Lesson 1 – Reasoning and Problem-Solving

Introduction

One of the main goals of mathematics education is to develop critical thinking skills of learners
enabling them to be problem solvers and effective decision-makers. In this lesson, you will learn the two
types of reasoning commonly employed in mathematics as well as problem solving strategies and
heuristics that can help you in your journey in the ever-increasing mathematical modern world that we
live in.

Reasoning

Reason is the capacity of consciously making sense of things, applying logic, and adapting or
justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. It is closely
associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, language, mathematics,
and art, and is normally considered to be a distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason is
sometimes referred to as rationality. In mathematics, there are generally two types of reasoning which
are inductive and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples is
called inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by
examining specific examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct. It can only become a theorem once a proof of the
conjecture is established. A proof is a demonstration, or argument, that shows beyond a shadow of a
doubt that a given assertion is a logical consequence of our axioms and definitions.

We may use inductive reasoning in our everyday life subconsciously. In unit 1, we were able to
solve number patterns. When you examined the list of numbers and predicted the next number in the list
according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning. It is not just used just
to predict the next number in a list. We can also use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an
arithmetic procedure.

Example 1

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product,
divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 5 × 8 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original
number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting with 100
produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is four times the original
number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the
original number.

Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used inductive
reasoning to discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of
the pendulum, depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the
periods of pendulums in "heartbeats." The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums
of various lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.

Length of Period of pendulum

pendulum in units in heartbeats
1 1

4 2

9 3

16 4

25 5
36 6

The period of a pendulum is the time takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right and back
to its original position.

Example 2

Use the data in the above table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?

Solution

a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus, we conjecture that
a pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a
length of 1 unit. A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with
a length of 4 units. It appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. As an illustration, consider the

circles
shown
below.
For each
circle,
all

possible line segments have been drawn to connect each dot on the circle with all the other dots on the
circle.
 For each circle, count the number of regions formed by the line segments that connect the dots
on the circle. Your results should agree with the results in the following table.

There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double the number of regions. Guess
the maximum number of regions you expect for a circle with six dots. Check your guess by counting the
maximum number of regions formed by the line segments that connect six dots on a large circle. Your
drawing will show that for six dots, the maximum number of regions is 31 (see the figure at the left), not
32 as you may have guessed.

With seven dots the maximum number of regions is 57. This is a good example to keep in mind.
Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean
the pattern will continue. When you use inductive reasoning, you
have no guarantee that your conclusion is correct.

Counterexamples

statement is a true statement if and only if it is true in all cases. If

you can find one case for which a statement is not true, called a
counterexample, then the statement is a false statement. In
Example 3 we verify that each statement is a false statement by
finding a counterexample for each.
Example 3

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample. For all x:

a. |𝑥| > 0 b. 𝑥2 > 𝑥 c. √𝑥2 = 𝑥

Solution

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need to find only one counterexample to
verify that the statement is false.
a. If we let x = 0, then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample. Thus
“for all x, |𝑥| > 0” is a false statement.
b. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all x, 𝑥2 > 𝑥” is a false statement.
c. Consider x = -3, then √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all x, √𝑥2 = 𝑥” is a false statement.

Deductive Reasoning

Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distinguished

from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general
assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Example 4
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 3.

Solution

Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide the sum by 2: = 4𝑛 + 3
2

Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original number.

In the next example we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or deductive
reasoning.
Example 5

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not
produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated my home improvement
will cost $35,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.

Solution

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an example of inductive

reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument is an example of
deductive reasoning.

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in solving mathematical
problems, but they were also interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and
invention. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650)
contributed to the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem-solving method. Although
he did not achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and
his better- known work Discourse de la Methode.

Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646–1716), planned to

write a book on heuristics titled Art of Invention. Of the problem-solving process, Leibnitz wrote,
“Nothing is more important than to see the sources of invention which are, in my opinion, more
interesting than the inventions themselves.”

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George
Polya (1887–1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic
problem- solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand 2. Devise a 3. Carry out 4. Review the

the problem. plan. the plan. solution.

Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to examine
each of these steps and determine what is involved.

Understand the Problem: This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must have a
clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the
following questions.

 Can you restate the problem in your own words?

 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 What is the goal?

Devise a Plan: Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve a
problem. Here are some frequently-used procedures.

 Make a list of the known information.

 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess a solution and then check your result.
 Use indirect reasoning.

Carry Out the Plan: Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.

 Work carefully.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise another
plan or modify your existing plan.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.

Review the Solution: Once you have found a solution, check the solution.

 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problems.

In Example 6 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving strategy to solve a problem involving the
number of routes between two points.

Example 6 (Solve a Similar but Simpler Problem)

Consider the map shown in the figure below. Allison wishes to walk along the streets from point A to
point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?
Solution
Understand the Problem: We would not be able to
answer the question if Allison retraced her path or
travelled away from point B. Thus, we assume that on
a direct route, she always travels along a street in a
direction that gets her closer to point B.
Devise a Plan: The map above has many extraneous
details. Thus, we make a diagram that allows us to
concentrate on the essential information. See the
simplified diagram at the left.
Because there are many routes, we consider the
similar but simpler diagrams shown on the
right. The number at each street intersection represents the number of routes from point A to that
particular intersection.

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to an intersection is the sum of the number of
routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above. For
instance, the number of routes to the
intersection labelled 6 is the sum
of the number of routes to the
intersection to its left, which is
three, and the number of routes to the
intersection directly above, which
is also three.

Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered on the previous page, we see from the figure at the
right that the number of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.
Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems reasonable. If you were required to
draw each route, could you devise a scheme that would enable you to draw each route without missing a
route or duplicating a route?

The example below illustrates the technique of using an organized list.

Example 7 (Make an Organized List)

A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could they have two
wins and two losses in four games?

Solution
Understand the Problem: There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games
and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last two (LLWW).
Of course, there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan: We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list that is
produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan: Each entry in our list must contain two W’s and two L’s. We will use a strategy
that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to always write a W
unless doing so will produce too many W’s or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not
possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy produces the six different
orders shown below.

1. WWLL (Start with two wins)

2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution: We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers
all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win
exactly two out of four games.

In Example 8 we make use of a table to solve a problem.

Example 8 (Make a Table and Look for a Pattern)

Determine the digit: 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal representation of 7/27

Solution
Understand the Problem: Express the fraction 7/27 as a decimal and look for a pattern that will enable
us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.
Devise a Plan: Dividing 27 into 7 by long division or by using a calculator produces the decimal
0.259259259…. Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 259 over and over forever, we know
that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is either a 2, a 5, or a 9. A table may
help us to see a pattern and enable us to determine which one of these digits is in the 100th place. Since
the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with three columns.

7
The first 15 decimal digits of
27

Carry Out the Plan: Only in column 3

is each of the decimal digit locations
evenly divisible by 3. From this pattern
we can tell that the 99th decimal digit
(because 99 is evenly divisible by 3)
must be a 9. Since a 2 always
follows a 9 in the pattern, the 100th
decimal digit must be a 2.

Review the Solution: The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the location
numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder of 1 is produced. If each of the location numbers in
column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus, we can find the decimal digit in any
location by dividing the location number by 3 and examining the remainder. For instance, to find the
digit
in the 3200th decimal place of 7 , merely divide 3200 by 3 and examine the remainder, which is 2/27.
Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the decimal point is a 5.

Example 9 illustrates the method of working backwards. In problems in which you know a final
result, this method may require the least effort.

Example 9 (Work Backwards)

In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy first paid $800 for a hotel. She then lost half her money
when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she collected $200 for passing GO. She then lost half her
remaining money when she landed on Illinois Avenue. Stacy now has $2500. How much did she have
just before she purchased the hotel?

Solution

Understand the Problem: We need to determine the number of dollars that Stacy had just prior to her
$800 hotel purchase.
Devise a Plan: We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before we found
the correct solution. An algebraic method might work, but setting up the necessary equation could be a
challenge. Since we know the end result, let’s try the method of working backwards.
Carry Out the Plan: Stacy must have had $5000 just before she landed on Illinois Avenue; $4800 just
before she passed GO; and $9600 prior to landing on Boardwalk. This means she had $10,400 just
before she purchased the hotel.
Review the Solution: To check our solution we start with $10,400 and proceed through each of the
transactions. $10,400 less $800 is $9600.Half of $9600 is $4800. $4800 increased by $200 is $5000.
Half of $5000 is $2500.

Some problems can be solved by making guesses and checking. Your first few guesses may not
produce a solution, but quite often they will provide additional information that will lead to a solution.

Example 10

The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age. What
are the ages of the teenagers?

Solution

Understand the Problem: We need to determine three distinct whole numbers, from the list 13, 14, 15,
16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.

Devise a Plan: If we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then We are unable to solve this equation, but we
notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means that at least
one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least one number must have 5 as a factor.
The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the numbers and at least one of
the other numbers must be an even number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking.

Carry Out the Plan:

15 ⦁ 16 ⦁ 18 = 4320 • No. This product is too small.
15 ⦁ 16 ⦁ 19 = 4560 • No. This product is too small.
15 ⦁ 17 ⦁ 18 = 4590 • Yes. This is the correct product. The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Review the Solution: Because 15 ⦁ 17 ⦁ 18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of
4590, so there are no other solutions.

Some problems are deceptive. After reading one of these problems, you may think that the
solution is obvious or impossible. These deceptive problems generally require that you carefully read the
problem several times and that you check your solution to make sure it satisfies all the conditions of the
problem.

Example 11

A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. What are the cost of the
hat and the cost of the jacket?

Solution

Understand the Problem: After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that the jacket
costs
$90 and the hat costs $10. The sum of these costs is $100, but the cost of the jacket is only $80 more
than the cost of the hat. We need to find two-dollar amounts that differ by $90 and whose sum is $100.

Devise a Plan: Write an equation using h for the cost of the hat and h + 90 for the cost of the jacket.
h + h + 90 = 100

Carry Out the Plan: Solve the above equation for h.

2h + 90 = 100 • Collect like terms.
2h = 10 • Solve for h.
h=5
The cost of the hat is $5 and the cost of the jacket is $90 + $5 = $95.

Review the Solution: The sum of the costs is and the cost of the jacket is $90 more than the cost of the
hat. This check confirms that the hat costs $5 and the jacket costs $95.

References
Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., Nation, R., Clegg, D., Epp, S. S., & Abad, E. P. (2018).
Mathematics in the Modern World. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Calingasan, R. M., Martin, M. C., & Yambao, E. M. (2018). Mathematics in the
Modern World. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.,.
Commission on Higher Education. (2017, October 6). Mathematics in
the Modern World Preliminaries. Retrieved from CHED:
https://ched.gov.ph/wp- content/uploads/2017/10/KWF-
Mathematics-in-the-Modern-World.pdf
Hurley, J. F. (2002, August 9). What Are Mathematical Proofs and Why They Are Important?
Retrieved from University of Connecticut:
https://www2.math.uconn.edu/~hurley/math315/proofgoldberger.pdf