Basic Electrical Engineering

EEEE 103 S1
Syllabus
 Books
• Engineering Circuit Analysis by William H.
Hayt
• Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by Charles K.
Alexander
• Electrical circuits by Edminister Joseph A.,
Schaum’s outline series, McGraw hill, 2nd
edition, 1983.
 Introduction
• In electrical engineering we often find ourselves
talking about specific currents, voltages, or
powers, we call them quantities.

• In electrical engineering, we are often interested

in transferring energy from one point to another.
To do this requires an interconnection of
electrical devices. Such interconnection is
referred to as an electric circuit, and each
component of the circuit is known as an element.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements
 Simple Circuit

Fig.1. shows a simple electric circuit consisting of a source of electrical

energy (battery), a switch, a load, and inter-connecting wire.
 SI Units
• In order to state the value of some measurable
quantity, we must give a number. In addition to a
numerical value, we must include a unit.
• The system of units most commonly used in
electrical engineering is the SI.
• Quite frequently, however, the SI units yield numbers
that are either too large or too small for convenient
use.
• To handle these, engineering notation and a set of
standard prefixes have been developed.
The basic units in the SI system are listed with
their symbols, in Table.
Quantity Unit
Length meter, m
Mass kilogram, kg
Time second, s
Electric Current ampere, A
Temperature kelvin, K
Luminous Intensity candela, cd
Amount of Substance mole, mol
Charge coulomb, C

Derived SI units use combinations of basic units and there are many of them. Two
examples are: Velocity and Acceleration
 Standard Prefixes
• To describe quantities that occur in large
multiples or small fractions of a unit, standard
prefixes are used to denote powers of 10 of SI
(and derived) units.
Prefix Name Meaning
M mega Multiply by 1 000 000 (i.e. ×106)
k kilo Multiply by 1 000 (i.e. ×103)
m milli Divide by 1000
µ micro Divide by 1 000 000 (i.e. ×10-6)
n nano Divide by 1 000 000 000 (i.e. ×10-9)
p pico Divide by 1 000 000 000 000 (i.e. ×10-12)
 Charge, Current, Voltage and Power
 The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is
the electric charge.
 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic
particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C).
 All matter is made of fundamental building blocks
known as atoms and that each atom consists of
electrons, protons, and neutrons.
 Charge e on an electron is negative and equal in
magnitude to 1.602× 10-19C.
 Charge
• In 1 C of charge, there are 1/1.602× 10-19 =6.24 × 1019
electrons.
• The law of conservation of charge states that charge
can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transferred.
• Electric charge or electricity is mobile. It can
transferred from one place to another, where it can
be converted to another form of energy.
 Current
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is
connected to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the
charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one
direction while negative charges move in the opposite
direction.
 Electrons (-) are
attracted to the
positive (+) pole of the
battery. As electrons
move around the
circuit, they are
replenished at the
negative pole of the
battery. This flow of
Fig. Electron flow in a conductor.
charge is called an
electric current.
 Current
 It is conventional to take the current flow as the movement of
positive charges. That is, opposite to the flow of negative
charges.
 The current present in a discrete path, such as a metallic wire,
has both a numerical value and a direction associated with it.

 It is a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a

given reference point in a specified direction.

 Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q

and time t is .

 The unit of current is the ampere (A), named after Andre-Marie

Ampère, a French physicist. One ampere equals 1 coulomb per
second.
 Current
There can be several types of current; that is, charge can vary with
time in several ways.

 If the current does not change with time, but remains constant,
we call it a direct current (dc) as shown below

A direct current (dc) is a current that

remains constant with time.

The symbol I (capital letter) is used to

represent such a constant current.

A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i.

 Current
 A common form of time-varying current is the
sinusoidal current or alternating current (ac).
An alternating current (ac) is a
current that varies sinusoidally
with time. This form are present
in normal household circuits .
the AC electricity delivered by
the power company has a
frequency of 50 cycles/s, or
50Hz.
Direct current and alternating current are the two most
common types of current.
 Direction of Current
As mentioned earlier, the direction of current flow is
conventionally taken as the direction of positive
charge movement.
We create a graphical symbol for current by placing an
arrow next to the conductor.

FIGURE: Two methods of

representation for the exact
same current.

Based on this convention, a current of 3A may be

represented positively or negatively as shown in Fig.
 Direction of Current

FIGURE: (a, b) Incomplete, improper, and incorrect

definitions of a current. (c) The correct definition of i1(t).

I1 In the wire of Fig., electrons are

moving left to right to create a
I2 current of 1 mA. Determine and
Fig. .
 Voltage
 To move the electron in a conductor in a particular
direction requires some work or energy transfer.
 Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy
required to move a unit charge through an element.
 The voltage between two points is one volt if it
requires one joule of energy to move one coulomb
of charge from one point to the other.
 This work is performed by an external electromotive
force (emf), typically represented by the battery.
 This emf is also known as voltage or potential
difference.
 Voltage
• A voltage can exist between a pair of electrical
terminals whether a current is flowing or not.
• An automobile battery, for example, has a voltage of
12 V across its terminals even if nothing whatsoever
is connected to the terminals.
• The voltage between two points a and b in an
electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to
move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in

coulombs (C). The voltage or simply v is measured in
 Voltage
The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used
to define reference direction or voltage
polarity.
The vab can be interpreted in two ways:
(1) Point a is at a potential of vab volts
higher than point b, or (2) the potential
at point a with respect to point b is vab.
Fig: Polarity of voltage
𝒂𝒃 Logically
.

NOTE: Electric current is always through an element and

that electric voltage is always across the element or
between two points.
Voltage

FIGURE : (a, b) Terminal B is 5 V

positive with respect to terminal
A; (c, d) terminal A is 5 V
positive with respect to terminal
B.
 Voltage
The definition of any voltage
must include a plus-minus sign
pair.
A constant voltage is called a dc
voltage and is represented by V.
A sinusoidally time-varying
voltage is called an ac voltage
and is represented by v.
A dc voltage is commonly
FIGURE: (a, b) These are inadequate produced by a battery; ac voltage
definitions of a voltage. (c) A correct
definition includes both a symbol for
is produced by an electric
the variable and a plus-minus symbol generator.
pair.
 Potential Difference
• The difference in the potentials of two charged
bodies is called potential difference.
• If two bodies have different electric potentials, a
potential difference exists between the bodies.
• If the two bodies are joined through a conductor,
then electrons will flow from one body to another.
• The potential difference between any two points in
the circuit is the energy used by one coulomb in
moving from one point to another.
 Power
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing
energy, measured in watts (W).

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J),

and t is time in seconds (s).

Thus, the power absorbed or supplied by an element is

the product of the voltage across the element and the
current through it.
 Power

Figure: Two cases of an element Figure: Two cases of an element

with an absorbing power of 12 W: with an supplying power of 12 W:
 Passive Sign Convention
 Current direction and voltage polarity play a major
role in determining the sign of power.
 Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current
enters through the positive terminal of an element
and . If the current enters through the
negative terminal, .

Fig : Compute the power absorbed by each part

 Power
• The law of conservation of energy must be
obeyed in any electric circuit. For this reason, the
algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant
of time, must be zero:

• The total power supplied to the circuit must balance

the total power absorbed.
 Energy

• Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in

joules (J).

• The energy absorbed or supplied by an element

from time t0 to time t is
 Circuit Elements
 There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements.
 An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not.
 Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
 The most important active elements are voltage or current
sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected
to them.
 There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources.
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SOURCES
• An ideal independent source is an active
element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of
other circuit elements.
• An ideal independent voltage source is
characterized by a terminal voltage which is
completely independent of the current
through it.
• It delivers whatever current is necessary to
maintain its terminal voltage.
 Independent Voltage Sources
• Physical sources such as batteries and generators
may be regarded as approximations to ideal
voltage sources.
• An automobile storage battery, for example, has a
12 V terminal voltage that remains essentially
constant as long as the current through it does
not exceed a few amperes.
• An ordinary household electrical outlet also
approximates an independent voltage source,
providing a voltage V.
Independent Voltage Sources

Fig. Circuit symbol of the independent voltage source

with constant or time-varying voltage.
 Independent Voltage Sources

An independent voltage
source with a constant
terminal voltage is often
termed an independent
dc voltage source and can
Fig. (a) DC voltage source symbol; be represented by either
(b) battery symbol; (c) ac voltage
source symbol. of the symbols shown in
Fig. a and b.
 Independent Current Sources
• Another ideal source which we will need is the
independent current source. Here, the current
through the element is completely
independent of the voltage across it.
If is constant, we call the source
an independent dc current
source.

Fig: Circuit symbol for the independent current source.

 Dependent Sources
• An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active
element in which the source quantity is controlled (or
determined) by a voltage or current existing at some
other location in the system being analysed.
There are four possible types of dependent sources,
namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).
 Dependent Sources
Dependent sources are useful
in modelling elements such
as transistors, operational
amplifiers, and integrated
FIGURE :The four different types of circuits.
dependent sources: (a) current-
controlled current source; (b)
voltage-controlled current source; In Fig. 2 a and c, K is a
(c) voltage-controlled voltage
source; (d) current-controlled dimensionless scaling
voltage source. constant. In Fig. b, ‘g’ is a
scaling factor with units of
A/V; in Fig. d, ‘r’ is a scaling
factor with units of V/A.
Example: Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by
each element
 RESISTOR
 When electric current flows through a metal wire
or through other circuit elements, it encounters a
certain amount of resistance, the magnitude of
which depends on the electrical properties of the
material.
 This physical property, or ability to resist current,
is known as resistance and is represented by the
symbol R.
 The resistance of any material with a uniform
cross-sectional area A depends on A and its
length l.
 RESISTOR
We can represent
resistance in
mathematical form,

Where ρ is known as the

resistivity of the material in
Figure: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol
ohm-meters.
for resistance.

Good conductors, such as copper and aluminium, have

low resistivities, while insulators, such as mica and
paper, have high resistivities.
 OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across
conducting materials is directly proportional to
the current flowing through the material.

where the constant of proportionality R is called

the resistance. The unit of resistance is the ohm,
which is 1 V/A and customarily abbreviated by a
capital omega, Ω.
Not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A resistor that obeys
Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. Its i-v graph is
a straight line passing through the origin.

A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its

resistance varies with current and its i-v characteristic is
typically shown in

Figure: The i-v

characteristic of: (a) a
linear resistor, (b) a
nonlinear resistor.
 Short Circuit and Open Circuit

Figure :(a) Short circuit (R=0), (b) Open circuit (R=∞).

A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching

zero.
An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching
infinity.
 Variable Resistors
• A resistor is either fixed or variable. Most resistors
are of the fixed type, meaning their resistance
remains constant.
• Variable resistors have adjustable resistance. The
symbol for a variable resistor is shown in Fig. (a).
• A common variable resistor is known as a
potentiometer or pot for short, with the symbol
shown in Fig. (b).

Figure: Circuit symbol for: (a)

a variable resistor in general,
(b) a potentiometer.
(a) (b)
 Conductance
 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct
electric current; it is measured in mhos (Ʊ) or
siemens (S).
 It is a measure of how well an element will conduct
electric current.
 It is the reciprocal of resistance R, known and
denoted by G.

Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a

resistor is always positive. It makes the resistor a passive element
Power Absorbed by a Resistor
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT LAWS
 Network and Circuit
• The interconnection of two
or more simple circuit
elements forms an electrical
network.

Fig. Electrical Network

• If the network contains at

least one closed path, it is
also an electric circuit.
Fig. Electric Circuit
• Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are
circuits
 Network and Circuit
• A network that contains at least one active
element, such as an independent voltage or
current source, is an active network.
• A network that does not contain any active
elements is a passive network.
 NODES, LOOPS, AND BRANCHES
• A branch represents a single element such as a
voltage source or a resistor. In other words a branch
represents any two-terminal element.
• A node is the common point at which two or more
devices (passive or active) are connected.
• A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.

Figure: Illustration of Nodes,

branches, and loops.
 Loop
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
 A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the
starting node without passing through any node more
than once.
 A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least
one branch which is not a part of any other
independent loop.
 Independent loops or paths result in independent sets
of equations.
 Independent loops:
1. abca with the resistor 2Ω
is independent.
2. abca with the resistor 3Ω
is independent.
The three-node circuit of 3. A loop with the resistor
previous Fig. is redrawn. 3Ω and the cur-rent
source is independent.

Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share

a single node and consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected
to the same two nodes and consequently have the same
 Example
• Determine the number of branches and nodes
in the circuit shown in below Fig. Identify
which elements are in series and which are in
parallel.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
• KCL states that the algebraic sum of all
currents leaving (or entering) a node is equal
to zero.
• A node is not a circuit element, and it
certainly cannot store, destroy, or generate
charge. Hence, the currents must sum to zero.
• If we assign a plus (+) sign to the currents
leaving the node, we must assign a minus (-)
sign to the currents entering the node.
 KCL

The sum of the currents

entering a node is equal to
Figure. Node to illustrate KCL the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
 Example

If ix= 3 A and the 18 V source delivers 8 A of current,

what is the value of RA?
 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• KVL states that the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops (voltages from + to -) or voltage rises
(voltages from - to +) around any closed path
(mesh or loop) in a circuit is equal to zero.
• If we assign a (+) sign to the voltage drops, we
must assign a (-) sign to the voltage rises.
• KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a
clockwise or a counter clockwise trip around the
loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages
around the loop is zero.
 KVL

Fig. A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

 KVL
• When voltage sources are connected in series,
KVL can be applied to obtain the total voltage.

Figure: Voltage sources in series: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent

circuit.
 KVL Example

Fig: Find voltages v1and v2.

Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Applying Ohm’s law to

each of the resistors, we
have

Fig: A single-loop circuit with

two resistors in series. Apply KVL to the loop (moving
in the clockwise direction), we
have
Series Resistors and Voltage Division
where

Using above equation, an equivalent circuit for the

previous circuit can be drawn as shown below where
single equivalent resistance Req replaces the two series
resistors.
 Resistors in series behave
as a single resistor whose
resistance is equal to the
sum of the resistances of
the individual resistors.
Figure: Equivalent circuit
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division
The voltage each resistor can be determined as follows:

Here, the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in

direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the
resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the
principle of voltage division and that circuit is called
voltage divider
 Series Resistors and Voltage Division
If a voltage divider has N resistors in series with
the source voltage , the resistor
( will have a voltage drop of
 Parallel Resistors
and Current Division
Consider the circuit in Fig. below, where two resistors
are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them.
From Ohm’s law,

And

Fig: Two resistors in parallel.

The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of

their resistances divided by their sum.
 Parallel Resistors
and Current Division
The current through the resistor can be obtained as

The total current i is being shared by the resistors in

inverse proportion to their resistances. This is known as
the principle of current division, and the circuit in
previous Fig. is known as a current divider.
 Parallel Resistors: Special Cases

Figure: (a) A shorted circuit, (b) an open circuit.

In an extreme case where one of the resistors in above Fig. is

zero (i.e. R_2=0). Then we have
and .
The entire current i bypasses and flows through the short circuit, the
path of least resistance.
 Parallel Resistors: Special Cases
Consider another extreme case, where ,
that is, is an open circuit, as shown in previous
Fig.
Then and .
The current still flows through the path of least
resistance.
 Parallel Resistors
In case of a circuit with N resistors in parallel, the
equivalent resistance is

Note that is always smaller than the resistance of the

smallest resistor in the parallel combination.
If , then

It is often more convenient to use conductance rather than

resistance when dealing with resistors in parallel.
 Parallel Resistors
The equivalent conductance for N resistors in parallel is

where, , ,…..
The equivalent conductance of parallel resistors is
obtained the same way as the equivalent resistance of
series resistors.
If a current divider has N conductors ( )
in parallel with the source current i, the conductor
( ) will have current
 Example
Find
 Wye-Delta Transformations
Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the
resistors are neither in parallel nor in series as shown in
Fig. here.

Fig. The bridge network.

Many circuits of this type can be simplified by using

three-terminal equivalent networks known as the wye
( ) and the delta ( ) networks.
Wye-Delta Transformations

Figure: The wye and delta networks

 Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye
network in a place where the circuit contains a delta
configuration. Then the existing delta network will be
transformed into an wye network.

The equivalent resistances in the

wye network are

Fig: Superposition of Y and

networks
 Wye to Delta Conversion
The equivalent resistances in
the delta network can be
estimated as

Fig: Superposition of Y and networks

The Y and networks are said to be

balanced when
. Under
these conditions, ∆
and
 Examples

Fig.1: Convert the network to Y network Fig.2: Convert the Y network to network

Fig.3: Calculate Rab and I .