SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT II

SQL Overview
SQL is a programming language for Relational Databases. It is designed over relational
algebra and tuple relational calculus. SQL comes as a package with all major distributions of
RDBMS.
SQL comprises both data definition and data manipulation languages. Using the data
definition properties of SQL, one can design and modify database schema whereas data
manipulation properties allows SQL to store and retrieve data from database.

Data definition Language

SQL uses the following set of commands to define database schema:

CREATE
Creates new databases, tables and views from RDBMS
For example:
Create database tutorialspoint;

Create table article;

Create view for_students;

DROP
Drop commands deletes views, tables and databases from RDBMS
Drop object_type object_name;

Drop database tutorialspoint;

Drop table article;

Drop view for_students;

ALTER
Modifies database schema.
Alter object_type object_name parameters;

for example:
Alter table article add subject varchar;
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This command adds an attribute in relation article with name subject of string type.

Data Manipulation Language

SQL is equipped with data manipulation language. DML modifies the database instance by
inserting, updating and deleting its data. DML is responsible for all data modification in
databases. SQL contains the following set of command in DML section:
 SELECT/FROM/WHERE
 INSERT INTO/VALUES
 UPDATE/SET/WHERE
 DELETE FROM/WHERE
These basic constructs allows database programmers and users to enter data and information
into the database and retrieve efficiently using a number of filter options.

SELECT/FROM/WHERE
 SELECT
This is one of the fundamental query command of SQL. It is similar to projection
operation of relational algebra. It selects the attributes based on the condition described
by WHERE clause.
 FROM
This clause takes a relation name as an argument from which attributes are to be
selected/projected. In case more than one relation names are given this clause
corresponds to cartesian product.
 WHERE
This clause defines predicate or conditions which must match in order to qualify the
attributes to be projected.
For example:
Select author_name
From book_author
Where age > 50;

This command will project names of author’s from book_author relation whose age is
greater than 50.

INSERT INTO/VALUES
This command is used for inserting values into rows of table (relation).
Syntax is
INSERT INTO table (column1 [, column2, column3 ... ]) VALUES (value1 [,
value2, value3 ... ])
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Or
INSERT INTO table VALUES (value1, [value2, ... ])

For Example:
INSERT INTO tutorialspoint (Author, Subject) VALUES ("anonymous",
"computers");

UPDATE/SET/WHERE
This command is used for updating or modifying values of columns of table (relation).
Syntax is
UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value [, column_name = value ...]
[WHERE condition]

For example:
UPDATE tutorialspoint SET Author="webmaster" WHERE Author="anonymous";

DELETE/FROM/WHERE
This command is used for removing one or more rows from table (relation).
Syntax is
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:
DELETE FROM tutorialspoints
WHERE Author="unknown";

For in-depth and practical knowledge of SQL, click here.

Database Normalization
Functional Dependency
Functional dependency (FD) is set of constraints between two attributes in a relation.
Functional dependency says that if two tuples have same values for attributes A1, A2,..., An
then those two tuples must have to have same values for attributes B1, B2, ..., Bn.
Functional dependency is represented by arrow sign (→), that is X→Y, where X functionally
determines Y. The left hand side attributes determines the values of attributes at right hand
side.

Armstrong's Axioms
If F is set of functional dependencies then the closure of F, denoted as F+, is the set of all
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functional dependencies logically implied by F. Armstrong's Axioms are set of rules, when
applied repeatedly generates closure of functional dependencies.
 Reflexive rule: If alpha is a set of attributes and beta is_subset_of alpha, then alpha
holds beta.
 Augmentation rule: if a → b holds and y is attribute set, then ay → by also holds.
That is adding attributes in dependencies, does not change the basic dependencies.
 Transitivity rule: Same as transitive rule in algebra, if a → b holds and b → c holds
then a → c also hold. a → b is called as a functionally determines b.

Trivial Functional Dependency

 Trivial: If an FD X → Y holds where Y subset of X, then it is called a trivial FD.
Trivial FDs are always hold.
 Non-trivial: If an FD X → Y holds where Y is not subset of X, then it is called non-
trivial FD.
 Completely non-trivial: If an FD X → Y holds where x intersect Y = Φ, is said to be
completely non-trivial FD.

Normalization
If a database design is not perfect it may contain anomalies, which are like a bad dream for
database itself. Managing a database with anomalies is next to impossible.
 Update anomalies: if data items are scattered and are not linked to each other
properly, then there may be instances when we try to update one data item that has
copies of it scattered at several places, few instances of it get updated properly while
few are left with there old values. This leaves database in an inconsistent state.
 Deletion anomalies: we tried to delete a record, but parts of it left undeleted because
of unawareness, the data is also saved somewhere else.
 Insert anomalies: we tried to insert data in a record that does not exist at all.
Normalization is a method to remove all these anomalies and bring database to consistent
state and free from any kinds of anomalies.

First Normal Form:

This is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule defines that all the
attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. Values in atomic domain are indivisible
units.

[Image: Unorganized relation]

We re-arrange the relation (table) as below, to convert it to First Normal Form

[Image: Relation in 1NF]

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Each attribute must contain only single value from its pre-defined domain.

Second Normal Form:

Before we learn about second normal form, we need to understand the following:
 Prime attribute: an attribute, which is part of prime-key, is prime attribute.
 Non-prime attribute: an attribute, which is not a part of prime-key, is said to be a
non-prime attribute.
Second normal form says, that every non-prime attribute should be fully functionally
dependent on prime key attribute. That is, if X → A holds, then there should not be any proper
subset Y of X, for that Y → A also holds.

[Image: Relation not in 2NF]

We see here in Student_Project relation that the prime key attributes are Stu_ID and Proj_ID.
According to the rule, non-key attributes, i.e. Stu_Name and Proj_Name must be dependent
upon both and not on any of the prime key attribute individually. But we find that Stu_Name
can be identified by Stu_ID and Proj_Name can be identified by Proj_ID independently. This
is called partial dependency, which is not allowed in Second Normal Form.

[Image: Relation in 2NF]

We broke the relation in two as depicted in the above picture. So there exists no partial
dependency.

Third Normal Form:

For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and the
following must satisfy:
 No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute
 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then either
 X is a superkey or,
 A is prime attribute.

[Image: Relation not in 3NF]

We find that in above depicted Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is key and only prime key
attribute. We find that City can be identified by Stu_ID as well as Zip itself. Neither Zip is a
superkey nor City is a prime attribute. Additionally, Stu_ID → Zip → City, so there exists
transitive dependency.

[Image: Relation in 3NF]

We broke the relation as above depicted two relations to bring it into 3NF.
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Boyce-Codd Normal Form:
BCNF is an extension of Third Normal Form in strict way. BCNF states that
 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, then X must be a super-key.
In the above depicted picture, Stu_ID is super-key in Student_Detail relation and Zip is super-
key in ZipCodes relation. So,
Stu_ID → Stu_Name, Zip
And
Zip → City
Confirms, that both relations are in BCNF.

Database Joins
We understand the benefits of Cartesian product of two relation, which gives us all the
possible tuples that are paired together. But Cartesian product might not be feasible for huge
relations where number of tuples are in thousands and the attributes of both relations are
considerable large.
Join is combination of Cartesian product followed by selection process. Join operation pairs
two tuples from different relations if and only if the given join condition is satisfied.
Following section should describe briefly about join types:

Theta (θ) join

θ in Theta join is the join condition. Theta joins combines tuples from different relations
provided they satisfy the theta condition.
Notation:
R1 ⋈θ R2

R1 and R2 are relations with their attributes (A1, A2, .., An ) and (B1, B2,.. ,Bn) such that no
attribute matches that is R1 ∩ R2 = Φ Here θ is condition in form of set of conditions C.
Theta join can use all kinds of comparison operators.
Student
SID Name Std
101 Alex 10
102 Maria 11
[Table: Student Relation]
Subjects
Class Subject
10 Math
10 English
11 Music
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11 Sports
[Table: Subjects Relation]
Student_Detail =
STUDENT ⋈Student.Std = Subject.Class SUBJECT

Student_detail
SID Name Std Class Subject
101 Alex 10 10 Math
101 Alex 10 10 English
102 Maria 11 11 Music
102 Maria 11 11 Sports
[Table: Output of theta join]

Equi-Join
When Theta join uses only equality comparison operator it is said to be Equi-Join. The above
example conrresponds to equi-join

Natural Join ( ⋈ )
Natural join does not use any comparison operator. It does not concatenate the way Cartesian
product does. Instead, Natural Join can only be performed if the there is at least one common
attribute exists between relation. Those attributes must have same name and domain.
Natural join acts on those matching attributes where the values of attributes in both relation is
same.
Courses
CID Course Dept
CS01 Database CS
ME01 Mechanics ME
EE01 Electronics EE
[Table: Relation Courses]
HoD
Dept Head
CS Alex
ME Maya
EE Mira
[Table: Relation HoD]
Courses ⋈ HoD
Dept CID Course Head
CS CS01 Database Alex
ME ME01 Mechanics Maya
EE EE01 Electronics Mira
[Table: Relation Courses ⋈ HoD]
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Outer Joins
All joins mentioned above, that is Theta Join, Equi Join and Natural Join are called inner-
joins. An inner-join process includes only tuples with matching attributes, rest are discarded in
resulting relation. There exists methods by which all tuples of any relation are included in the
resulting relation.
There are three kinds of outer joins:

Left outer join ( R S)

All tuples of Left relation, R, are included in the resulting relation and if there exists tuples in
R without any matching tuple in S then the S-attributes of resulting relation are made NULL.
Left
A B
100 Database
101 Mechanics
102 Electronics
[Table: Left Relation]
Right
A B
100 Alex
102 Maya
104 Mira
[Table: Right Relation]
Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
101 Mechanics --- ---
102 Electronics 102 Maya
[Table: Left outer join output]

Right outer join: ( R S)

All tuples of the Right relation, S, are included in the resulting relation and if there exists
tuples in S without any matching tuple in R then the R-attributes of resulting relation are made
NULL.
Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
102 Electronics 102 Maya
--- --- 104 Mira
[Table: Right outer join output]
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Full outer join: ( R S)
All tuples of both participating relations are included in the resulting relation and if there no
matching tuples for both relations, their respective unmatched attributes are made NULL.
Courses HoD
A B C D
100 Database 100 Alex
101 Mechanics --- ---
102 Electronics 102 Maya
--- --- 104 Mira
[Table: Full outer join output]