3 Introduction to Database Systems {Learning Outcomes m& After studying this chapter, you should be able to understand: Database Management System Components of DBMS Architecture of a DBMS File System Versus 2 DBMS Structure ofa DBMS People who Deal with Database Data Models Concept of Normalization Decomposition. v Vv vvvv vv 3.0 Introduction A database is a collection of related files that are usually integrated, linked or cross-referenced to one another. The advantage of a database is that data and records contained in different files can be easily organized and retrieved using specialized database management software called a database management system (DBMS) or database manager. A database management system is a set of software programs that allows users to create, edit and update data in database files, and store and retrieve data from those database files. Data in a database can be added, deleted, changed, sorted or searched all using a DBMS. If you were an employee in a large organization, the information about you would likely be stored in different files that are linked58 || Information System Management together, One file about you would pertain to your skills and abilities, satis en income te status, another to your home and office address and telephone number, an Your anny ersons address i performance ratings. By cross-referencing these files, someone could change a p' ino file and it would automatically be reflected in all the other files. 3.1 Database Management System A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of software programs that manipulates and Processe, data, and provides an interface between the data and its users (in order that they can use it to make decisions). Key services provided by the DBMS are: Let’ take example of school database, storage of data retrieval of data sorting of data (into useful information) management reports answering management questions (queries) iB q User communicate to the DBMS:interface for the efficient and faster way of fullfnling her requirement Different programs to inser, delete, update ‘and query database for information EE DATA s | Database Figure 3.1 : Database and Database Management System where Registrar’ office, as users interact with database management system to retrieve dat: Accounting dept. and Athletics dept, a from database, aIntroduction to Database Systems ||_ 59 a Class an Registers a Programs |*——— Academic info Team data Y Employee data ene Database Tuition data yunting <7 i¢ management ae dat Programs "eae Financial data Student data * t Course data Sports Registration data naialcs <>) Programs . [* Figure 3.2 : Database Management System interact with different users 441.1 Functions of DBMS + DBMS free the programmers from the need to worry about the organization and location of the data ie. it shields the users from comp! lex hardware level details. + DBMS can organize process and present data elements from the database. This capability enables decision makers to search and query database contents in order to extract answers that are not available in regular Reports. « Programming is speeded up because programmer can concentrate on logic of the application. «+ It includes special user friendly query languages which are easy to understand by non programming users of the system. 3.1.2 Functional Components of DBMS Software DBMS software creates, stores, updates, retrieves and selects data for communication to the users in the format as specified by them. The user of a database may be a human or a user program. In addition, DBMS software, generally, has facilities for generating applications. Thus, DBMS software should have programs to perform a variety of functions. The functional components of DBMS software are: (i) Data definition language: Data definition language (DDL) is used to define the contents and the structure of a database. These definitions are kept in the data dictionary. The data dictionary or directory contains information of the definition, structure and other characteristics of data in the database. ‘The data dictionary defines the entities and the attributes that describe these entities. It may also include information on report which these attributes appear frequency of use, access permissions, etc. Such information about the data is also termed as meta-data. The definition60 || Information System Management iti ecific part of the datah. of the entire database is also ciel shen ie dese a oH Pel . fr . Gerileeuencs cae ‘The data dictionary is helpful £ eae dines . ei not be aware of the physical location of attributes in the Ge " , a “A in i in the data dictionary, it can be referred to by the name given toit v tl . a Y- Ms automatically locates the data on the attribute and asses it on to the us : (i) Data manipulation language: The data manipulation language (DM1)-is a ie o Piceediey commands that enable programmers to append, modify, update and retrieve data. It has of, facilities for data manipulation such as sorting, indexing, etc. The DML uses simple verbs Such as Delete, Soit, Insert, Select, Display, Add, etc. as commands for manipulation of data, (iii) Query language: A Query language is user oriented. It enables the user of | the database to make ad-hoc queries from the database using simple words from a natural language like English hig in way, similar to DML but offers more commands for retrieval of information. The commands of the query langua language (SQL), Using SQL, a user can make any query from a database using Powerful commands like SELECT, PROJECT and JOIN. In fact, these three commands form the Core of SQL. (iv) peat Saerore ‘The requirements for Seneration of reports from the database are different in different applications, In the Teport, data may be Tepresented using the gra hs, pi a » Pictures, and other forms that can help in improving comprehension, ati Plctaes, apy (¥) Application ilities available loping applications. ut Very powerful a Various co, i) User interfaces ‘The user i user with the dat; and makes Use Perform varioy, abase, Th of graphic 'S Operatioy theIntroduction to Database Systems || 61 Figure 3.3 : Functional Components of DBMS Functional | Components of DBMS: 3.1.3. Advantages of DBMS « Controlling Data Redundancy: Data is recorded in only one place in the database and it is not duplicated. « Data Consistency: Data item appears only once, and the updated value is immediately available to all users. Control Over Concurrency: In a computer file-based system in updating, one may overwrite the values recorded by the other. Backup and Recovery Procedures: ‘Automatically create the backup of data and restore data if required. Data Independence: Separation of data structure of database from application program that tases the data is called data independence. Application programs should not, ideally, be exposed to details of data representation and storage. Efficient Data access: A DBMS uses several powerful functions to store and retrieve data efficiently Data Integrity and Security: The DBMS enforces integrity constraints to get akind of protection against prohibited access to data. Data Administration: When any users share the data, centralizing the administration of data can offer significant improvements. Concurrent Access and Crash Recovery: ‘A DBMS schedules concurrent access to the data in such manner that users can think of the data as being accessed by only one user at a time. DBMS also protects users from the effects of system failures. Reduced Application Development Time: DBMS includes several important functions that are common to many applications accessing data in the DBMS. In conjunction with the high- evel interface to the data, facilitates quick application development.62 || Information System Management 31.4 Disadvantages of DBMS i nt for hardware, software and trained sty + Cost: DBMS requires high initial es fanetocaliy f aration redial ‘ significant investment based upon a ae ae ee eee, inlaid and it solves many problems related to data + Complexity: A DEMS fl has made DBMS an extremely complex software. Developer, desig, Bin ieeia z ee must have complete skills if they want to user it Properly, let | a ae ae aie system then it may cause loss of data or ilabase failure, dont poeta irement: Any organization have many employees working for it and the ; en sa rb tasks too that are not in their domain but it is not easy for them , See ee of technical staff is required who understand DBMS and Company hay 'o them too. . wee know that in DBMS, all the files are stored in single database % chances of database failure become more. Any accidental failure of component May Cause los, of valuable data. This is really a big question mark for big firms, * Extra Cost of Hardware: A DBMS requires disk storage for the data and some + Size: As DBMS becomes big software due to its function: memory to run its application efficiently. It gains bigger si * Cost of Data Conversion: Data conversion may require at any time and Organization has to take this step. It is unbelievabl le that data conversion cost is more than the costs of DBMS hardware and machine combined. Trained staff is needed to convert data to new system. It isa key reason that most of the Organizations are still working on their old DBMS due to high cost of data conversion, alities so it requires lots of space and ize as data is fed in it. + Currency Maintenance: As new DBMS should be updates accord + Performance: Traditional files splendid performance. But DB; slow, threats comes daily, so DB; MS requires to updates itself daily, ling to the current Scenario, system was very good for small I organizations as they oj IMS gives poor pe eet is "formance for smal scale firme aS its speed ig 3.2 Components of DBMS A database management system (DBMS) consists of several components. Each component play ‘portant role in the database management system environment, The major compon ts F pa ‘management system are: cts ca base——<—<<_, Introduction to Database Syst Data Base Management. — System (DBMS) Appication |,_» O, }" |) Program Aas Q <—| Application [EX Program Data and Programs N Q Application : _ Program ba | Application OQ LN Program [* °/\ ses rocedures Database Procedures USS a ; x Figure 3.4 : Components of DBMS 3.2.1 Software ‘The main component of a DBMS is the software. Itis the set of programs used to handle the database and to control and manage the overall computerized database DBMS software itself, is the most important software component in the overall system Operating system including network software being used in network, to share the data of database among multiple users. Application programs developed in programming languages such as C++, Visual Basic that are used to to access database in database management system. Each program contains statements that request the DBMS to perform operation on database. The operations may include retrieving, updating, deleting data etc . The application program may be conventional or online workstations or terminals. 3.2.2 Hardware Hardware consists ofa set of physical electronic devices such as computers (together with associated I/O devices like disk drives), storage devices, I/O channels, electromechanical devices that make interface between computers and the real world systems etc, and so on. It is impossible to implement the DBMS without the hardware devices, In a network, a powerful computer with high data processing speed and a storage device with large storage capacity is required as database server. 3.2.3 Data Data is the most important component of the DBMS. The main purpose of DBMS is to process the data. In DBM, databases are defined, constructed and then data is stored, updated and retrieved to and from the databases, The database contains both the actual (or operational) data and the metadata (data about data or description about data). eeG4 || Information System Management ca ieve data on demand using the applications . s or retrieve the There are a number of users es cate user needs different ce a The ey interfaces provided " i Tae iz following groups, depending on their deg xp ear, database system can be cl lassi mode of their interactions with the DBMS. 3.25 Procedures sign the database and to use the DByy ome al ee Pate ae ye procedures on hot use or Tun thy oes ied system. These may include. 1. Procedure to install the new DBMS. 2. Tolog on to the DBMS. 3. Tose the DBMS or application program, 4. To make backup copies of database. 5. To change the structure of database, 6. To generate the reports of data retrieved from database, Bridge 7h ns Figure 3.5 : Data as Bridge 3.2.6 Dotobase Access Language ‘The database access language is used to access the data to and fro database access language ¢ to enter new data, ch; data from databases, ‘The user Ss in a databa: submits these to the DBMS. The DBMS translates the DBMS called the Databa: commands submitted byu displays them on the scre maintain the databases, Se access language and nmands and Sends it to database engine generates as tO @ User readable form cal ‘ors may also use the databas, 4 specific part of S according to the Report and then “access language to Create ser, converts these j ‘en. ‘the a dininistrat and ‘The most popular database acce 88 langue databases are required to have a d Be is SQL (Structured Que itabase query f ty Language), Relational language, GG eee oeIntroduction to Database Systems || 65 3.3. Architecture of a DBMS ‘A database can be viewed at the logical level, conceptual level, or internal (physical) level. ‘The logical evel is the way the user views a portion of the database that is required for the application on hand. _ The conceptual level is the way the entire database is viewed by the user. The internal or the physical ‘view of the database is the way the entire data is physically stored in the database. A manager is more concerned with the conceptual view of database and need not bother much about the physical view of databases. Figure below shows different ‘view’ levels of a database architecture. j i User View User View External or View Level j User View ule £ rckuod! Mew APT ky 3 System Administrator Figure 3.6 : Layers or Levels in DBMS Architecture <5] Conceptual S Level Internal or Physical Level oh b 3.3.1 Layers or Levels in DBMS Architecture 1. External Level: External Level is desc records and relationship in the external in the external view from the objects in the conceptual view. ne . Conceptual Level: Database Administrator fora P k ya's 7 f; Selo SAR tk ribed by a schema ic. it consists of definition of logical I view. Italso contains the method of deriving the objects Conceptual Level represents the entire database. Conceptual schema describes the records and relationship included in the Conceptual view. It also contains the method of deriving the objects in the concept structures and access meth . Internal Level: Internal level indicates hoe the od to be used by the tual view from the objects in the internal view. data will be stored and described the data database, It contains the definition of stored record and method of representing the data fields and access aid used. ON i66 || Information System Management 33.2 Mapping : dence among ¢] al and conceptual views gives ¥ nee rain ihe a * ay A mapping between ee a external view, The external view is the a es meeptu ; relationship of ci ae of internal view. It describes the contents o which in turns is the abstr: or app! vit i een conceptual records from e lication program of that view. A mapping betw pi ft the use al Perceived the Phys, database, ess |) and the result between view levels is ¢, ' wuest (from external level 1 a = he Gouge correspondence between three view levels. The mapping descrj mapping. IPtion is also stored in data dictionary, The DBMS is responsible for mapping between these three {yes Is also /. schemas. There are two types of mapping: External-Conceptual Mapping: An external-conceptual mapping defines the Correspondence between a particular external view and the conceptual view. The external-conceptual map tells the DBMS which objects on the conceptual level correspond to the objects requested on a particular user’s external view, If chan; iges are made to either an external view or conceptual View, then mapping must be changed accordingly. + Conceptual-Internal Mapping: The conceptual-internal mapping defines the correspondence between the conceptual view and the internal view, ie. database stored on the physical Storage device. It describes how conceptual records are stored and retrieved to and from the Storage the conceptual! End users JN Extemal Schema Eternal Concopua Mapping Conceptual Schema Conceptual Level Conceptual intemal Mapping Internal Schema Physical Level Database Figure 3.7 ; Mapping; . Introduction to Database Systems || 67 3.3.3 Data Abstraction and Independence Database Hae a of complex data-structures, In order to make the system efficient in terms of retrieval of data, reduce complexity in terms of usability of users, developers use abstraction ice. hide irrelevant details from the users. This approach simplifies database design. ‘There are mainly 3 levels of data abstraction: + Physical: This is the lowest level of data abstraction. It tells us how the data is actually stored in memory. The access methods like se. pda te quential or random access and file organisation methods. Usability, size of memory, ; , and the number of times the records are factors which we need to know while designing the database. Suppose we need to store the details of an employee. Blocks of storage and the amount of memory used for these purposes is kept hidden from the user. Logical: This level comprises of the information that is actually stored in the database in the form of tables. It also stores the relationship among the data entities in relatively simple structures. At this level, the information available to the user at the view level is unknown. ‘We can store the various attributes of an employee and relationships, e.g. with the manager can also be stored. ‘View: This is the highest level of abstraction. Only a part of the actual database is viewed by the users. This level exists to ease the accessibility of the database by an individual user. Users view data in the form of rows and columns. Tables and relations are used to store data. Multiple views. of the same database may exist. Users can just view the data and interact with the database, storage and implementation details are hidden from them. View Level View 4 View 2 View 3 Logical Level l Physical Level Figure 3.8 : Data Independence ‘The main purpose of data abstraction is achieving data independence in order to save time and cost required when the database is modified or altered. Data independence arising from these levels of abstraction: Physical level data independence: It refers to the characteristic of being able to modify the physical schema without any alterations to the conceptual or logical schema, done for optimisation purposes, e.g., Conceptual structure of the database would not be affected by any change in storage size of the database system server, Changing from sequential to random access files is one such example: These alterations or modifications to the physical structure may include: +68 | Information System Management + Utilising new storage devices. + Modifying data structures used for storage. se gon ki Altering indexes or using alternative file organisation tec a Tema witout reqiing © Physical Data Independence is the ability to modify the physica yy change in application programs, ) anise atthe teal levels are occasionally necessary to improve ree iene modifications at internal levels are change in file structures, compression ques, ing algorithms, storage devices, etc. " ithe Physical data independence separates conceptual levels from the internal This allows to provide a logical description of the database without the need to specify physica structures, Comparatively, itis easy to achieve physical data independence. External External External oss View A View B View C External View C ean CH Java COBOL | | Interactive DML Scheie +DML +0ML +DML User Interface /..... External / Logical Mapping Logical ]. NY Logical Model Schema Logical / Internal ogical Record interface ~ ad j}¢—————_______j Inter Mode Schema <— | Stored Record interface - i Physical os Level Physical Record Interface A N (ines) 5 ae) a> AR & Figure 3.9 : Details in DBMS ArchitectureIntroduction to Database Systems || 69 jcal level data i free 4 1 fa ae Itrefers characteristic of being able to modify the logical schema waht ETE ete schema or application program. ‘The user view of the data would not be affected by any Bes to the conceptual view of the data. These changes may include insertion or deletion of attributes, altering table structures entiti ionshi i jical se ndependence inches: ities or relationships to the logical schema etc. Logi « Logical data independence is ability t i : change in application programs, 'y to modify the conceptual schema without requiring any + Modification at the logical levels are necessary whenever the logical structures of the database isaltered. + Logical ae independence Separates external level from the conceptual view. + Comparatively it is difficult to achieve logical data independence. . Application Programs are heavily dependent on logical structures of the data they access, so any change in logical structure also requires programs to change. 3.4 File System Versus DBMS DBMS (Database Management System) and File System are two ways that could be used to manage, store, retrieve and manipulate data. A File System isa collection of raw data files stored in the hard-drive whereas DBMS is a bundle of applications that is dedicated for managing data stored in databases. It is the integrated system used for managing digital databases, which allows the storage of database content, creation/ maintenance of data, search and other functionalities. Both systems can be used to allow the user to work with data in a similar way. A File System is one of the earliest ways of managing data. But due the shortcomings present in using a File System to store electronic data, Database Management Systems came in to use sometime later, as they provide mechanisms to solve those problems. But it should be noted that, even in a DBMS, data are eventually (physically) stored in some sort of files. 3.4.1 file System ‘As mentioned above, in a typical File System electronic data are directly stored in a set of files. If only ‘one table is stored in a file, they are called flat files. They contain values at each row separated with a special delimiter like commas. In order to query some random data, first it is required to parse each row and load it to an array at run time. But for this file should be read sequentially (because, there is no control mechanism in files), therefore it is quite inefficient and time consuming. The burden of locating the necessary file, going through the records (line by line), checking for the existence of a certain data, remembering what files/records to edit is on the user. The user either has to perform each task manually orhas to write a script that does them automatically with the help of the file management capabilities of the operating system. Because of these reasons, File Systems are easily vulnerable to serious issues like inconsistency, inability for concurrency, data isolation, threats on integrity and lack of security.iZ t 70 || Information System ‘Management File System cai) tH ‘Accounting dept. Sales dept | Personnel dept - a) (ee SS 7 .10 : File System Disadvantages of File System 1. ~ %o overcome these problems now data is stored in . Atomicity Problem: Atomicity is required to save the data vi * Wastage of Labour and Space: Labour is very costly in thi . in different files, that means duplicate data, peretratet so ahr acretiy panna, i ince 2 : cee tenant anyone finds this error then it will take time and effort to solve y, Incaediener, In file system, various copies of same data may contain rent val Day } 's not consistent in this system, it means if a data item needs to be changed them all the fle, containing that data need to be modified. It may create a risk of out dated values of data, ; | Accessing Anomalies: Accessing anomalies means that it is not easy to access data in a desired | or efficient way, It makes supervision of department very difficult. If a user wants information ina specific manner then he requires creating a program for it. Poor Data Integrity: A collection of data is integrated ifit meets certain consistency constraints, A programmer always puts these constraints in the Programs by adding some codes. In File Processing System, poor data integrity often arises and it becomes very difficult to add new constraints at that time. is completely entered or canceled at all. Any system ‘may fail at any time and at that ti it it desired that data should be in a consistent state. at tiene itis : 's era and no organization can afford ‘wastage of their precious labour. File Processing System needs lots of oped data in different files that cause wastage of labour. Also maintaining came data agai 2 same data again . fis tata 8 ain and again leads to wastage Data Isolation: Data is isolated in File Processing System and data is stored in different file ‘These fies can bein different formats. If you ware n extract data from two file then sean required to which part ofthe file is needed and how they are related to each other, eae we Administrator, database managed in DBMS. by Database >, _ # £=—n» eSee Introduction to Database Systems || 71 3.4.2 DBMS DBMS, sometimes just called a database manager, for the management (i.e. organization, storage and (ie, hard drive or network). There are different ty] world, and some of them are designed for the pr isa collection of computer programs that is dedicated Tetrieval) of all databases that are installed in a system es of Database Management Systems existing in the ‘Oper management of databases configured for specific purposes. Most popular commercial Database Management Systems are Oracle, DB2 and Microsoft Access. All these products Provide means of allocation of different levels of privileges for different users, making it possible for a DBMS to be controlled centrally by a single administrator or to be allocated to several different People. There are four important elements in any Database Management System. They are the modeling language, data structures, query language and mechanism for transactions. The modeling language defines the language of each database hosted in the DBMS. Currently several popular approaches like hierarchal, network, relational and object are in practice. Data structures help organize the data such as individual records, files, ete files fields and their definitions and objects such as visual media. Data query language allow for maintaining and the security of the database. It monitors login data, access rights to different users, and protocols to add data to the system. SQL is a popular query language which is used in Relational Database Management Systems. Finally, the mechanism that allows for transactions help ‘concurrency and multiplicity. That mechanism will make sure same record will not be modified by multiple users at the same time, thus Keeping the data integrity in tact. Additionally, DBMSs provide backup and other facilities as well. With all these advancements in place, DBMS solves almost all problems of the File System, mentioned above. tinh Personnel dept, A Database System Database Employees ——. — DEMS Customers Sales dept Sales Inventory / rhsih = ‘Accounting dept. Figure 3.11 : Database System 3.4.3 Difference between File System and DBMS In File System, files are used to store data while, collections of databases are utilized for the storage of data in DBMS. Although File System and DBMS are two ways of managing data, DBMS clearly has many advantages over File Systems. Typically when using a File System, most tasks such as storage, retrieval ee72 || Information System Management and search are done manually andi is quite tedious whereas a DBMS will pr e Je System will lead to problems like data integrity, complete these tasks. Because of this reason, using a Fil data inconsistency and data security, but these problems could be avoi System, DBMS ate efficient because reading line by line is are in place. Table 1: Difference between File System and DBMS ‘ovide automated methods to ided by using a DBMS. Unlike File not required and certain control mechanisms Bases File System DBMS Definition | File system stores data in a plain text file. DBMS is a collection of interrelated data and Here, the records are specified in a single line. software programs to access those data. Data “There is main problem of data redundancy. | There is no problem of data redundancy. redundancy Cost Flat file are cost effective. DBMS software are very costly and also regular update makes it costly. Use Small organizations use it ast is cost effective | Mostly, large organizations use DBMS who and who have to deal with small number of | can afford it and have a large number of clients and employees. client and employees to be managed. Views ‘Any information can be seen by anyone, | Views are created and an employees cant hence there is no security. see all information available, hence there is security. File BasedData Storage System DBMS User ¥ TApplication Program Y Taterface through SQL DBMS) © Operating System (Disk Storage) Database (Disk Storage) Figure 3.12 : File System vs DBMSieee Introduction to Database Systems. \_73 35 Structure of DBMS DBMS (Database Management System) acts as an interface between the user and the database. The user requests the DBMS to perform various operations (insert, delete, update and retrieval) on the database. ‘The components of DBMS perform these requested operations on the database and provide necessary data to the users. The various components of DBMS are shown below: Applications. End User DDL DML Compiler Dk: Query Optimizer Sompler Compiled Data DML Dictionary Figure 3.13 : Structure of DBMS DDL Compiler: Data Description Language compiler processes schema definitions specified in the DDL. It includes metadata information such as the name of the files, data items, storage details of each file, mapping information and constraints etc. DML Compiler and Query optimizer: The DML commands such as insert, update, delete, retrieve from the application program are sent to the DML compiler for compilation into object code for database access. The object code is then optimized in the best way to execute a query by the query optimizer and then send to the data manager. Data Manager: The Data Manager is the central software component of the DBMS also knows as Database Control System. The Main Functions Of Data Manager Are: « Convert operations in user’s Queries coming from the application programs or combination of DML Compiler and Query optimizer which is known as Query Processor from user's logical view to physical file system. + Controls DBMS information access that is stored on disk. « Italso controls handling buffers in main memory. « Italso enforces constraints to maintain consistency and integrity of the data. « Italso synchronizes the simultaneous operations performed by the concurrent users. « Italso controls the backup and recovery operations.74 || Information System Management il a the database. It contai, Data Dictionary: Data Dictionary is a repository of description of data in ins information about + Data names of the tables, names of attributes of each table, rows in each table. + Relationships between database transactions and dat: : in determining which transactions are affected when certain data length of attributes, and number of ‘a items referenced by them which is usefy definitions are changed, + Constraints on data ie. range of values permitted. + Detailed information on physical database design such as stora: and record sizes. arid + Access Authorization - is the Description of database users their responsibilities and their access rights. ige structure, access paths, files + Usage statistics such as frequency of query and transactions. Data dictionary is used to actually control the data integrity, database operation and accuracy. Itmay be used as a important part of the DBMS. Importance of Data Dictionary - Data Dictionary is necessary in the databases due to following reasons: It improves the control of DBA over the information system and user’s understanding of use of the system. Ithelps in documentation of the database design process by storing documentation of the result of every design phase and design decisions. Ithelps in searching the views on the database definitions of those views. It provides great assistance in producing a report of which data elements (i.e. data values) are used in all the programs. It promotes data independence ie. by addition or modifications of structures in the database application program are not affected. Data Files: It contains the data portion of the database. Compiled DML: The DML complier converts the high level Queries into low level file access commands known as compiled DML. End Users: They are the user of database. 3.6 People who deal with Database (+ Database Administrator (DBA): The DBA is a person or a group of persons who is responsible for the management of the database. The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to th database by grant and revoke permissions to the users, for coordinating and monitoring it use, managing backups and repairing damage due to hardware and/or software failures and for acquiring hardware and software resources as needed. In case of small organization the role of DBA is performed by a single person and in case of large organizations there is a group of DBAs who share responsibilities. Responsibilities of DBA - Database Administrators (DBAs) perform a number of crucial tasks. Primary role is to protect files from loss or corruption. Also to make data easily ACCESSIBLE when required:Introduction to Database Systems || 75 Software Maintenance and Installation: ‘The system administrator sets up hardware and deploys the operating system for the database server. The DBA then installs database software and configures it for use. Also handles data transfer to new platforms. Data Extraction, Transformation and Loading: Extraction, Transformation and Loading (ETL) is the importing of data from multiple systems into a central database warehouse. ‘The data is scanned, cleaned up and transformed to fit a desired format to be imported into acentral repository. Specialised Data Handling: Database Adthinistrators provide expertise in handling and sorting large quantities of data. This is often better in the hands of highly skilled practitioners to provide additional and closer monitoring, and extra efficiency Backup and Recovery: Database Administrators backup all data and produce plans of recovery that best suit industry techniques. They then oversee the implementation of this plan should anything happen to the data. Backups can be used to restore and recover data that has been lost through server failure but different errors may need different recovery strategies so DBAs must be flexible to many scenarios and outcomes. ® Security: A Database Administrator can work to reduce the risks posed to the security of a system if they recognise the initial weaknesses of the database software. No system is 100% immune from attacks but a deep knowledge of industry best practices can minimise risks and increase the speed at which threats are diverted. DBAs can use AUDIT TRAILS to follow data activity. Authentication: DBAs can set us access gates to the data to control who can see, use and make changes to it. * Capacity Planning: If the Database Administrator knows how large a database is and how fast it is growing they can make accurate predictions about the future. A new and fast-growing company will need rapid increase of data capacity which often requires the services of a DBA to create this. = Performance Monitoring: Database Administrator monitors performance issues in order to optimise efficiency of systems. By closely monitoring this, DBAs can make changes and improvements as they see necessary. System Tuning: If performance is being monitored closely, it is possible to make changes based on application and usage rather than waiting for a problem to arise. ‘Troubleshooting: Database Administrators must be on call at all times for when a problem does arise. In a lot of instances lost data must be recovered very soon after a fault is discovered, so DBAs must be alert to dangers. Database Designers: They are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database and for choosing appropriate structure to represent and store the data. It is the responsibility of database designers to communicate with all prospective of the database users in order to understand their requirements so that they can create a design that meets their requirements. End Users - End Users are the people who interact with the database through applications or utiliffes. The various categories of end users are: :76 || Information System Management Z ccasionally access the database but may need dif isticated database Query language to sec ie who access the data weekly or biweekly d update the database using stan ey by this class of users are very ling | « Casual End Users: These Users 0 information each time, They use soph requests. For example: High level Managers * Native End Users: These users frequently query an types of Queries, The operations that can be performed | and effect precise portion of the database. For example - Reservation clerks for airlines hoy, | check availability for given request and make reservations. Also, persons using Automat Teller Machines (ATMS) fall under this category as he has access to limited portion of th database. Standalone end Users/On-line End Users: Those end Users who interact with the database directly via on-line terminal or indirectly through Menu or graphics based Interfaces, Far example - User of a text package, library management software that store variety of libray data such as issue and return of books for fine purposes. Net Sophisticated Users: Such users interact with the system without writing programs. Instead gid they form their requests in database query language. Each such query is submitted to a very processor whose function is to breakdown DML statement into instructions that the storage some d ¢ fed the) 7 manager understands. apmitte i * Specialized Users: Such users are those ,who write specialized database application that do aes aod ; not fit into the fractional data-processing framework. For example: Computer-aided design id typ systems, knowledge base and expert system, systems that store data with complex data types concept 18 sup! ee del is 2 simple (for example, graphics data and audio data). + Application Programmers: Application Programmers are responsible for writing application programs that use the database. These programs could be written in General Purpose Programming languages such as Visual Basic, Developer FORTRAN COBOL etc. to manipulate the database. These application programs operate on the data to perform various operations such as retaining information, creating new information, deleting or changing existing information. a | 3.7 Data Models Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system. A Data Model is a logical structure of Database used to describes the design of database to reflect entities, attributes, relationship among data, constrains etc. 3.7.1 Hierarchical Model The hierarchical data model organizes data in a tree structure. There is a hierarchy of parent and child 373: Relational Model data segments. ‘This structure implies that a record can have repeating information, generally in the child c data segments. Data ina series of | records, which have a set of field values attached to it. It collects all the -RDBMS - relational database ! instances of a specific record together as a record type. These record types are the equivalent of tables EE Codd. A relational databa model, and with the individual records being the equivalent of rows. To create links and integrity constraints. In : ierarchical model uses Parent Child Relationships. BY ie isa collection of Relational Tables: in the relational between these record types, the hiIntroduction to Database Systems \| 77 Level 1 Function Piston sib Level 2 Department Peal Level 3 | Level 2 Level 3 etvity Figure 3.14 : Hierarchical Model 37.2 Network Model ‘The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of the hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than one parent per child. So, the network model permitted the modeling of many-to-many relationships in data. basic data modeling construct in the “network model is the set construct. A set consists of an owner record type, a set name, and a member “record type. A member record type can have that role in more than one set, hence the multiparent concept is supported. An owner record type can also be a member or owner in another set. The data model is a simple network, and link and intersection record types. Store Customer: Manager Salesman | Order tems | Figure 3.15 ; Network Model 37.3 Relational Model _RDBMS- relational database management system- A database based on the relational model developed by EE Codd, A relational database allows the definition of data structures, storage and retrieval operations and integrity constraints. In such a database the data and relations between them are organised in tables, A table is a collection of records and each record ina table contains the same fields. Properties of Relational Tables:78 || Information System Management «+ Values Are Atomic + Each Row is Unique + Column Values Are of the Same Kind + The Sequence of Columns is Insignificant +The Sequence of Rows is Insignificant + Each Column Hasa Unique Name " ; Certain fields may be designated as keys, which means that searches for speci hi of that fgg will use indexing to speed them up. Where fields in two different tables take values from the same se, join operation can be performed to select related records in the two tables by matching values in thos fields. Often, but not always, the fields will have the same name in both tables. “Soe | “Name” za | Pang ae | Oveay | Gocseaing Keay=24 ‘Activity AciMtY | Date | Route No. 24 [our | 195 24 | canaor | +66 ‘Activity Date | ActVY | Route No. ower [26 195 omsor | __2a 1-495 canst | 24 186 Figure 3.16 : Relational Model 374 Object-Oriented Model Object-oriented modeling (OOM) isthe construction of objects using a collection of objects that cont. stored values ofthe instance variables found within an object Unlike models that ne record-orient object-oriented values are solely objects. The object-oriented modeling approach creates the union of the application and datab development and transforms it into a unified data model and language envireament Object-orien modeling allows for object identification and communication while Supporting data abstracti inheritance and encapsulation, Object-oriented modeling is the process of preparing and designing what the actually look like, During the construction or programming phase, the mod 8 techniques implemented by using a language that supports the object-oriented programming model———s Introduction to Database Systems || 79 oOM oa of progressively developing object representation through three phases: analysis, design, and imp! lementation. During the initial stages of development, the model developed is abstract because the external details of the system are the central focus. The model becomes more and more detailed as it evolves, while the central focus shifts toward understanding how the system will be constructed and how it should function, Object 1: Maintenance Report Object 4 Instance Date 01-12-01 (>| Activity Code 24 Route No. 1-95 Daily Production 25 Equipment Hours 60 Labor Hours 60 Object 2 : Maintenance Activity {__________s]"“Activity Code Activity Name Production Unit ‘Average Daily Production Rate Figure 3.17 : Object Oriented Model 3.7.5 Enfity-Relationship Model (ERM or ER model) The entity-relationship model (or ER model) is a way of graphically representing the logical relationships of entities (or objects) in order to create a database. The ER model was first proposed by Peter Pin-Shan Chen of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the 1970s. In ER modeling, the structure for a database is portrayed as a diagram, called an entity-relationship diagram (or ER diagram), that resembles the graphical breakdown of a sentence into its grammatical parts. Entities are rendered as points, polygons, circles, or ovals. Relationships are portrayed as lines connecting the points, polygons, circles, or ovals. Any ER diagram has an equivalent relational table, and. any relational table has an equivalent ER diagram. ER diagramming is an invaluable aid to engineers in the design, optimization, and debugging of database programs. Ina logical sense, entities are the equivalent of grammatical nouns, such as employees, departments, products, or networks. An entity can be defined by means: ofits properties, called attributes, Relationships are the equivalent of verbs or associations, such as the act of purchasing, the act of repairing, being a member of a group, or being a supervisor of a department. A relationship can be defined according to the number of entities associated with it, known as the degree.80 || Information Task Wife Figure 3.18 : ER-Model 3.8 Concept of Normalization Normalization isa process of: organizin, update anomaly & deletion anomah discuss types of keys are as follows: + Primary Key: A primary is a column or set of columns ina table that uniquely identifies tuples (rows) in that table, * Super Key: A super key isa set of one of more columns. (attributes) to uniquely identify rowsin atable, * Candidate Key: 4 super key with no redundant attribute is known as candj + Alternate Key: Out of all candidate ke YS, only one gets selected as Primary are known as alternate of secondary keys, igthe data in database to avoid data redundancy, insertion anom, 'y. First discuss about anomalies, Before discuss normalization, fits date key key, Temaining keys a table that points to the pri ference between tables, z 8 7 3 3.8.1 Anomalies in DBMS There are three Update and del not normalized, These are — Inco imple to understand this, Insertion, named employee '8 employee's name, emp_ nd emp ¢ i P_dept f Ne department details in Which the