability is an inherent characteristic of system or product design pertaining to ease,
accuracy, safety and economy in performing maintenance functions. It is the ease with which a
system or component can be modified to correct faults, improve performance, or other attributes,
or adapt to changed environment. It can be defined as the ease in time and resources of retaining
equipment in or restoring it to a specified operational condition. It can also be defined as the
measures taken during the design, development and installation of manufactured product that
reduce required maintenance, man-hours, tools, logistic costs, skill levels and facilities etc. It
directly affects the bottom line because it can impact operations, downtime, maintenance costs,
and safety. It can also be defined as the measures taken during development, design and
installation stages of a manufactured product, that reduce maintenance, man-hours, tools, logistic
cost, skill level and facilities. Maintainability is an important aspect of any system's lifecycle, but
process plant engineers typically give it little direct consideration. This is primarily the result of a
short-term view of capital project costs that fails to consider lifecycle costs and downstream
activities.

Availability
Is the measure of the degree to which a system is in an operable and committable state at the start
of a mission when the mission is called for at an unknown random point of time. This is often
called operational readiness. Availability is the function of operating time(reliability) and
downtime(maintainability).

Tree of the more common measures of availability are defined below:

1. Inherent availability: Inherent system availability is the probability that the system will
operate satisfactorily when called upon at any point in the time under specified operating
conditions and in an ideal logistic support environment. Here, ideal operating conditions

31
 refer to readily available maintenance personnel, spare and repair parts, test and support
equipment, facilities, and so on. It doesn't consider any logistics or administrative time
delays.
2. Achieved availability: Achieved system availability is the probability that the system will
operate satisfactorily when called up on at any point in time under specified operating
conditions and in an ideal logistic support environment. Once again, an ideal environment
refers to a scenario with readily available maintenance personnel, spare and repair parts,
test and support equipment, facilities, and so on. The achieved system availability
measure does address preventive maintenance tasks.
3. Operational availability: Operational system availability is the probability that the
system will operate satisfactorily when called up on at any point in time under specified
operating conditions and in an actual logistic support environment. This availability
measure is the closest to reality since it addresses not only the corrective and preventive
maintenance tasks, but also the logistics and administrative time delays.

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Chapter 3

3. Maintenance Policies
Maintenance policies outline the rules for triggering maintenance actions and are therefore
important tactical level decisions. Several types of maintenance policies can be considered to
trigger, in one way or another, either precautionary or corrective maintenance interventions.
These policies are mainly,

 Failure-based maintenance (FBM),

 Time/Used-based maintenance (TBM/UBM),
 Condition-based maintenance (CBM),
 Design-out maintenance (DOM) and
 Opportunity-based maintenance (OBM).

Maintenance policies are either reactive, preventive, predictive, proactive or passive. It is worth
noting that the formation of maintenance policies is based not solely on technical considerations
but rather on techno-economic considerations. The kind of policies adopted for the plant or for a
specific equipment has great impact on maintenance activities, productivity and plant safety.

FBM is a purely reactive policy. Maintenance is carried out only after breakdown. The main
aspects considered by the industry are the cost of CM vs costs of alternative PM, risks for and
consequences of secondary damage and potential safety hazards. Since no planning is possible,
unforeseen breakdowns disrupt production and spares and manpower should be kept available to
solve the problem as soon as it occurs. This method may be appropriate for plants like glass
ovens, where cooling down the oven for preventive intervention takes too much time – several
days – and a lot of energy to heat it again. However, reactive maintenance is a recipe for safety
hazards as some past statistics may tell us. A recent survey shows that 60% of all safety incidents
occurred when a maintenance job was executed as reactive. The data was collected from many
industries where pulp and paper industry represented 36 of all respondents (IDCON, 2007).
Another study done in paper companies concluded that it was 28% more likely to have an
incident when maintenance work was reactive vs planned and scheduled before execution
(IDCON, 2007). It makes sense that there is a strong correlation between safety incidents,
injuries and reactive maintenance. In a situation, you might not take time you should to plan and
think before you act. The urgency also calls out the so common hero in maintenance craftsmen
and they take risks that they should not take.

UBM/TBM are preventive maintenance policies where maintenance is carried out at specified
time intervals. For UBM, intervals are measured in working hours while in TBM intervals are in
calendar days. In between PM actions, CM actions can be carried out when needed. Either TBM
or UBM is applied if the CM cost is higher than PM cost, or if it is necessary because of
criticality due to the existence of bottleneck installation or safety hazards issues. Also, in case of

33
increasing failure behavior, like for example wear-out phenomena, TBM and UBM policies are
appropriate. Many interval optimization models are available and they try to balance PM and
CM costs. However, TBM or UBM policies are unable to foresee failure and are therefore unable
to reduce the failure probability. Hence, safety hazards can still be realized. This problem is
addressed through CBM policy, if there exists a measurable condition, which can signal the
probability of a failure.

Initially, CBM was mainly applied for those situations where the investment in condition
equipment was justified because of high risks, like aviation or nuclear power regeneration. With
the reduction in implementation costs, the predictive techniques are generally accepted to
maintain all types of installations.

Furthermore, CBM catches the attention of practitioners due to the potential savings in spare
parts replacements thanks to accurate and timely forecasts on demand. In turn, this may enable
better spare parts management through coordinated logistics support. This predictive policy is
one of the best as far as plant safety is concerned. It is able to mitigate failures long before they
occur and give maintenance staff some adequate time to prepare PM actions. The main challenge
with this policy lies in finding and applying a suitable CBM technique for each scenario. For
example, the analysis of the output of some measurement equipment, such as advanced vibration
monitoring equipment, asks for a lot of experience and is often work for experts. But there are
also simpler techniques such as infra-red measurement and oil analysis suitable in other contexts.
At the other extreme, predictive techniques can also be rather simple, as is the case of checklists.
Although fairly low-level CBM these checklists, together with human senses (visual inspections,
detection of “strange” noises in rotating equipment, etc.), can detect a lot of potential problems
and initiate PM actions before the situation deteriorates to a breakdown. With the development
and improvement of BITE (built in test equipments), CBM is getting better and better.

While FBM, TBM, UBM and CBM accept and seize the physical assets which they intend to
maintain as given, there are more proactive maintenance actions and policies, which look at the
possible changes or safety measures needed to avoid maintenance in the first place. This
proactive policy is referred as DOM. This policy implies that maintenance is proactively
involved at earlier stages of the product life cycle to solve potential problems in relation to
maintenance. Ideally, DOM policies intend to avoid maintenance completely throughout the
operating life of installations, though this may not be realistic. Then the basic idea turns out to
include a diverse set of maintenance requirements at the early stages of equipment design. As a
consequence, equipment modifications are geared either to increasing reliability by rising the
mean-time-between-failures (MTBF) or to increasing the maintainability by decreasing the
mean-time-to-repair (MTTR). Per se, DOM aims to improve the equipment availability and
safety.

Often DOM projects are used to support efforts to increase occupational safety as well as
production capacity. A rather passive but considerably important maintenance policy that needs

34
to be mentioned is OBM. OBM is applied to non-critical components with a relatively long
lifetime. For these components no separate maintenance programs are developed; maintenance
take place if an opportunity arises because there is maintenance intervention for another
component of that machine. As previously stated, this policy may not be applied in installations
that pose safety hazards.

3.1. Types of Maintenance

The return of investment on an item of equipment can be maximized by maximizing its
availability. Availability of an item of equipment can be defined as the ratio of uptime to the sum
of uptime and downtime. When an item of equipment is down it results in loss of production
which, in turn, results in loss of revenue. The cost of unavailability, which is an indirect cost, is
proportional to the loss in revenue. Performing a maintenance activity requires usage of
resources such as manpower, materials and tools. The cost of utilization of these resources is a
direct maintenance cost.

The total maintenance cost is the sum of direct maintenance costs, consisting of labor costs,
material costs and direct overheads, and indirect maintenance costs, which are primarily due to
loss of production. As the level of performing maintenance activity increases, the direct costs
increase. Also, the indirect costs resulting due to failure decrease.
Just as there is a trade-off between inventory holding costs and the reordering costs, there is a
trade-off between the maintenance costs and their benefits. The level of maintenance activity to
be performed is obviously the one where the total cost is minimal. There is rarely any
organization where only one type of maintenance is used. Most situations warrant a considerable
mixture of maintenance types. The following paragraphs describe the different types of
maintenance.

Maintenance includes all actions necessary for retaining a system or product in, or restoring it to,
a desired operational state. Maintenance may be categorized as follows:
1. Corrective maintenance: This includes all unscheduled maintenance actions performed,
as a result of system/product failure, to restore the system to a specified condition. The
corrective maintenance cycle includes failure identification and verification (based on
some symptoms), localization and fault isolation, disassembly to gain access to the faulty
item, item removal and replacement with a spare or repair in place, reassembly, checkout,
and condition verification. Also, unscheduled maintenance may occur as a result of a
suspected failure, even if further investigation indicates that no actual failure occurred
(i.e., false alarms). The term, "Emergency maintenance,” is sometimes used to cover
activities in this area.
2. Preventive maintenance: This includes all scheduled maintenance actions performed to
retain a system or product in a specified operational condition. Scheduled maintenance
covers periodic inspections; condition monitoring, critical-item replacements (e.g., fueling
and lubrication) may be included under scheduled maintenance. Some maintenance

35
 actions will result in system downtime, whereas others can be accomplished while the
system is operating or in stand by status.
3. Predictive maintenance: This often refers to a condition monitoring preventive-
maintenance program where direct monitoring methods are used to determine the exact
status of equipment, for predicting possible degradation, and for the purposes of
highlighting areas where maintenance is desired. To establish requirements in this area it
is necessary to know how various system components fail (i.e. physics of failure), and to
have available the use of such test methods as vibration signature analysis, thermography,
and tribology. The objective is to predict when failures will occur and to take preventive
measures accordingly.
4. Maintenance prevention: this term, primarily used in the context of the concept of "Total
Productive Maintenance (TPM)," refers to an effort leading toward "maintenance-free
design." Basically, this constitutes the design and development of equipment for reliability
and maintainability with the objective of minimizing maintenance downtime and the
requirement for support resources, improving productivity (primarily in the commercial
factory environment), and reducing life-cycle cost.
5. Adaptive maintenance: This term primarily pertains to computer software and the
changes in processing or the data environment.
6. Perfective maintenance: This refers basically to the changes in computer software for
enhancing performance, Packaging, or maintainability.

3.2. Preventive Maintenance

The concept of preventive maintenance has a multitude of meanings. A literal interpretation of
the term is a maintenance program that is committed to the elimination or prevention of
corrective and breakdown maintenance tasks. A comprehensive preventive maintenance program
will utilize regular evaluation of critical plant equipment, machinery, and systems to detect
potential problems and immediately schedule maintenance tasks that will prevent any
degradation in operating condition.

In most plants, preventive maintenance is limited to periodic lubrication, adjustments, and other
time-driven maintenance tasks. These programs are not true preventive programs. In fact, most
continue to rely on breakdowns as the principal motivation for maintenance activities.
A comprehensive preventive maintenance program will include predictive maintenance, time-
driven maintenance tasks, and corrective maintenance to provide comprehensive support for all
plant production or manufacturing systems.

3.2.1. PM for Functional Characteristics and Large-scale System

Equipment is not always available for preventive maintenance just when the maintenance
schedulers would like it to be. An overriding influence on coordination should be a cooperative
attitude between production and maintenance. This is best achieved by a meeting between the
maintenance manager and production management, including those at the foreman level, so that

36
what will be done to prevent failures, how this will be accomplished, and what production should
expect to gain in uptime may all be explained.
The cooperation of the individual machine operators is of prime importance. They are on the spot
and most able to detect unusual events that may indicate equipment malfunctions. Once an
attitude of general cooperation is established, coordination should be refined to monthly, weekly,
daily, and possibly even hourly schedules. Some preventive maintenance work will require a
“cold” shutdown of equipment. These major shutdowns should be carefully planned.
Maintenance will often find that they must do this on weekends and holidays, when other
persons are off-site. Normal maintenance should be coordinated according to the following
considerations:

1. Maintenance should publish a list of all equipment needing inspections, preventive

maintenance, and modifications and the required time to perform these tasks.
2. A maintenance planner should negotiate the schedule with production planning so that a
balanced workload is available each week.
3. By Wednesday of each week, the schedule for the following week, broken down by days,
should be negotiated and posted where it is available to all concerned.
4. By the end of the day before the preventive activity is scheduled, the maintenance person
who will do the preventive maintenance should have seen the first-line production
supervisor in charge of the equipment to establish a specific time for the preventive task.
5. The craftsman should make every effort to do the job according to schedule.
6. As soon as the work is complete, the maintenance person should notify the production
supervisor so that the equipment may be put back into use. Overdue work should be
tracked and brought up to date. Preventive maintenance scheduling should make sure that
the interval is maintained between preventive actions. For example, if a preventive task
scheduled for May is done on the thirtieth of the month, the next monthly task should be
done during the last week of June. It is foolish to do a preventive maintenance task on
May 30 and again on June 1, just to be is not the score but how the game is played.

3.2.2. Repair Policies

There are a number of possible repair policies. A repair policy specifies the anticipated extent to
which the repair of a system (or its components) will be accomplished (if at all). In the
development of the initial maintenance concept, basic repair policies must be considered in order
to provide input design criteria for equipment packaging and diagnostic routines, as well as the
elements of logistic support. The repair policy may dictate that an item should be designed to be
not repairable, partially repairable, or fully repairable.

Non-repairable item
A non-repairable item is generally modular in construction with a relatively low replacement and
disposal cost, and is discarded when a failure occurs. No repair is accomplished and the item is

37
replaced by a spare. The residue is then dispositioned as a "throwaway" or is reclaimed and
recycled for other uses.

If this policy is selected, system design criteria should be established to promote a positive built-
in self-test capability (high self- test thoroughness) to ensure that a failure has actually been
confirmed prior to discarding the applicable unit. If, on the other hand, a failure is suspected but
not confirmed, there is a good possibility of discarding a good unit, which can be costly.

The system should be designed such that the units are easily removable. Since the unit is to be
discarded at failure, the outside package can be hermetically sealed to improve reliability and
add protection against humidity and corrosion.

Logistic support requirements are minimal. Spare units must be stocked at each intermediate-
level facility, or at a location close to the point of need. No lower check units as they enter the
inventory: however, no detail maintenance test equipment is required. Low personnel skills will
suffice since maintenance is limited to a "remove and replace" function. Maintenance procedures
are considerably simplified since there is no need to include coverage of unit maintenance. The
objective is to weigh the cost of spares and unit disposal against the requirements for logistic
support if the unit was repaired, and it is important to address some of these factors at this point
in the system life cycle.

Partially repairable system

A partially repairable system may assume various forms. The unit repair is accomplished when a
failure occurs. Unit repair constitutes the removal and replacement of assemblies, and the
assemblies are repaired through the removal and replacement of modules and/or circuit boards.
These, in turn, are discarded at failure.

The selection of specific repair policy is highly dependent on operational requirements. For
example, the system operational availability may dictate a mean downtime requirement of such
short duration that it can be met only by providing for quick repair capability at the
organizational level. Since the personnel skill and available equipment at the organizational level
are limited, a need exists to design the equipment for easy and positive failure identification and
for the rapid removal and replacement of the applicable item once the failure has been
confirmed.

Fully repairable system

This policy reflects a requirement for the greatest amount of logistic support in terms of test and
support equipment, spare/repair parts, personnel and training, technical data coverage, and
facilities. Again, the overall policy selection must consider life-cycle cost in the decision-making
process.

In developing the maintenance concept, one must evaluate system operational requirements and
identify repair policies that will support these requirements. It is quite possible that there will be

38
as many policy variations as one can imagine. The intent is to narrow the field down to one or
two feasible approaches.

3.2.3. PM vs. Breakdown Maintenance

Preventive maintenance has long been recognized as extremely important in the reduction of
maintenance costs and improvement of equipment reliability.

In practice it takes many forms. Two major factors that should control the extent of a preventive
program are first, the cost of the program compared with the carefully measured reduction in
total repair costs and improved equipment performance; second, the percent utilization of the
equipment maintained. If the cost of preparation for a preventive-maintenance inspection is
essentially the same as the cost of repair after a failure accompanied by preventive inspections,
the justification is small. If, on the other hand, breakdown could result in severe damage to the
equipment and a far costlier repair, the scheduled inspection time should be considered.
Furthermore, in the average plant preventive maintenance should be tailored to fit the function of
different items of equipment rather than applied in the same manner to all equipment. Key
pieces of equipment in many other integrated manufacturing lines are in the same category.
Conversely, periodic inspections of small electric motors and power transmissions can easily
exceed the cost of unit replacement at the time of failure. Indeed, a program of unit replacements
can result in considerably lower maintenance costs where complete preventive maintenance is
impractical. In a plant using many pumps, for instance, a program of standardization, coupled
with an inventory of complete units of pumps most widely used, may provide a satisfactory
program for this equipment. This spare-tire philosophy can be extended to many other
components or subassemblies with gratifying results.

Sometimes, instead of using a centrally administered formal preventive program, qualified

mechanics are assigned to individual pieces of equipment, or equipment groups, as mechanical
custodians.

Operating without clerical assistance and with a minimum of paperwork, these men, because
of familiarity with equipment and ability to sense mechanical difficulties in advance, can
effectively reduce maintenance costs and breakdowns. These compromise devices can frequently
be used to greater advantage, even in plants where equipment is not in continuous operation and
a more comprehensive preventive program might be set up.

Periodic shutdown for complete overhaul of a whole production unit, similar to the turnaround
period in oil refineries, is another method of minimizing breakdowns and performing
maintenance most efficiently. Unfortunately, this is a difficult approach to sell to management of
a 7-day, around the - clock manufacturing plant not accustomed to this method.

One of the most effective methods of tempering ideal preventive maintenance with practical
considerations of a continuous operation is that of taking advantage of a breakdown in some
component of the line to perform vital inspections and replacements which can be accomplished

39
in about the same time as the primary repair. This requires recording of deficiencies observed
during operating inspections and moving in quickly with craftsmen and supervision prepared to
work until the job is done. Production supervision usually can be solving the need for a few more
hours’ time for additional work with repair of a breakdown much more easily than they can be
convinced of its necessity when things are apparently running smoothly.

3.2.4. Statistical Approach

Statistical or Past-Performance Method: A maintenance statistical plan is based on averages of
past man-hours expended on jobs. While this type of plan does not give an accurate measurement
and in reality, is nothing more than an index, management is attracted for two reasons:

1. The minimum cost to collect data for standards

2. The minimum control administration cost or incentive wage administration when the plan
is in effect

To obtain standard times for maintenance, it first becomes necessary to make some job
classifications into which all hours worked are recorded and charged to separate jobs in the
various classifications. The average time clocked in on the jobs under each classification
becomes the standard. There are extreme classifications where it is necessary to estimate each
job.

A typical statistical plan for a machine shop might follow on this procedure, commencing with
the classification of completed job orders:

1. Standing orders: Permanent or perpetuating orders assigned to highly repetitive tasks.

Such work as the recurring repair of paint cups for automatic color-banding equipment or
the constant straightening of guide pins for specific assembly equipment.
2. Repair orders: Machine-shop orders requiring less than 24 hr labor on items such as
repair, adjust, standard part replacement, etc. This order is not used in making new parts.
3. Work orders: Machine-shop orders to cover all types of work other than that covered by
standing orders or repair orders, but not exceeding a specific money value, usually $1000.
(This amount will vary with each plan.)
4. Project orders: Machine-shop orders which apply to jobs where the total estimated cost
exceeds the work-order value ($1000).

The next step is to obtain hours worked against individual jobs occurring within the
classifications of maintenance orders. A dispatch job-card system requiring clocking in and out is
essential for the accumulation of these data.

1. A job number is issued for each job. The job number is then recorded on the paperwork
authorizing the job.
2. The workers’ time is charged on each job card (by clock rings, verbal reporting, etc.).

40
 3. Check to see that total job times balance the total working time reported daily.
4. All hours against each job must be accumulated and totaled as the job is completed.

At this point a decision must be reached as to the length of the recording period required in order
to establish standard man-hours for the various classifications of work. A year is usually
considered a representative period of time. The base period will vary dependent upon the
potential amount of data available, which is proportionate to the size of the shop (in man-hours)
and the pattern of work being processed. The primary goal in gathering those statistical data is to
get a good representative picture of the shop operations, or plant operations, as the case may be,
and the amount of data to be collected has to be determined for each individual case

The final step is the development of the standard data from the historical record. These data
usually end up in one of four job categories:

1. Standing orders: The total man-hours worked during the base period are accumulated and
the average number of hours per working day is computed against each standing order.
This figure is then the permanent standard for this type of order. Additional allowances
must be made on these jobs to compensate for any increased volume of activity due to
increased production requirements. This will have to be on a ratio basis as established by
production during the base period.
2. Repetitive jobs: Certain jobs will be found to be repetitive. This allows individual
standards to be calculated for these jobs based on the average man-hours expended for
these jobs during the base period. Duties will have to be defined so that the standard will
be applied to jobs having the same content as those studied during the base period.
3. Non-repetitive jobs:
a. Repair orders: All hours on this type of order, as previously defined, are accumulated
during the base period. This figure divided by the total number of repair-order jobs gives
a standard repair-order time.
b. Work order: Orders are accumulated into groups according to the actual hours needed for
completion, those requiring 8 hr, 8 to 24, and so on for groups 24 to 48, 48 to 100. In
each of these classifications the total hours worked are accumulated against the total
number of jobs and the accumulated hours are divided by the total number of jobs, giving
the standard under each category. The average job time in each classification becomes the
standard time in each case. To use these standards, an estimator must judge, in advance,
the category into which each non-repetitive job will fall.
4. Estimated jobs: Any job judged as requiring more than 100 hr for completion becomes an
“estimated job”. All project orders are contained in this category. The allowed standards
for these jobs are based on the estimate of required man-hours. In a few instances
standard data which have been accumulated within the base period can be used to guide
the estimator.

41
There will be cases where it is impossible to work an accurate estimate of time until the job has
started. In such cases the estimate should be made after the job has progressed far enough to
foresee all the work required for completion. If the work has commenced and the original
estimate is not valid because of unforeseen work, changes in the job, etc., the estimate must be
changed to conform to existing conditions.

3.2.5. Replacement Models

Disposable modules are designed to be discarded rather than repaired after a failure. They are
used in situations when repair is costly or impractical. Their advantages outweigh the
disadvantages, and maintainable modules require significant expenditure in materials, labor time,
and tools. The important benefits of a disposal-at-failure design include simpler and more
concise trouble-shooting approaches; smaller, simpler, and more durable modules with a more
reliable design; fewer types of spare parts required; reduction in required tools, personnel,
facilities, and repair time; improved reliability due to the sealing and potting methods; and better
standardization and interchangeability of modules.

Some of the drawbacks of a disposal-at-failure design are: an increase in inventory required

because of need to have replacement modules on hand at all times, inability to redesign
disposable modules, reduction in module performance and reliability because of production
efforts to keep them inexpensive to justify their disposal, reduction in available data on
maintenance and failures, and increase in unnecessary replacements.

3.3. Defects/ Failure List Generation and Failure Analysis

Few Basics of Failures
Few experts say that the causes for more than 90% of all plant failures can be detected with a
careful physical examination using low power magnification and some basic physical testing.
Before explaining how to diagnose a failure, we should review the effect of stress on part. When
a load is put on a part, it distorts. In a sound design the load isn't excessive, the stress doesn't
exceed the "yield point", and the part deforms elastically, i.e., when the load is released the part
returns to its original shape. Occasionally, with repeated loading in this range, the part may be
permanently deformed. Greater increase in load will cause the part to actually break.

Few of the basic reasons of failure are as given below:

1. Fatigue failures: When fluctuating loads (often also called as fatigue loads), are applied, such
as those in hydraulic cylinder or in an automotive connecting rod, the fatigue strength of the
material comes in to play. When the fatigue strength is exceeded, a crack can develop. This
fatigue crack can slowly work its way across a part until a fracture occurs. The face of a fatigue
failure tells us both the type (bending, tension, torsion or a combination) and the magnitude of
the load. To understand the type of load, look at the direction of crack propagation.

42
True Brinelling. A failure occurs when loads exceed the elastic limit of the ring or bush
material. Brinell marks are indentations at ball/ roller/ bushes frequency caused by any static
overload or severs impact.

2. Corrosion: Corrosion can greatly affect / reduce the fatigue strength and increase chances of
failure. Corrosion results from the chemical attack on parts/ materials by hostile fluids or
atmospheres. Symptoms include red/ brown areas on rolling elements, raceways, cages and other
components. Corrosion usually resulted in increased vibration followed by wear, with
subsequent increase in radial clearance or loss of preload etc.

3. Ductile Overload Failure & Brittle Overload Failure: A "ductile failure" is one where there
is a great deal of distortion of the failed part. Commonly, a ductile part fails when it distorts and
can no longer carry the needed load, like an overloaded steel coat hanger. Generally, some
ductile parts break in to two pieces. A "brittle fracture" is one when a part is overloaded and
breaks with no visible distortion. This can happen because the material is very brittle, such as
grey cast iron or hardened steel, or when a load is applied extremely rapidly (and heavy shock) to
a normally ductile part. In a brittle overload failure, separation of the two halves (or more pieces)
isn't quite instantaneous, but proceeds at a tremendous rate, nearly at the speed of sound in the
material.

4. Stress Concentration: A stress concentration is a physical or metallurgical condition that

increases the local stress in the part by some factor; such as a small or no radius in a machined
component, where the dimensions changes. It has a great effect on crack initiation because of
their effect on increasing the local stress. If a part is relatively lightly stressed, the cracking will
start at only one point. However, if a shaft is more heavily loaded, then cracks can start in several
places and work their way across the part.

5. Contamination: In addition to other cases, contamination is one of the leading causes of

premature bearing failure. Symptoms of contamination are dents or scratches embedded in the
bearing raceway and balls/ rollers, resulting in undue bearing vibration and wear. Contaminants
may include airborne dust, dirt or any abrasive substance that gets in to the bearing. Principal
sources are dirty tools, contaminated work areas, dirty hands and foreign matter in lubricant or
cleaning solutions.

6. Wear: A variety of mechanisms result in loss of material by mechanical removal, leading to

failures through above mentioned reasons or otherwise.

7. Hydrogen Embrittlement: When tensile stresses are applied to hydrogen embrittled

component it may fail prematurely. Hydrogen embrittlement failures are frequently unexpected
and sometimes catastrophic. Hydrogen can be introduced in to the material in service or during
materials processing. Hydrogen embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur
without an externally applied load or at loads significantly below yield stress.

43
Liquid metal embrittlement is the decrease in ductility of a metal caused by contact with liquid
metal. Very small amounts of liquid metal are sufficient to result embrittlement.

3.3.1. Failure Generation

As briefly mentioned earlier, failures/ defects may be generated or induced at various stages of
equipment/ component life-cycle, such as:

1. Design Stage. Some failure may be induced because of design efficiencies; e.g. some
omissions or incorrect assumptions of duty condition or factor of safety etc.

2. Manufacturing Stage. For making a product cheaper, the manufacturer, sometimes, takes
lower safety factor and design properties and deviates from required close tolerances.
Occasionally, due to non-availability of some material, the manufacturer inferior material (and
not better/ costlier material) so that the cost does not increase and delivery is not delayed. This
causes failure at operation stage.

3. Erection Stage. Equipments are, sometimes, not erected as per laid-down procedures and
precautions, in order to reduce cost or time. Few of the common omissions are inadequate stress
relieving after major welding, no pre-stressing of big bolts and nonuse of facilities like torque
wrenches for uniform tightening etc. Such omissions, though not easily noticeable during
inspection and commissioning stage, they induce failure at operation stage.

4. Commissioning Stage. Often, during commissioning stage, proper procedure is not followed
and full load test is not done, either to save time or due to non-availability of full load at that
time. Sometimes the equipment is accepted conditionally, even without few inspection and
monitoring appliance, which later becomes a permanent feature. Such inadequate commissioning
prevents surfacing of inbuilt defects timely.

5. Operation Stage. Many faults generate at this stage due to wrong operating practices and
inadequate care and upkeep. Overloading of machine, no or improper cleaning and lubrication of
machine, bypassing limit-switches and built-in test equipments, not immediately reporting and
correction of minor defects and continuing production in that condition etc. are few examples to
generate fault at this stage.

6. Maintenance Stage. Defects are also generated at maintenance and repair stage by using
incorrect dismantling procedure, use of improper tools, improper cleaning and lubrication, non-
uniform tightening and improper torques on bolts and use of inferior consumables and parts etc.
Because of these, faults will surface out in subsequent operation and maintenance stage.

7. Environmental Degradation. Many defects are generated because of change in

environmental conditions, such as more corrosive and abrasive fumes and dusts, more moisture,
more radiation and magnetic fluxes and more heated environment etc.

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Basing on the above-mentioned stages and others, the failures can be classified in to following
categories/ types:

 Failures based on inherent reliability characteristics (design failure).

 Dependent failure- these are chain effect or secondary failure as a result of design defect
or otherwise,
 Manufacturing or burn-in failures- these may include failures due to poor manufacturing,
erection and commissioning etc.
 Wear-out failures, including fatigue failures etc.
 Operation induced failures,
 Maintenance induced failures,
 Equipment damage due to accident, environment degradation or otherwise etc.

3.3.2. Failure Reporting & Collection

The faults, so generated at various stages in different equipments and assemblies in an industry,
are to be recorded, reported and collected at proper, often centralized planning section, for
analysis and planning further action. In different industries different ways of reporting and
collection of failures may be followed. In general, following sources/ agencies are used for such
jobs:

1. Operators & operating personnel

2. Maintenance personnel
3. Centralized inspection agencies & Inspection schedules- The agencies may be centralized
inspectors, centralized lubrication cell, centralized hydraulic cell, centralized building and
structural inspection cell, safety, house-keeping and environmental inspection cells and
other such agencies. They may have different inspection schedules.
4. Report of built-in Test equipments,
5. Report of other on-line and off-line monitoring equipments. These may be coordinated
through centralized condition monitoring cell or through regular maintenance staff.
6. Left-over jobs/ problems from previous PM or major repairs, deferred for want of time or
spares or facilities; etc.

The failures, so received from various agencies, are to be compiled equipment-wise and area-
wise and analyzed for taking corrective and preventive actions. These jobs may be grouped in to
following categories:

 Fault (Failure) Detection,

 Fault Diagnosis and Failure Analysis.

3.3.3. Failure Analysis

Defect Analysis or fault analysis or failure analysis are generally similar approach in industrial
maintenance scenario. Though one may argue that defect analysis covers wide areas than failure

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analysis, but henceforth, we use the term "Failure Analysis" to include all defects, faults and
failures etc in industries. It involves investigation of reasons as mentioned in the basics above.
We may use different types of visual inspection, electrical testing, non-destructive evaluation,
destructive evaluation and other examinations. In industry, few of the jobs involved in failure
analysis may be as below:

1. Proper Failure mode Determination,

2. Fracture analysis, including Fractography,
3. Fatigue analysis,
4. Overload,
5. Ductile and Brittle Failure,
6. Chemical attacks,
7. Corrosion and contamination analysis,
8. Stress corrosion cracking,
9. Particle analysis/ Identification,
10. Filter residue analysis,
11. Welding, Soldering & Brazing analysis,
12. Vibration analysis,
13. Process/ manufacturing problem analysis,
14. Reverse engineering of components,
15. Material selection/ Processing/ Design problems,
16. Evaluation of life cycle test failures,
17. Plastic & rubber investigation,
18. Finite element analysis & Engineering mechanics analysis,
19. Operational dynamics analysis,
20. Engineering calculations,
21. Atmospheric testing, etc.

The analysis includes defining the failure properly, finding out function of defective units,
finding alternative means to achieve the function if needed, shutdown losses and costs etc. After
analyzing the failures and its frequency/pattern, different maintenance strategies can be
adopted. Many specialized failure analysis methods/ techniques are being practiced in industries
for improving the maintenance and, thus availability and reliability etc.

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Chapter 4
4. Logistics
Logistics: Organization of services and supplies, Organization of any complex operation.

Integrated logistic support (ILS): Integrated logistic support is a management function that
provides the initial planning, funding, and controls which help to assure that the ultimate
consumer (or user) receives a system that will not only meet performance requirements, but can
be supported expeditiously and economically through its programmed life cycle. a major ILS
objective is to assure the integration of the various elements of support (i.e., manpower and
personnel, training and training support, spare and repair parts and related inventories, test and
support equipment, maintenance facilities, transportation and handling, computer resources, and
technological data). Of a more specific nature, ILS is defined as a disciplined, unified, and
technical activities necessary to:

1) Integrate support considerations in to system and equipment design.

2) Develop support requirements that are related consistently to readiness objectives, to
design, and to each other.
3) Acquire the required support.
4) Provide the required support during the operational phase at minimum cost.

Included with in the concept of ILS is the element of " design for supportability" and the
requirements in this area include considering maintainability characteristics in the design. Thus,
from an organizational perspective, one often finds a very close relationship between the
maintainability function and logistic support.

Logistic delay time (LDT): LDT is the time elapsed while waiting for some required logistic
resource. This resource could be a spare part, a particular test and support equipment item, a
facility, or a service or procedure. It may also include the time to perform a related
administrative task such as completing a maintenance work order request. LDT does not include
any portion of the active maintenance time duration, but very often contributes significantly to
overall system down time.

4.1. Spare Parts Control

Discussion of any maintenance concept is incomplete without including a method of spare parts
control. The goal of an effective spare parts program is to keep the investment in capital spares to
a minimum without seriously jeopardizing the plant on stream factor, and administering the spare
parts program at the lowest possible cost. Only experience, after an extended operating period,
will determine the adequacy of decisions made in this regard. The spare parts program at a multi-
plant corporation should most certainly be administered on a centralized basis. The commonality
of equipment makes this a prerequisite for low total spare parts investment. The same central
mechanical engineering organization responsible for monitoring field mechanical problems is

47
also responsible for the initial selection of spare parts and the approval for reordering major
spares. Initial spare selections are based on equipment manufacturer recommendations, operating
experiences, and careful analysis of what is in existence. To obtain the best possible price, major
spare parts are negotiated as part of the original machinery or equipment purchase.

Central Parts Depot

Specific items not common to other facilities and small, normal spares are maintained at
individual facilities. Certain major components common to more than one operating facility and
some parts showing high usage are stocked at a centrally located parts depot. This concept allows
for a lower total investment in spares. Since spare parts handling, packaging, and long-term
storage are so critical and require specialized knowledge, it is necessary to provide this capability
at only one location. It is possible to ship spare parts from this depot on a 24-hour, seven day a
week basis. Transportation arrangements normally keep the total shipping time to less than eight
hours. With most maintenance work performed on a planned basis, actual plant startup delays
due to the central stocking depot concept are rare. By careful analysis on ordering of initial
spares and the central depot concept, major corporations have been able to lower the investment
in spares (expressed as a percentage of equipment investment) from approximately 5 percent a
few years back to under 3 percent on new plants. To keep the administration of replacement
spare parts at a minimum cost, a central data processing system has been established. As parts
are used, data are sent to the corporate office for computer input, which automatically generates
the parts replacement purchase order. The authorized parts level is periodically and automatically
reviewed to prevent reordering of parts with a low turnover.

4.2. Overall/ Optimum Availability

The production capacity of a plant is, in part, determined by the availability of production
systems and their auxiliary equipment. The primary function of the maintenance organization is
to ensure that all machinery, equipment, and systems within the plant are always on line and in
good operating condition.

Optimum Operating Condition

Availability of critical process machinery is not enough to ensure acceptable plant performance
levels. The maintenance organization has the responsibility to maintain all direct and indirect
manufacturing machinery, equipment, and systems so that they will be continuously in optimum
operating condition. Minor problems, no matter how slight, can result in poor product quality,
reduce production speeds, or affect other factors that limit overall plant performance.

Maximum Utilization of Maintenance Resources

The maintenance organization controls a substantial part of the total operating budget in most
plants. In addition to an appreciable percentage of the total plant labor budget, the maintenance
manager, in many cases, controls the spare parts inventory, authorizes the use of outside contract
labor, and requisitions millions of dollars in repair parts or replacement equipment. Therefore,
one goal of the maintenance organization should be the effective use of these resources.

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4.3 Maintenance Planning
Responsibilities of Maintenance Planning and Scheduling
Planning is concerned with preparing work to be done in the future. Specific responsibilities
include:
 Customer liaison for nonemergency work
 Job plans and estimates
 Full day’s work each day for each man
 Work schedules by priority
 Coordinates availability of manpower, parts, materials, equipment in preparation for
work execution
 Arranges for delivery of materials to job site
 Ensures even low priority jobs are accomplished
 Maintains records, indexes, charts
 Reports on performance versus goals

Maintenance planning is the maintenance management activity that is carried out to prepare the
maintenance plan. The maintenance plan consists of a “structured set of tasks that include
activities, procedures, resources and the time scale required to carry out maintenance”. Once we
make the plan, i.e. we identify the maintenance task required, we have to establish the
maintenance support needs, i.e. resources, services and management, necessary to carry out the
plan. Of course, this support may vary according to changes in strategy, so it will have to be re-
evaluated when plans are updated to meet new organizational needs. However, let us first study
how to obtain our plan, our structured set of maintenance tasks for our equipment. In order to do
so, we have to prioritize our equipment according to our maintenance strategy; then we may
follow a combination of approaches of which the following could be of interest:
 Adopting manufacturers’ recommendations, such as those contained in the maintenance
and operation manual or similar documents, etc.;
 Relying on actual experience with the item or similar items;
 Studying and analyzing technical documentation of each item, such as drawings
diagrams, technical procedures, etc., in order to improve and adapt the recommendations
coming from the manufacturer to the real working conditions or maintenance special
needs;
 Using maintenance engineering techniques, such as Reliability Centered Maintenance
(RCM) based on a FMECA or other methods with this purpose;
 Considering regulatory and/or mandatory requirements, such as safety conditions of item
operation, environmental regulations for the item, etc.;
 Other approaches.
It is possible to depend solely on manufacturer recommendations for maintenance tasks but users
need to confirm that they are appropriate for their own operational use. The manufacturer is
usually unable to anticipate factors such as business-related consequences of failure, safety

49
considerations, regulatory requirements, the use of condition monitoring techniques, availability
of resources and unique environmental conditions. For items that have sufficient operational
experience and maintenance historical records, it may be possible to rely on actual maintenance
practices and experience. For situations where manufacturer-based maintenance tasks are not
specified or suitable and where equipment is deemed to be critical, a structured analysis such as
RCM should be carried out. When different types of maintenance tasks are possible (for
example, condition monitoring or regular replacement), trade-offs between such factors as item
availability, times available for maintenance and cost may need to be considered and evaluated.
Maintenance task analysis determines the specific information and resources for each item that
requires maintenance including:
 Description of the maintenance task (with the level of detail required for a skilled
maintenance person);
 Frequency of the task (based on a relevant measure such as elapsed time, operating hours,
number of operational cycles or distance);
 Number of personnel, skill level and time required to perform the task;
 Maintenance procedures for disassembly and reassembly;
 Safety procedures to be followed;
 Procedures for handling, transportation and disposal of hazardous materials;
 Special tools, test equipment and support equipment required;
 Spare parts, materials and consumables to be used or replaced;
 Observations and measurements to be made;
 Checkout procedures to verify proper operation and successful completion of the
maintenance task.
The tasks are then reviewed and adjustments made to their frequency as a result of constraints
such as available outage windows, the need to maximize availability or the optimization of
resources. Wherever possible, existing sources of maintenance task analysis data should be
utilized (e.g. existing manuals, maintenance instructions or ILS reports); however, the
applicability of these two different applications or environments needs to be considered. In
defining the detailed maintenance operations, it is necessary to determine at which line of
maintenance (i.e. the position in an organization where specified levels of maintenance are to be
carried out on an item) equipment should be repaired or replaced. Examples of line of
maintenance are: field, on site, at a local repair shop or by an external repair facility. The
objective is to define appropriate lines of maintenance to minimize the costs according to
availability constraints. The following information provides input to this level of maintenance
analysis:
 Equipment operational data, quantity and location;
 Feasible repair alternatives;
 Cost factors;
 Repair personnel and resources;
 Item reliability and maintainability data;
 Turnaround and transportation time to and from repair facilities;
 User policy and constraints.

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The output from this detailed analysis facilitates the assignment of a line of maintenance for each
piece of equipment and provides input into the maintenance task analysis and the identification
of maintenance support resources. Notice that the determination of the maintenance line will
require to take decisions on:
 Whether maintenance personnel are provided by the organization or whether they are
obtained from external sources;
 Who provides spare parts, materials and consumables, e.g. inventory, local sourcing or
external supply;
 Where special tools, transportation, lifting, testing and support equipment is sourced;
 Condition monitoring equipment and software to be used;
 Infrastructure that needs to be provided to implement maintenance policies. When this
process is carried out for all the assets, the complete maintenance task definition and the
maintenance capacity planning will be finalized.
Maintenance Scheduling
Scheduling for specific maintenance tasks needs to be done with enough time to schedule and
supply the necessary resources. This includes:
 Identifying and assigning personnel;
 Acquiring materials and spare parts from external sources or inventory;
 Ensuring that tools, transportation, lifting and support equipment are available;
 Preparing required operating, maintenance, safety and environmental procedures and
work plans;
 Identifying and reserving external resources;
 Identifying communication resources;
 Providing necessary training. Planned activities are scheduled based on a priority system
to ensure that the most urgent and important activities are carried out first and resources
are utilized efficiently. The dispatch of maintenance resources may be activated through
call centers, specialized callout procedures, remote automatic diagnosis, equipment
operators or users, or by other means.
Steps of job planning
The main steps to be followed for proper job planning are generally, as follows:
1. Knowledge base. It includes knowledge about equipment, job, available techniques,
material and facilities etc. These can be obtained from:
 Drawings
 Instruction manuals and maintenance manuals, including assembling, dismantling and
packing instructions etc.
 Job manuals
 Experience of same or similar machines
 Departmental maintenance work shop and that of other departments
 Plant's captive or centralized workshops or repair cells
 Nearby industries etc.
2. Job investigation at site. It gives a clear perception of the total job and also helps in
ascertaining the following-
 Physical access and space limitation: This may call for jobs like removing covers, guards,
stoppers or cutting a portion of machine housing etc. for better approach

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  Assessing if available lifting and handling tackles/ facilities are enough or special cranes/
facilities are to be brought; also helps in deciding scaffolding etc.
 Facilities for disposal of water, oil, gases and hazardous materials which may leak or
come out during dismantling
 Space for keeping the dismantled parts and safety enclosures for machine under repair
3. Identify and document the work. Knowing earlier two steps and knowing the needs of
preventive, predictive and other maintenance jobs, a complete job/work list is made. Pending and
left-over jobs from previous schedules may also be included. The planner often consults
concerned operating and maintenance personnel and PDM and CBM inspectors also for any
special problems and cross-checking. A trained planner may review the inspection results for
common problems (e.g. misalignment, imbalance etc.) and also not so common problems (e.g.
resonance etc.).
4. Development of Repair plan. Preparation of step-by-step procedures which would
accomplish the work with the most economical use of time, man power and material. It may
include making of sketches, line diagrams and rough networks etc. For first time jobs, provision
of still and video photography can also be planned before starting the job and during critical
dismantling. Weight of each item to be determined/ estimated beforehand and planning should be
done to avoid double or multiple handling of the same item. The total job should be broken in
small measurable activities at this stage.
5. Preparation of tools, Tackles & Facilities list. In small plans, this can be done in the
plan sheet itself, but for bigger jobs, a separate list may be attached indicating the needs of
special tools, tackles and facilities needed, with sketches etc, such as a special porter bar and
other lifting tackles, arranging special long boom crane and transfer cars, special torque
wrenches and big spanners etc. Advance action has to be taken for most of these. Surveying
equipments may also have to be arranged to mark the level of machine foundations.
6. Estimation of time required to do the job. For smaller jobs, it is easier, but for bigger
jobs it may need knowledge of "work simplification" "work measurement" and critical path
analysis etc.

4.3.1. Priority Rules

There must be a procedure for identifying the order in which tasks are to be done. Not everything
can be done first. First in–first out (FIFO) is one way of scheduling demand. Using FIFO means
that the next preventive task picked off the work request list, or the next card pulled from the file,
is the next preventive maintenance work order. The problem with this “first comes, first served”
method is that the more desirable work in friendly locations tends to get done while other
equipment somehow never gets its preventive maintenance. The improved method is Priority _
Need Urgency _ Customer Rank _ Equipment Criticality. The acronym NUCREC will help you
remember the crucial factors.

NUCREC improves upon the Ranking Index for Maintenance Expenditures (RIME) in several
ways:
1. The customer rank is added.
2. The most important item is given the number-one rating.
3. The number of ratings in the scale may be varied according to the needs of the particular
organization.

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 4. Part essentiality may be considered.
A rating system of numbers 1 through 4 is recommended. Since most humans think of number 1
as the first priority to get done, the NUCREC system does number 1 first.

Need urgency ratings include:

1. Emergency; safety hazard with potential further damage if not corrected immediately;
call back for unsatisfactory prior work
2. Downtime; facility or equipment is not producing revenue
3. Routine and preventive maintenance
4. As convenient, cosmetic

Customers are usually ranked in the following order:

1. Top management
2. Production line with direct revenue implications
3. Middle management, research and development facilities, frequent customers
4. All others

The equipment criticality ratings are:

1. Utilities and safety systems with large area effect
2. Key equipment or facility with no backup
3. Most impact on morale and productivity
4. Low use or little effect on output

The product of the ratings gives the total priority. That number will range from 1 (which is
1 * 1 * 1) to 64 (4 * 4 * 4). Work given the lowest number will have first priority. Priority 1
work is a first-class emergency. When several work requests have the same priority, labor and
materials availability, locations, and scheduling fit may guide which is to be done first.

The priorities should be set in a formal meeting of production and maintenance management at
which the equipment criticality number is assigned to every piece of equipment. Similarly, a rank
number should be applied to every customer and the need urgency should be agreed on. With
these predetermined evaluations, it is easy to establish the priority for a work order either
manually by taking the numbers from the equipment card and the customer list and multiplying
them by the urgency, or by having the computer do so automatically. Naturally, there may be a
few situations in which the planner’s judgment should override and establish a different number,
usually a lower number so that the work gets done faster.

Ratings may rise with time. A good way to assure that preventive maintenance gets done is to
increase the need urgency every week. In a computer system that starts with preventive
maintenance at 3, a preventive task that is to be done every month or less can be elevated after
one week to a 2, and finally to a 1 rating. Those increases should assure that the preventive task
is done within a reasonable amount of time. If preventive maintenance is required more often,
the incrementing could be done more rapidly.

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Dispatch of the preventive maintenance work orders should be based on the demand ordered by
priority, consistent with availability of labor and materials. As discussed earlier, predictive
maintenance provides a good buffer activity in service work since time, to within a few days, is
not normally critical. The NUCREC priority system helps assure that the most important items
are done first.

Some pressure will be encountered from production people who want a particular work request
filled right away instead of at the proper time in the priority sequence. It can be helpful to limit
the “criticality 1” equipment and “rank 1” customers to 10 percent, since, according to Pareto’s
Principle of the Critical Few, they will probably account for the majority of activity. If rank 2 is
the next 20 percent, rank 3 is 30 percent, and the balance is 40 percent for rank 4, the workload
should be reasonably balanced. If temporary work needs exist for selected equipment or a
customer needs to be given a higher priority, then one equipment should be moved to a lower
criticality for each equipment that is moved higher. After all, one objective of prioritization is to
assure that work gets done in the proper sequence. A preventive maintenance action that is done
on time should assure that equipment keeps operating and that emergency work is not necessary.

4.3.2. Maintenance Staffing

Almost all the maintenance activities require skilled personnel and most of the activities require
more than one skill such as welding, fitting, rigging etc. A maintenance job is usually performed
by a repair gang or repair crew consisting of an optimal mix of skilled workers. However, not all
skills are required for the same amount of time. For example, a maintenance job may require the
services of a welder for just about an hour whereas the same job may require a fitter for more
than four hours. The disadvantage of assigning a maintenance job to a repair gang or crew is that
the manpower utilization within the gang is not effective. One solution to this problem would be
to schedule individual workers rather than repair gangs.

An important issue in manpower is that of determining the optimal number of skilled repair
workers. Queuing models, which utilize the theory of minimizing the total cost of unavailability
and labor, can be used to determine the optimal number of welders, plumbers etc. The usage of
the models, however, requires some knowledge of the rate of failure (called arrival rate) and the
repair distribution.

Historically, simulation techniques and queuing models have been used for determining the
optimal number of repair gangs required to be deployed in a system. Basker, Manan and
Husband have used the Monte Carlo simulation technique to determine the optimal number of
repair workers required to perform the maintenance activities in a shop comprising a finite
number of identical machines. Discrete probabilities obtained from historical data have been
used to model the failure and the repair processes for each machine (since processes are not
identical). It is assumed that only one repair worker is required to perform the necessary
maintenance action, and the repair policy used is first in- first-out (FIFO), that is, the machines
are repaired in the order they fail.

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Barnett and Blundell have used the Monte Carlo simulation technique to optimize the number of
repair gangs and the size of the repair gangs given that the maintenance jobs generate demand for
repair workers from three different trades mechanics, electricians and pipe-fitters. The objective
is to determine the number of repair workers needed to constitute a repair gang, and the number
of repair gangs required such that the total costs (sum of labor cost and downtime cost) are
minimized. Newman and Brammer and Malmborg have utilized a material requirements
planning/bill of materials approach to manage the manpower resources (and predict the
manpower resources requirements).

4.3.3. Maintenance manuals

Maintenance manuals are detailed instruction for repairing, maintaining and overhauling of
specific equipments. Some of the information about maintenance, upkeep, dismantling, erection
and commissioning are given in " instruction manuals" but maintenance manual gives more
detailed information, with necessary drawing and blow-up views, about minor and major repair
and overhauling of specific equipments which are generally brought-out items like pumps,
compressors, engines, motors and switch gears etc. Separate maintenance manual is given for
each of such items. "Work shop- manual" is the other name of the same item. These manuals are
generally set of information and instruction with the help of which that equipment/ component
can be repaired, serviced and overhauled completely. Such manuals are normally supplied by the
manufacturers of those equipments/components.

Departmental manual for maintenance department is a document (generally separate for

mechanical, electrical and civil maintenances), the purpose of which is to delineate the
organization structure of that department in the plant and to define the responsibilities and
authorities of different sections of that department and of their executives up to the rank of area-
in-charges or section-in-charges. Departmental manual also presents an over-all view of the
capabilities of that department.

Instruction Manual: Instruction manual is essential technical literature/ document which have
to be supplied along with or at the time of receipt of each equipment/ system - be it small or big
be it domestic or industrial. In plants/ industries, normally many copies of instruction manuals
are supplied just before the receipt of equipments/ system or along with the equipment/ system
so that it can be used right from the time of receipt of equipment/ system. When newly
developed equipments/ systems are supplied, it is common practice to supply provisional
manuals along with the equipment and the final version (with required modifications and
additions as done at site) are supplied after commissioning. The instruction manual may not be
only in the form of a book, may also include drawings, blown up (exploded) views, work cards,
wall-diagrams, video cassette, CD, flash, microfilm or may be combination of these forms of
presentations. These manuals must provide a permanent record of the technical in formations
required to understand, operate and maintain the equipment/ system and to train operating and
maintenance personnel.

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Section of instruction manuals: Based on the basic information requirements, the manuals are
divided in to the following sections:
 Technical data (specifications)
 Environmental factors, hazard warnings and precautions in connection with the use of the
equipment/ system/ plant.
 List of data (reports, drawings, manuals/ leaflets)
 Description of operating modes
 Operating procedures (normal and emergency) with safety instructions.
 Full technical descriptions including detail of equipment, technical description of parts,
sub-assemblies etc.
 Handling instruction,
 Maintenance instruction,
 Maintenance schedules,
 Spare parts identification and requirement.

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Chapter 5
5. Advanced Techniques
5.1. Condition Monitoring
Statistics and probability theory provide are the bases for condition monitor maintenance. Trend
detection through data analysis often rewards the analyst with insight into the causes of failure
and preventive actions that will help avoid future failures. For example, stadium lights burn out
within a narrow range of time. If 10% of the lights have burned out, it may be accurately
assumed that the rest will fail soon and should, most effectively, be replaced as a group rather
than individually.
Condition monitoring is the second element of the IT pillar of modern maintenance management.
Predictive maintenance is a key consequence of condition-based maintenance. However,
condition monitoring is becoming a plant optimization and reliability improvement tool rather
than a maintenance management tool. During the last five years, we have seen the percentage of
plants using these tools for maintenance management increase enormously, from 15% to 85%, as
indicated by a survey of 1500 American plants. However, much higher benefits can be obtained
when one simultaneously uses these tools for all three purposes. Configured in this manner, a
system for maintenance management would be expected to raise substantially the likelihood of
materializing the following benefits:
 Preventing catastrophic failures while increasing plant throughput by higher equipment
availability and the elimination of big repair losses and unsafe incidents in the plant;
 Ensuring planned repairs while improving the quality of the repairs and lowering the
number of repair labor hours and the stock of spare parts;
 Identifying the machine problems before equipment disassembly to provide faster repairs;
this also increases the possibility of eliminating repetitive failures;
 Reducing operating cost including reduced excessive energy consumption, reduced need
for stand-by equipment to cover critical stops and reduction in insurance costs.

Vibration monitoring and lubricant analysis are the most effective, proven and validated
techniques for condition monitoring in countless industries. In addition, one would find
important utilization of other techniques and tools including ultrasonics, ferrographic analysis,
spectroscopy analysis (atomic emission and infrared), chromatography, electrical testing
(resistance testing, impedance testing, Megger testing, etc.) and other non-destructive methods
(like acoustic emissions, magnetic particle, residual stress).

For condition monitoring, we would consider traditional techniques, most of which can broadly
be classified in following groups/ types:
 Performance monitoring
 Visual, tactile, and aural monitoring
 Temperature monitoring
 Vibration monitoring
 Lubricant monitoring
 Leakage monitoring

57
  Crack monitoring
 Thickness monitoring
 Corrosion monitoring
 Noise/sound monitoring & Acoustic Emission,
 Smell/odor monitoring; etc.
Lubricating Oil Analysis
Oil analysis has become an important aid to preventive maintenance. Laboratories recommend
that samples of machine lubricant be taken at scheduled intervals to determine the condition of
the lubricating film that is critical to machine-train operation. Typically, 10 tests are conducted
on lube oil samples:
Viscosity: This is one of the most important properties of lubricating oil. The actual viscosity of
oil samples is compared with an unused sample to determine the thinning or thickening of the
sample during use. Excessively low viscosity will reduce the oil film strength, weakening its
ability to prevent metal-to-metal contact. Excessively high viscosity may impede the flow of oil
to vital locations in the bearing support structure, reducing its ability to lubricate.
Contamination: Oil contamination by water or coolant can cause major problems in a
lubricating
System: Many of the additives now used in formulating lubricants contain the same elements that
are used in coolant additives. Therefore, the laboratory must have an accurate analysis of new oil
for comparison.
Fuel Dilution: Oil dilution in an engine weakens the oil film strength, sealing ability, and
detergency. It may be caused by improper operation, fuel system leaks, ignition problems,
improper timing, or other deficiencies. Fuel dilution is considered excessive when it reaches a
level of 2.5 to 5 percent.
Solids Content: This is a general test. All solid materials in the oil are measured as a percentage
of the sample volume or weight. The presence of solids in a lubricating system can significantly
increases the wear on lubricated parts. Any unexpected rise in reported solids is cause for
concern.
Fuel Soot: An important indicator for oil used in diesel engines, fuel soot is always present to
some extent. A test to measure fuel soot in diesel engine oil is important, since it indicates the
fuel-burning efficiency of the engine. Most tests for fuel soot are conducted by infrared analysis.
Oxidation: Lubricating oil oxidation can result in lacquer deposits, metal corrosion, or
thickening of the oil. Most lubricants contain oxidation inhibitors. However, when additives are
used up, oxidation of the oil itself begins. The quantity of oxidation in an oil sample is measured
by differential infrared analysis.
Nitration: Fuel combustion in engines results from nitration. The products formed are highly
acidic and may leave deposits in combustion areas. Nitration will accelerate oil oxidation.
Infrared analysis is used to detect and measure nitration products.
Total Acid Number (TAN): This is a measure of the amount of acid or acid like material in the
oil sample. Because new oils contain additives that affect the TAN number, it is important to

58
compare used oil samples with new, unused, oil of the same type. Regular analysis at specific
intervals is important to this evaluation.
Total Base Number (TBN): This number indicates the ability of oil to neutralize acidity. The
higher the TBN the greater its ability to neutralize acidity.
Typical causes of low TBN include using the improper oil for an application, waiting too long
between oil changes, overheating, and using high sulfur fuel.
Particle Count: Tests of particle count are important to anticipating potential system or machine
Problems. This is especially true in hydraulic systems. Particle count analysis made a part of a
normal lube oil analysis is quite different from wear particle analysis. In this test, high particle
counts indicate that machinery may be wearing abnormally or that failures may occur as a result
of temporarily or permanently blocked orifices. No attempt is made to determine the wear
patterns, size, and other factors that would identify the failure mode within the machine.

5.2. Vibration Monitoring

Vibration is essentially the heartbeat of all mechanical equipment. Capturing this vibration in a
number of different forms allows analysts to diagnose equipment ailments, such as worn
bearings or imbalance etc. by measuring the amplitude and frequency of the vibration. The
purpose of vibration monitoring is to establish the running condition of machinery in a fashion
which is objective and scientific. Vibration monitoring, normally, means vibration
measurement/ collection and analysis program and it monitors the response of the system or
equipment/ machine to internal and external forces being applied. The response is measured by a
general-purpose transponder at the pump and motor bearings and other rotating/oscillating
components and is passed to an analyzer for interpretation. The results are downloaded to the
asset management software/ technique for analysis and recommendations. It aims for early
identification and correction of potential machinery problems.

Vibration monitoring is a vast subject. Newer soft wares and hard wares are being developed
which are faster, easier to use, more effective and less expensive. Though out-sourcing to
specialist is talk of today, big industries may like to keep the program in the hand of international
personnel, whereas the smaller industries may like to out-source. The aim is to collect data
automatically and transmit it to specialists very easily. It involves understanding of the
following:
 Vibration fundamentals & vibration signatures,
 Vibration collection (Data acquisition) and analysis
 Vibration transducers
 Causes of machine vibration; machinery vibration trouble shooting,
 Vibration signature measurement and display,
 Vibration signal frequency analysis
 Machine vibration standards and acceptable limits
 Fault diagnosis based on forcing functions,
 Various online/offline and automatic/ semi automation monitoring techniques and
instruments; etc.

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Causes of Machine Vibration
All machines vibrate. These vibrations are caused by the tolerances which the machine designer
has allowed so that the machine can be built, since some dimensional variations are inherent in
any machine’s manufacture. These tolerances give a new machine a characteristic vibration
“signature” and provide a base line against which future measurements can be compared. Similar
machines in good operating condition will have similar vibration signatures which differ from
each other only by their manufacturing and installation tolerances.
A change from the base line of the vibration of a machine, assuming it is operating under normal
conditions, indicates that an incipient defect is starting to change the mechanical condition of the
machine. Different defects cause the vibration signature to change in different ways, thus
providing a means of determining the source of the problem as well as warning of the problem
itself.
Characteristics of Vibration
Vibration is a natural product of the mechanical and dynamic forces within machinery, plant
equipment, and process systems. All mechanical equipment and most dynamic plant systems,
such as heat exchangers, filters, mixing tanks, and chemical reaction vessels, will generate some
level of vibration as part of their normal operation. A clear understanding of machine dynamics
and how these forces create unique vibrational frequency components is the key to using
vibration data as a diagnostic tool.
Machinery vibration is the result of a series of individual vibration components that are
generated by the movement or generated forces of mechanical or process components within the
machine or its corresponding system. Each of these individual vibration components has a well-
defined periodic motion. That is, the motion will repeat itself in all its particulars after a specific
interval of time. The interval or time period T in which the vibration repeats itself is usually
measured in seconds. Its reciprocal is the frequency of the vibration and is normally measured in
terms of cycles per second (cps), or hertz (Hz).
Each frequency component within a machine train can be calculated by

1
f=
T
For example, a vibration component that repeats itself once each second would have a frequency
of:
1
f= = 1cps = 1hertz
1s

5.3. Over All Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)

It is an effective method to measure production floor performance. Capturing and recording
accurate production floor information is critical for preparing reliable OEE reports.
Manual data collection, there is usually a second step of manually compiling the data. This is
most commonly accomplished by entering in the information in to spreadsheets. This manual
compilation step also leaves room for both inconsistencies and inaccuracies. another
disadvantage to manually collecting data for your OEE reports, like with many maintenance and
production improvement plans, is sustainability. With an automated data collection system,

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sustainability is no longer an issue. Once in place the automated OEE reporting stays in place
and you need only act on the result.
The overall performance of a single piece of equipment or even an entire factory, will always be
governed by the cumulative impact of the three OEE factors: Availability, Performance Rate and
Quality Rate.

OEE = Availability + Performance Rate + Quality Rate

In above formula, the performance rate is the percent of parts produced per time frame (normally
maximum or best-known rate is used) and Quality rate - Percent of good sellable part out of total
parts produced per time frame. The availability of the system depends on its initial condition and
both the failure and repair distributions specified for modeling its failure and repair processes. It
is a common practice to assume that the system is initially in good condition.
OEE can be used to save companies from making inappropriate purchases, and help them focus
on improving the performance of machinery and plant equipment they already own and to find
the greatest areas of improvement etc. It can be used as an analysis and benchmarking tool for
either reliability, equipment utilization, or both. While monitoring OEE per equipment brings
focus on the equipment itself, it may not provide true cause of major costs, unless the cause is
obvious. As such, you should also be calculating a production line OEE, and within a
corporation, a facility OEE.

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Chapter 6

6. Lay Out of Work Shop

When planning the layout of a work shop, it is one thing to move the actual items around the
space you have until the layout looks functional.

6.1. Principle of Layout

Scientific criteria for determining a good plant layout:
1. Integration: Integration of men, materials and machines and support services in order to
get the optimum output of resources.
2. Cubic space utilization: Utilization of both horizontal and vertical spaces and height is
very important to use the space as much as possible.
3. Minimum distance: Minimum travel of men and material should be implemented
means; the total distance traveled by the men and material should be minimized as much
as possible. Further straight-line movement should be promoted.
4. Floor: Arranging the floor to move the materials/ finished products in forward direction
towards the final stage.
5. Maximum coordination: Entry in to and disposal from any department should be in
such a manner that it is most convenient to the issuing or receiving departments. The
layout should be considered as a whole.
6. Maximum accessibility: All servicing and maintenance points should be readily
accessible. For example; equipment should not be placed against a wall because
necessary servicing or maintenance cannot be carried out easily. Further; equipment or
other necessary units keep in front of a fuse box will impede the work of the electrician.
7. Minimum flexibility: The layout should be able to modify when necessary.
8. Safety security: Due consideration to industrial safety methods is necessary. Care must
be taken not only of the person operating the equipment, but also of the passed-by, who
may be require to go behind equipment as the back of which may be unsafe.
9. Minimum handling: Reduce the material handling to the minimum. material being
worked on should be kept at working height and never have to be placed on the floor if it
is to be lifted later.

The following principles also can be taken in to account when planning for a good plant layout.
 The geographical limitations of the site;
 Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as existing road ways, drainage
and utilities routings;
 Interaction with other plants on site;
 The need for plant operability and maintainability;
 The need to locate hazardous materials facilities as far as possible from site boundaries
and people living in the local neighborhood;
 The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable substances may occur;

62
  The need to provide access for emergency services;
 The need to provide emergency escape routes for on- site personnel;
 The need to provide acceptable working conditions for operators.

6.1.1. Product Layout

It involves the arrangement of machines in one line, depending up on sequence of operations. In
product layout, if there is a more than one line of production; there are as many lines of
machines.

The emphasis here, therefore, is on special purpose machines in contrast to the general-purpose
machines which are installed in the process layout.

The investment on straight line layout is higher than the functional layout. The product layout is
followed in plants manufacturing standardized products on a mass scale such as chemical, paper,
sugar, rubber, refineries & cement industries.

The grouping of machines should be done by keeping in mind the following principles:

 All the machine tools or other items of equipment must be placed at a point demanded by
the sequence of operation.
 There should be no points where one line crosses another line.
 Materials may be fed where there are required for assembly; but not necessarily all at one
point.
 All the operations should be included in the line.
Advantages
There is a mechanization of materials handling and consequently reduction in material handling
cost.
 This type of layout avoids production bottlenecks.
 There is economy in manufacturing time.
 The layout facilitates better production control.
 It requires less floor area per unit of production.
 Early detection of mistakes.
 There are greater incentives to a group of workers to raise their level of performance.
Disadvantages
 Product layout is known for its inflexibility.
 This type of layout is also expensive.
 There is a difficulty of supervision.
 Expansion is also difficult.
 Any breakdown of equipment along the production line can disturb the whole system.

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 6.1.2. Process Layout
It involves grouping together like machines in one department based up on their operational
characteristics. e.g. machines performing drilling operations are installed in the drilling
department, machines performing casting operations are grouped in casting department etc.

Machines in each department attend to any product that is taken to them. These machines are
there for called as " General purpose machines". Work has to be allotted in each department in
such a way that no machines in any department should be idle. In a batch production layout,
machines are chosen to do as many different jobs possible. while grouping the machines
according to the process type, certain principles have to be followed:

 The distance between departments must be shorter so as to avoid long distance movement
of materials.
 The departments should be located in accordance with the serious of operations.
 Convenience for inspection.
 Convenience for supervision.
Advantages:
 Reduce investments on machines as they are general purpose machines.
 Greater flexibility in the production.
 Better and more efficient supervision is possible through specialization.
 There is greater scope for expansion as the capacities of different lines can be easily
increased.
 This type of layout results in better utilization of men & machines.
 It is easier to handle break down of equipment by transferring work to another machines.
 There is full utilization of equipment.
 The investment on equipment would be comparatively lower.
 There is a great incentive to the individual worker to increase his performance.
Disadvantages:
 There is difficulty in the movement of materials.
 This type of layout requires more floor space.
 There is difficulty in production control.

6.1.3. Fixed Process Layout

Fixed position layout involves the movement of men & machines to the product which remains
stationary. In this type of layout, the materials or major components remains in a fixed occasion
and tools, machinery & men and as well as other pieces of material are brought to this location.

The movement of men & machines is advisable as the cost of moving them would be lesser. This
is followed in manufacturing of bulky & heavy products, such as construction of buildings,
locomotives, ships, boilers, aircraft & generators.

64
Advantages:
 Men and machines can be used for a wide variety of operations producing different types
of products.
 The investment on layout is very small.
 The worker identifies himself with the product and takes pride in it when the work is
completed.
 The high cost of and difficulty in transporting a bulky product is avoided.

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Chapter 7

7. Machine Installation and Commissioning

7.1. Introduction
Proper installation of machinery will contribute to long trouble-free operating life with minimum
maintenance. Even though many aspects of an installation are responsibility of the purchaser
(owner) or his engineer, some suggestions are offered by others which may contribute to suitable
installation. One such example is whether to install the machine outdoors under only a roof, or in
a completely enclosed building. While this class of equipment can generally be installed
outdoors, local conditions may suggest alternate arrangements. Freezing or low ambient
temperatures around machinery can create difficulties during start-ups and shut downs: for
example, lubricating oil must be warm before starting equipment. Water and steam equipment
must be drained completely or heated during shutdown. Alternately, in tropical areas, direct sun
on one side of the foundation might cause expansions which, when coupled with other factors in
the system, could create unacceptable alignment (misalignment).

Many people believe that machinery installation starts with the foundation. This is only true
where this is a used piece of equipment. With new equipment, machinery installation actually
starts after the selection is made and before the contract is drawn up. There are many items that
need to be included in the contract before the new piece of machinery is even delivered.
Remember, this is the time the manufacturer is trying to court you. When drawing up the
contract, make sure that these things are included. You may not get every point, but now is the
time to try:

 Complete list of drawings (preferably on CAD). This list should include a complete set of
components down to bearings, shaft size, etc.
 Installation recommendations including all electrical power needs.
 Spare parts recommendations. Be careful with this list because it is usually only intended
to get you through the warranty period. Also make sure the list is broken down with
manufacturer numbers, such as Tail stock spindle part number, etc.
 Extra copies of all manuals.
 Warranty to start once equipment is put into service, not when delivered to site.
 A list of preventive maintenance tasks with frequencies and lubrication requirements.

7.2. General Requirements

This section provides guidelines for the pre-installation design of soil-supported reinforced
concrete foundations supporting machinery. The final detail design of the foundation shall be
performed under the direction of a qualified engineer considering all possible forces, deflection
limitation, vibration responses, geotechnical conditions, and mechanical and environmental
requirements.

66
Unless otherwise specified, all machinery should be supported by a reinforced concrete
foundation. Machinery that requires an elevated installation may be supported on structural steel
of adequate stiffness and strength. The intent of this point is to discourage the use of concrete
foundations without reinforcing steel and steel-supported equipment.

The recommended minimum foundation dimensions, the size and locations of anchor bolt holes,
and the forces applied by the machinery must be obtained from the equipment vendors to aid in
the design of the foundation.

The development of the foundation dimensions shall consider the layout of the equipment, the
piping arrangement, concrete cover required for anchor bolts, and minimum outline dimensions
recommended by the equipment vendor. The elevation of the top of the foundation should be set
to allow a minimum thickness of grout about 25mm or 1 inch.

The grout manufacturer recommendations should be considered to determine the maximum and
minimum thickness of grout for a particular installation. Factors such as flow ability and heat
generation should be taken in to account when the grout thickness is determined. The bottom of
the foundation shall be placed at a sufficient depth below the ground to prevent damage to the
machinery or piping by the effect of frost penetration.

Consideration should be given to incorporating the foundations of several individual machines in

the same vicinity in to one foundation. A large combined mat foundation may provide a more
economical foundation than several closely spaced individual foundations. When multiple
machines are placed on a single mat foundation, the designer should consider all possible loading
arrangements and combination of the machines, to produce the most favorable effect on the
supporting foundation. This includes partial foundation loading due to removal of individual unit
for maintenance.

The foundation design shall be capable of resisting all applied dynamic and static loads specified
by the machinery manufacturer, loads from thermal movement, dead and live loads, wind or
seismic forces, and any loads that may be associated with installation or maintenance of
equipment. Machinery loads shall be supported directly by the foundation and not by access
platforms.

The foundation shall have adequate strength and rigidity to meet the deflection limitations
specified by the machinery manufacturer when subjected to all design load combinations. The
foundation should be free of resonant frequencies within a minimum of 20% of the operating
speed range of the equipment. The driven machinery and the driver shall be supported from a
common foundation.

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 7.3. Machine Installation Guideline

The installation of machinery such as pumps, gearbox or compressor etc. requires some general
rules to be followed. The following are the basic ones:

 The driven unit is normally installed first, and the prime mover or motor is then aligned
to the shaft of the driven unit.
 If the driven unit is driven through a gearbox, then the gearbox should be aligned to the
driven unit and the driver aligned to the gearbox.
 Basic checks should be carried out to determine the accuracy of the machine couplings,
i.e. check for "run-out" (concentricity and squareness to the shaft centerlines) of coupling
halves using a dial indicator, if possible (out of "true" coupling halves can cause out of
balance problems).
 Preparation of the machinery base-plate and machine mounting surfaces, feet, pedestals
etc. is of paramount importance! Successful alignment cannot be easily achieved
otherwise!
 Clean, dress up and file any burrs from mounting faces and securing bolt holes etc.
 Have quality shims available to align precisely and effectively.
 Before assembling a shaft alignment system, instrumentation to the machines, take a few
minutes to look at the coupling / shaft alignment. Remember, your eyes are your first
measuring system.
 Check that the pump / motor etc. is sitting square to the base plate. and correct as
required.
 Keep shims to a minimum i.e. not more than 3 shims maximum if possible under
machinery feet/ mounts.
 Correct alignment as required to ensure that, when the machinery is running, the
machinery shafts are centered in their bearings and are aligned to manufacturers
tolerances.
 Always check manufacturers' alignment figures prior to commencing work! - temperature
growth may require specific "cold" alignment offsets.
 Ensure that any pipe work attached to machines is correctly supported but free to move
with thermal expansion.

7.4. Machine Foundation

The most important aspect of machinery installation is to provide a suitable base or support. The
capacity of this foundation must have the ability to carry the machinery load without movement
and maintaining placement. Most foundations are constructed of concrete, but depending on the
application, structural steel can be used. It’s very important to look at the condition of the cement

68
or steel foundation. Many times, you are in an older facility where the concrete is already
crumbling or the steel is rusted beyond use. If this is the case you may have to take out the old
concrete and lay a new pad over the section or replace the structural steel. Other considerations
should be adequate space for working/running the equipment and safety. There are many types
of anchor bolts in use in industry today, such as hooked in new concrete, compression, epoxy,
etc. Make sure you check with the manufacturer for recommendations. When hold-down bolts
are subject to extreme vibration and could possibly break at the thread section, a sleeve can be
used extending to the pocket of the foundation to form what is commonly called a boxed anchor
bolt. To allow for variations in casting or errors in layout, a space can be left around each bolt to
allow for some change of bolt position. The use of short sections of pipe is commonly done. The
pipe should be larger in diameter than the bolt and held firmly against the bottom of the template.
Two- or three-times rod diameter is allowable for the pipe. The best and most common way of
locating the anchor bolts is by the creation of a template with holes that match the mounting
needs of the machine. This does not have to be anything too elaborate and can be made up of
normal scrap parts. Due to the fact that over time most concrete slabs settle, whenever possible,
do not mount the machinery directly to the concrete foundation. Best practices include the use of
a bed plate, which tends to be bolted to the concrete by use of the anchor bolts. This is what the
equipment is mounted and fastened to. This provides a firm, level surface allowing for shims to
be used to accurately align the piece of equipment. By staying firmly in place during the leveling
phase, the bed plate will help machinery to stay closely lined up. It is practical to use shims and
grout. The grout will help support all the parts and hold them in position, and the shims are used
for alignment and leveling. When constructing the foundation for grout and leveling, 3/4 inches
to 11/2 inches should be allowed.

Obviously, the principle function of the foundation is to provide a permanently rigid, non-
warping support to the machinery. In meeting these requirements, the foundation should:

 Hold machines in proper alignment under all operating conditions.

 Support the machine's weight and load, and distribute it uniformly and evenly to the soil
or main support structure.
 Maintain established equipment locations.
 Minimize transmission of vibration to or from the machine.

While working on foundation it needs knowledge, as the following suggestions are offered for
assistance and consideration:

1. The outline drawing provides equipment mounting surface areas, anchor bolt locations,
main piping connections, and other information necessary in designing a foundation.
2. A foundation of reinforced concrete should be of ample size and proportion for adequate
support of the machinery, as well as piping forces such as inlet and discharge piping.
3. Provision should be made in the foundation design for accessibility to all parts of the
machine or its auxiliaries during operation, inspection and maintenance.

69
4. The foundation should rest entirely on solid earth. A foundation resting partly may warp
due to settling of part of the foundation support. Distortion may also occur due to unequal
pressures created by differences in ground water level.
5. Foundation supported on pilings should have rigid continuous cap over the pilings on
which the foundation rests.
6. Temperature surrounding the foundation should be uniform. Temperature differences
between the top slab and mat, for instance, can create substantial bending stresses in
columns. Care must be taken to reduce thermal distortion from radiation or uneven heating
and cooling. Direct sunlight on outdoor tropical installations is to be avoided. Steam lines
passing close to the foundation should also be avoided; but when unavoidable, the lines
must be insulated and the foundation must be shielded.
7. Foundation should be isolated from all other structures and arranged so that outside
vibrations are not transmitted to it. Where foundations must be supported by floor beams, a
vibration dampening material should be interposed between the beams and the foundation.
8. Design of foundation structure should avoid resonant frequencies of operating speed about
40% to 50% of rotor critical speeds.
9. It is recommended that concrete foundations be allowed to cure for approximately 28 days
before loading. This will allow for development of strength and reduction in shrinkage rate.
Curing procedure should be in accordance with specified standard recommendations.
10. Recommended size of foundation anchor bolts and projection above foundation is shown in
the outline drawing. Use of a pipe sleeve around anchor bolt allows for some shifting of the
anchor bolt if found necessary during installation of equipment. it allows for increased
stretch length of the anchor bolts.
11. When establishing the top elevation for the foundation, allow approximately 0.5 inches
(12mm) for removal of top crust of concrete by chipping. Reinforcing rods, ties, or steel
members should be sufficiently below the surface to permit chipping away of
approximately 1 inch (25mm) of concrete without making contact. A minimum space of 1
inch (25mm) should be provided between foundation and chock block to provide adequate
room for insertion of grout. The maximum distance between the foundation and sole-plate
or base-plate should not exceed 4 inches (100mm).

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 Fig. 7.1 Anchor bolts placed in foundation

7.5. Leveling and Elevation

The level is used to create a true horizontal plane. It is always a good idea to check the accuracy
of your level on a known source before starting.

Remember, level to the true plane may not be level to the continuous equipment you are
attaching to. The level should be used with feeler gauges to measure the amount of drift to the
true plane. The wedges of shims must bear the weight equally to prevent the frame from
distorting when the bolts are tightened. Level on a machine is checked on two directions, both
lengthwise and sideways with the use of a level on any major machine horizontal surface. For
equipment with a shaft, a shaft level will give an easy means of checking the level in one
direction. Once level has been established, tighten down all bolts and recheck.

Elevation and line of center is just as important as level. If this piece of machinery is used in a
continuous line process, you need to have a true line of center with the process. The best and
most accurate method to use is laser alignment. Once the piece of machinery is set into the
process by the laser, make sure to mark the equipment in its position relative to the rest of the
line at both ends. If for some reason the equipment gets moved, or you have a problem in the
process, you can easily check to see if it is still in alignment.

Grout can be hand-mixed in buckets and is poured between the foundation and the plate. It is
extremely important to grout fully around the inside of the bed plate. This will insure the stability
of all shims and provide a supporting surface. Installations using pipe to allow for movement of
the anchor bolt should have the pipe filled with grout for grouting under the base. Special care
must be taken with boxed anchor bolts to keep grout from getting into the space between the bolt
and the plate. Some people will actually get fancy with the grout and build wooden frames and
tuck point edges. This is not necessary but does give a very professional look.

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Before Mounting
One of the most common errors in machinery installation is not doing your homework. It is
extremely important to check with the operators of that equipment to see how it functions and
what requirements are needed. In some cases, it may be getting to the reservoir to polish the
hydraulic fluid or just having clear access underneath to keep it clean. Another point to consider
is stub-ups for hydraulics or electricity, etc. You want to make sure that they come up in the most
opportune spot to allow for easy excess, cleaning, and operation.

Development of your preventive maintenance tasks is highly recommended before mounting.

This will help you to determine any special needs or considerations to accomplish these PM
tasks. There are many times that maintenance is not considered until well after equipment is put
into operation and it is too late to make changes to the equipment. Deciding on the type of
mounts to be used is critical. In today’s modular factory settings equipment sometimes needs to
have the flexibility to be pulled out or modified quickly. Also, certain types of equipment that
require large amounts of rebuild may need to have quick disconnecting capabilities so they can
be taken to the shop. Redundant equipment also needs this type of flexibility.

7.6. Machinery Mounts

There are many ways of mounting machinery that are not just rigidly bolting to the bed plate.
Some equipment requires vibration dampening, automatic leveling, or mobility. These devices
need to have the capability of quick adjustment for alignment and leveling needs. The industry
standard term for this device is “Machinery Mounts,” since we no longer require the use of
anchor bolts. In essence the machine is now freestanding. The built-in leveling and alignment
capabilities usually allow the machine to be set in a minimum amount of time to exacting limits.
Since the primary anchor is the machine weight itself, it is important that the weight be solidly
placed to the floor. As we stated earlier, floors are very seldom level; hence the need for the
leveling devices to be built in. Making sure to put all the recommendations of the manufacturer,
operations, and maintenance engineering together is extremely important. The key to a
successful installation and start-up is the involvement of all parties throughout the installation
process. One other key point is to have a start-up plan. This should include pre-checks, slow
ramp-up, post-checks, and lookouts positioned at full ramp-up. Once the machine has been fully
checked out, be sure to go back and check for alignment, tightness of bolts, and level.

7.7. Epoxy Grouts

Grout is a broad term covering all of those materials used in a wide variety of applications which
include clinking for cracks, fissures, or cavities; a mortar for tile and other masonry; a support
for column footings; a sealant for built-in vessels; or a mortar for setting heavy machinery. This
section, however, is concerned with those epoxy-based materials used in setting heavy
machinery and in repairing concrete foundations.

The need for a machinery grout is created by a combination of circumstances occurring in the
construction of foundations. Many of these circumstances are unfavorable to concrete, thereby

72
complicating its use. This condition is brought about primarily because it is impossible to pour a
concrete foundation to within the tolerances usually required for precision leveling and
alignment of dynamic equipment. Even if such exact placement were possible it would be further
complicated by the fact that concrete shrinks while curing. Furthermore, the laitance or weak
surface created when simple concrete is cast or troweled would not provide sound support for
machinery requiring precision alignment. It has therefore become a standard practice in
construction of foundations to pour the concrete to a level slightly above the desired grade, and
after curing, chip away the surface to remove the laitance. The machinery is then positioned on
the foundation, leveled and aligned to within proper tolerances with the aid of jack screws,
wedges, shims, etc., and the gap grouted in solidly to establish integrity between the machine
base and the concrete foundation below.

When improperly installed machinery breaks loose, the static forces to which the foundation is
subjected do not act alone. Vibratory forces of high magnitude will also exist. Given enough
time, this will usually cause cracks in the foundation that allow lubricating oil to penetrate deep
into the foundation and proceed to degrade the concrete. It therefore becomes necessary to repair
the cracked foundation, remove or repair oil-soaked concrete and re grout in order to re-establish
the integrity of the system.

Perhaps the most valuable single property of the epoxy resins is their ability to cure, thus
converting from liquids to tough, hard solids. This is accomplished by the addition of a curing
agent. Some agents promote curing by catalytic action, while others participate directly in the
reaction and become part of the resin chain. Depending upon the particular agent, curing may be
accomplished at room temperature with heat produced by exothermic reaction, or may require
application of external heat. The epoxies will react with over 50 different chemical groupings,
but the basic curing agents employed in the epoxy resin technology are Lewis bases, inorganic
bases, primary and secondary amines, and amides.

Grout properties contribute to the long service life or performance of a grout while others
facilitate the ease of installation or grout placement. In evaluating a prospective grout,
performance characteristics should take preference over ease of placement characteristics. These
properties are of key importance.

7.8. Commissioning
Fundamentals
Commissioning is necessary to ensure facilities, equipment, and systems are installed and
function properly and are successfully turned over. A documented commissioning approach
offers traceable verification and ensures a systemic approach that minimizes commissioning
oversights. Effective commissioning minimizes punch-list items and improves start-up by
eliminating problems up-front. Further, certain commissioning activities may be used to support
documentation requirements for regulated industries.

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Commissioning Defined
Commissioning is a well-planned, documented and managed engineering approach to the start-
up and turnover of facilities, systems and equipments to the end-user that results in a safe and
functional environment that meets established design requirements and stack-holder
expectations. That is, commissioning verifies what was specified was installed, that it functions
properly and it was successfully turned over to the user and reasonably ensures the next step
verification for regulated industries will be successful.

Given this definition, engineers have always commissioned projects to a certain degree. For
example, when a new pump is installed, the proper rotation and flow rate is verified. Before it is
installed, the model number and materials of construction are confirmed. Another example is an
HVAC system. The air handler is confirmed to be leveled and adjusted. The controls are tested.
At the end, a test and balance contractor adjust circuit setters for proper water flow rates and to
adjust dampers for proper air flow. At the end of a project, the operators and maintenance staff
are trained. To have a record of what was installed, as-built drawings and operations and
maintenance manuals are developed. This is commissioning.

All these activities can be summarized in distinct commissioning categories as:

 Pre - commissioning activities
 Setting - to - work
 Inspection
 Testing
 Training and
 Hand over or Turn over.

Pre - Commissioning
Pre-commissioning activities are site acceptance tests (SAT) and Factory acceptance tests (FAT)
as well as other similar activities. FTA's are useful in protecting the business aspects of an
investment, by testing the equipment or system at the factory. This allows the system to be
tested and deficiencies corrected in a manufacturing environment before it arrives on-site with
surprises. The SAT verifies proper equipment and operation on-site. For many projects,
especially those with single equipment systems, the SAT may constitute the majority if not all
the commissioning inspection and testing requirements. Further, SAT's (and FAT's with caution)
may include elements sufficient for aspects of a regulated activity verification. If a FAT is
provided, the SAT could be reduced regimen. However, be careful in that changes made after
the FAT in the factory (outside a controlled setting) could affect acceptance outcomes.

The following are typical elements of FAT's / SAT's, as applicable:

 Confirm fundamental scope definition (or acceptance criteria) and specifications
 Functionality - operate equipment / systems during test
 Alarms and safeties

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  PLC / controls through checkout / challenge
 Utilities
 Maintenance needs
 Calibration
 Labeling

Setting - to Work
Setting - to - work and other regulation and adjustments are needed prior to energizing the
system or full start-up. This could include factory representative start-up, calibration and other
considerations needed before fully operating the equipment and beginning other aspects of
commissioning.

Inspection
Inspection is the process by which the construction and installation is verified as in accordance
with the detailed design, specified construction standards and materials and any relevant legal or
regulatory demands related to these areas. From the examples above, confirm the pump model
number and verifying the air handler was properly leveled are inspection activities. Inspection
activities generally do not include testing and often better handled on forms separate from
testing. (There are exceptions when a clarity inspection items are included with tests.) Inspection
is usually visual confirmations.

The questions needed to ask when developing and inspection checklist are:

 What needs observing to ensure the equipment is properly installed?

 What needs inspecting to ensure project definition requirements, acceptance criteria and
other regulatory issues are met?
 What inspections are needed to reasonably ensure any subsequent regulated verification
will pass?
 How will inspection activities be structured/ documented so repetition during any
regulated verification is not required?

When these basic questions are answered, common sense will prevail. There is no need to create
volumes of documents of marginal value. Yet, documentation must be adequately thorough. The
key is to be specific with inspection line items to ensure documentation is traceable.

Testing
Testing is the process by which adjustment to and regulation of individual systems are
demonstrated as within the required tolerances, system components are demonstrated as
delivering the required capacity of duty, the function of the system are demonstrated to be as
specified and appropriate. Referring again to the commissioning examples of the pumps,
checking the pump's flow rate and performing test & balance on the HVAC system are all
testing activities. Essentially, testing is needed on what was installed to ensure the equipment or
system operates as specified and required.

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Questions to ask when determining test requirements are:

 What level of testing is needed to ensure the equipment is properly functioning as

specified?
 What tests are needed to ensure fundamental design requirements, acceptance criteria and
other regulatory issues are met?
 What testing is needed to ensure (within reason) any required regulatory verification will
pass?
 How can the testing be documented/ structured so it will not need to be repeated during
any regulated verification?

As with inspection when the basic questions are answered, common sense will prevail. There is
no need to create volumes of useless test documents when documentation is adequately
thorough. As with inspection, a documented paper trail is recommended to demonstrate (and
document) that equipment and systems are adequately tested.

Training
Unless staffs are properly trained, they will be unable to safely and efficiently operate and
maintain the facility, equipment or system.

The commonsense questions to ask before determining training requirements are:

1. On which equipment/ system is training required?

2. Who needs to be trained?
3. What training do they need? (Not everyone needs the same training).
4. How must the training be recorded?
5. What are the required qualifications of the trainees?

The project is not fully commissioned until turnover is also completed. Training, project
closeout, documentation and commissioning documentation are parts of a successful project
turnover.

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