DARBHANGA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

DARBHANGA- 846005

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL
DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY LAB

Mr. Ankit kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering

1
 INDEX

SN Name of The Experiments Page No.

01. To study various types of kinematics links, pairs, chain and mechanism.
02. To study inversion of four bar mechanism.
03. To study velocity diagram for slider crank mechanism.
04. To study various types of gears- Helical, cross helical worm and bevel gear
To study various types of gear trains – simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic and
05.
differential
06. To study various types of cam and follower arrangement.
To perform experiment on watt and Porter Governors to prepare performance
07.
characteristic Curves, and to find stability & sensitivity.

To perform experiment on Proell Governor to prepare performance characteristic

08.
Curves, and to find stability & sensitivity.

To perform experiment on Hartnell Governor to prepare performance

09.
characteristic Curves, and to find stability & sensitivity.
10. To study gyroscopic effects through models.
11.
To determine gyroscopic couple on Motorized Gyroscope.
12. To perform the experiment for static balancing on static balancing machine.
Determine the moment of inertial of connecting rod by compound pendulum
13.
method and tri-filar suspension pendulum.
14.
To study Dynamically Equivalent System.
15.
To study the various types of dynamometers.
To find out critical speed experimentally and compare the whirling speed of a shaft with
16.
theoretical values

*At least 10 experiments should be performed from above list

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 EXPERIMENT NO-01

Name of Experiment:- To study various types of kinematics links, pairs chains and mechanism.

Apparatus Required: -
1. Kinematics link.
2. Kinematic pair.
3. Kinematic chain.
4. Kinematic mechanism.

Theory : -
1. Kinematics link:-

A resistant body or a group of resistant body with rigid connections preventing their relative movement
is know as link. A link is said to be as kinematics link when it takes part in relative movement.

Ex- A slider – crank mechanism consists of 4 link.

❖ There is 3 types kinematic link.

a. Binary link.
b. Ternary link.
c. Quaternary link.

Link can also be classified as

Rigid: A rigid link is one that does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion. Links,
in general, are elastic in nature. They are considered rigid if they do not undergo appreciable
deformation while transmitting motion. For Example, crank and connecting rod.

Flexible: A flexible link is one which while transmitting motion is partly deformed in a mannernot
to affect the transmission of motion. For Example, Spring, Chain, Rope, Belt, etc.

Fluid: A fluid link is one that is deformed by having fluid in a closed vessel and the motion istransmitted
through the fluid by pressure.

For Example, hydraulic press and hydraulic jack.

Floating: A floating link is one that is not connected with the frame.

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 2. Kinematic pair:-

A kinematic pair is a joint of two links having relative motion between them.

Classification of pairs:-

A. On the basis of nature of contact

Lower pair (surface contact):- When the two elements of a pair have surface contact when relative motion takes
place and thesurface of one element slides over the surface of another element, the pair formed as lower pair

Higher pair (point or line contact):- When the two elements of a pair have line contact or point
contact when relative motion takesplace and the motion between the two elements is partly turning,
sliding then the pair is knownas higher pair.

Example: Toothed gearing; Belt and rope drives; Ball and roller bearings; Cam and follower.

B. On the basis of nature of mechanical constraint.

I. Closed pair (joint mech.):- Whenever two elements of pair are held together mechanically in
such a way that only requiredthe type of relative motion occurs called Self closed pair or closed
pair. For example all lowerpairs.

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II. Unclosed pair (forced closed pair):- Whenever two elements of pair are not held together
mechanically but are kept in contact by the action of external forces the pair is said to be Force
closed pair or Un-closed pair. Example:Cam and spring-loaded follower pair.

C. On the basis of relative motion.

i. Sliding pair:- This consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one is constrained to have a
sliding motion relative to another

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 i.
ii. Turning pair:- This consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one is
constrained to turn or revolve about a fixed axis of another element.
a. Example: Shaft with a collar at both ends revolving in a circular hole; The crankshaft
of an Ic engine turning in a bearing.

b.

iii. Rolling pair:- This consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one is
constrained to roll in another element which is fixed.

iv. Spherical pair:-

+This consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one element in the form of a

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 sphere turns about the other fixed element.

v. Screw Pair:
This consists of two elements connected in such a manner that one element turns about the
other element by means of threads. The motion, in this case, is a combination of sliding and
the lead screw of a lathe and nut. Example; Nut and bolt combination; Screw with nut of screw
jack.

3. Kinematic chain :-

A kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative motions of the link is possible and the
motion of each relative to the others is definite.

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Kinematic Chain may be classified as; Closed chain, Open chain

It has four types:-

a) Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain

b) Single slider crank chain
c) Double slider crank chain
4. Mechanism :-

A combination of a number of bodies assembled in such a way that the motion of one cause constrained
and predictable motion to others is known as mechanism.

Observation and conclusion : -

❖ Comparison between kinematic links, pair, chain and mechanism.
❖ Type of motion to be named.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-02

Aim of Experiment: - To study inversion of four bar mechanism.

Apparatus Required: -
(i) Models of four bar mechanism
(ii) Single and double slider mechanism.

Theory: -
Four Bar mechanism:- Basically this mechanism consist of four rigid links which are connected in the
form of a quadrilateral by four pin joints.

❖ A link that makes complete revolution is the crank, the link opposite the fixed link is the coupler
and the fourth link a liver or rocker if oscillates or an another crank, if rotate.
❖ Input and output will always lie on corresponding link of fixed link.

Inversion:- the process in which different mechanism with different outputs are obtained by fixing
one-on-one link is called inversion.

Need of inversion:- To get best output mechanism, inversion is required.

Types of inversion:-

(i) Shortest link fixed.

(ii) Link opposite to shortest link fixed.

Inversion of single slider crank- mechanism

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1. First inversion:- This inversion is obtained by fixing the 1st link. links 2nd and 4th are made the
crank and the slider respectively.

Ex. :- Reciprocating engine and compressor.

2. Second inversion:- Fixing of link 2 of a slider-crank chain.

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 Ex:- Whitworth Quick return mechanism and rotary engine.
3. Third inversion:- By fixing link 3 of the slider crank mechanism.

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 Ex:- Oscillating cylinder mechanism and crank slotted.
4. Fourth inversion:- if link 4 of the slider crank mechanism is fixed, the fourth mechanism
inversion will be obtained.

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 Ex:- Hand Pump

Inversion of Double slider crank mechanis

A four bar chain having two turning pair and sliding pair such that two pairs of same kind are adjacent is
known as a double slider crank chain.

The following are its inversion:-

I. First inversion:- When link 1 of Fig.2.1 is fixed, the first inversion is obtained. This inversion is used
in Elliptical trammel which is an instrument used for drawing ellipses

Fig 2.1

Ex- Elliptical trammel

II. Second inversion:- when link 2 of double slider crank mechanism is fixed, then second inversion is
obtained. This inversion is used to draw scotch yoke

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 Ex- Scotch Yoke
1. Third inversion:- when link 3 of double slider crank mechanism is fixed then third inversion is
obtained.

Ex- Actual Oldham’s Coupling.

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 EXPERIMENT NO-03

Aim of Experiment: - To study velocity diagram for slider crank mechanism.

Apparatus: -
I. Model of single slider crank mechanism.
II. Bevel protector

Theory: -
When crank rotates in clockwise or anticlockwise, this motion is executed to slider through
connecting rod. The motion of slider is to and fro, whereas crank get displaced by some angle.The
purpose of this experiment is to verify the physical displacement of slider for some angle of
rotation by the crank. The displacement can be obtained easily by measuring the simple scale,
which is fitted on the model itself. But to find out velocity and acceleration of the slider the
following formulae can be used. The formula to obtain displacement is also given below.

Formula Used:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Displacement (d) = 𝑟[ + (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)]
2𝑛

𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
Velocity (v) = 𝑟𝜔[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + ]
2𝑛

𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
Acceleration (a) = 𝑟𝜔2[𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ]
𝑛

Where;
𝑟 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘;
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘;
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 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Procedure:
1. Taking the reference of above equation Displacement, velocity and acceleration are obtained
by changing the crank angle. The values of Displacement, velocity and accelerationare entered
in the given table.

2. Following Values are taken to use the above equations

The value of r= 10cm, L (length of CR) =40cm
𝐿
(a) Therefore 𝑛 =
𝑅
Here in this case n=4

N (no. of Rotation) = 50 rpm

3. All calculated values are entered in table.
4. Plot the graph of Crank angle Vs Displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Table: Result after analytical Analysis

S.N. Angle turned by Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Crank
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360

Verification of Formula
• Measurement of displacement is done on Slider crank mechanism model for each 30
degree rotation of crank in anticlockwise direction.
• Measure the length of Crank and Connecting rod and find out ration n.
• This ratio is used in formula to find out displacement.
• Check for difference in reading.

Activity to be performed
1. Draw the Displacement, velocity and acceleration graph using the above formula.
2. Compare the linear Displacement Vs Angular displacement of Crank Slider Mechanism.
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 Template of the Graph drawn

θ Vs Displacement

θ Vs Velocity

θ Vs Acceleration

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18
 EXPERIMENT NO-04

AIM OF EXPIREMENT : To study various types of gears- Helical, cross helical worm and bevel gear.

Apparatus Required:-
a. Models of Spur gears
b. Models of Helical gears
c. Models of Bevel gears
d. Models of Worm and worm wheels
e. Models of Spiral gears

Theory: A gear is a wheel with teeth around its circumference. Gears are usually found in sets
of two or more, used to transmit rotation from the axis of one gear to the axis of another.The
teeth of a gear one axis mesh with the teeth of a gear on another, thus creating a relationship
between the rotations of the two axes.

Activities to be performed:

• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Spur Gear.

• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Helical Gear.
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Bevel Gear
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Worm and Wheel Gear
• Draw a neat and self -explanatory diagram of the Spiral Gear

Follow the References Given Below;

1. SPUR GEAR

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2. HELICAL GEAR

STARIGHT HELICAL GEAR DOUBLE HELICAL GEAR

3. BEVEL GEAR

STRAIGHT BEVEL GEAR SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR

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4. WORM AND WHEEL GEAR

5. SPIRAL GEAR

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 EXPERIMENT 5

AIM: To study various types of gear trains – simple, compound, reverted, epicyclic anddifferential.

Apparatus required:-

Models of Various Gear Train (simple, compound, reverted and Epicyclic Gear Train)
Activities to be performed:

Theory:

Combination of more than one gear in a desired way is called Gear train (GT). Generally in GTone
is driver and others will be driven/follower. The driver is called Pinion and Driven is calledWheel.
The GT is used to get the varying speed as output at various instances.

Activities to be performed:
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Simple GT.
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Compound GT.
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Reverted GT.
• Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Epicyclic GT.
• Draw a neat diagram of the Differential GT and explain in details.

1. SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN

A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one gear to another is
called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear axes remain fixed relative to the frame and each
gear is on a separate shaft. In a simple gear train,

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2. COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears rotate about an axis
with the same angular velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In this type, some ofthe
intermediate shafts, i.e. other than the input and the output shafts, carry more than one gear as
shown.

3. REVERTED GEAR TRAIN

If the axes of the first and the last wheels of a compound gear coincide, it is called a Revertedgear
train. Such an arrangement is used in clocks and in simple lathes where back gear is usedto give a
slow speed to the chuck.

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4. EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN

A gear train having a relative motion of axes is called a planetary or an epicyclic gear train (or
simply epicyclic gear or train). In an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of the gears also
moves relative to the frame.
Important applications of epicyclic gears are in transmission, computing devices, and so on.In
an epicyclic gear, one wheel is, usually, fixed as in the above case.

5. DIFFERENTIAL GEAR TRAIN

When a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels must travel farther than the inner wheels. In
automobiles, the front wheels can rotate freely on their axes and thus, can adapt themselves to the
conditions. However, both rear wheels are driven by the engine through gearing. Therefore,some
sort of automatic device is necessary so that the two rear wheels are driven at slightly different
speeds. This is accomplished by fitting a differential gear on the rear axle. The fact that an epicyclic
gear has two degrees of freedom has been utilized in the differential gear of an automobile. It
permits the two wheels to rotate at the same speed when driving in straight while allowing the
wheels to rotate at different speeds when taking a turn. Thus, a differential gear is a device which
adds or subtracts the angular speed.

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The components of Differential Gear
1. Drive pinion or Bevel pinion
2. Ring gear or Crown wheel
3. Differential case
4. Differential side gear or Sun gears
5. Differential pinions or Planet gears
6. Axle shafts or Half shafts
7. Pinion shaft or Cross pin or spider
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Construction:
The figure shows the basic parts of the differential used in rear-wheel-drive cars. A small bevelgear
called differential side gear is mounted on the inner ends of each axle. Two bevel gears are placed
together to connect both driving and driven shafts at an angle of 90°. The differential case is
connected with two-wheel axles and differential side gears.
The differential case has bearings that rotate two axle shafts. Then, two pinion gears and their
supporting shaft called pinion shaft, fit to the differential case. Then, the pinion shaft meshes with
two differential side gears connected to the inner ends of the axle shafts.
The ring gear moves to a flange on the differential case. The ring gear rotates the differential case.
Finally, the drive pinion mounts. The drive pinion assembles with the differential housingcalled
differential case or carrier. The driver shaft connects to the drive pinion by a universal joint and it
meshes with a ring gear. Therefore, the drive pinion rotates when the driver turns the shaft. Thus,
the ring gear rotates.

Operation:-
The input torque is mounted to the ring gear through the drive pinion, which replaces the entire
differential case. The differential case is connected to both the differential side gears only through
the differential pinions. Torque is transmitted to the differential side gears through thedifferential
pinions. The differential pinions revolve around the axis of the differential case, driving the
differential side gears.
While the car is on a straight road, the resistance on both wheels is equal and the ring gear,
differential case, differential pinion gear, and two differential gears will replace as one unit. It
results in the side gears rotating at the same speed as the ring gear makes both drive wheels rotate
at the same speed. The differential pinions rotate without spinning about their axis, and both
wheels turn at the same rate.
When Vehicle takes a turn towards left, the left differential side gear is encountered, the
differential pinion rotates as well as a spin that allows the left differential gear to slow down in
comparison of the right differential side. This causes the outer wheel to turn faster than the inner
wheel.

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 EXPERIMENT 6
AIM OF EXPERIMENT : To study various type of cam and follower arrangements.

PRINCIPAL: Cam and Follower are used in conjunction of each other. Cam imparts rotary motion
and the follower connected with cam executes the reciprocating motion. The motion of followeris
utilized to get intermittent motion of a component in any arrangement. A cam and the follower
combination belong to the category of higher pairs. Necessary elements of a cam mechanism are:
. A driver member known as the cam.
. A driven member called the follower
. A frame which supports the cam and guides the follower.

Activities to be performed:

Draw a neat and self-explanatory diagram of the Simple arrangements of Cam and Followers

Types of CAM
I. Wedge and Flat Cams
A wedge cam has a wedge W which, in general, has a translational motion

1. Radial or Disc Cams

A cam in which the follower moves radially from the centre of rotation of the cam is known
as a radial or a disc cam. Radial cams are very popular due totheir simplicity and
compactness.

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2. SPIRAL CAMS
A spiral carn is a face cam in which a groove is cut in the form of a spiral as shown in Fig. The spiral groove
consists of teeth which mesh with a pin gear follower. The velocity of the follower is proportional to the
radial distance of the groove from the axis of the cam. Theuse of such a cam is limited as the cam has to
reverse the direction to reset the position of thefollower. It finds its use in computers.

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3. CYLINDRICAL CAM
In a cylindrical cam, a cylinder which has a circumferential contour cut in the surface, rotates
about its axis. The follower motion can be of two types as follows:

In the first type, a groove is cut on the surface of the cam and a roller follower has a
Constrained (or positive) oscillating motion. Another type is an end or face camin which end of
the cylinder is the working surface. A spring-loaded follower translates along or parallel to the
axis of the rotating cylinder. Cylindrical cams are also known as barrel or drum cams.

4. GLOBOIDAL CAMS
A globoidal earn can have two types of surfaces, convex and concave. A circumferential
contour is cut on the surface of rotation of the earn to impart motion to the follower whichhas
an oscillatory motion. The application of such cams is limited to moderate speeds and where
the angle of oscillation of the follower is large.

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30
 EXPERIMENT No. 7
AIM OF EXPERIMENT :- To perform experiment on watt and Porter Governors to prepare performance
characteristic Curves, and to find stability & sensitivity.

APPARATUS USED:- Watt and Porter Governors.

INTRODUCTION & THEORY :-
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine
when there are variations in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases,
therefore it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. When the load on the engine
decreases, its speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor automatically controls
the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed within
certain limits.

The governors may, broadly, be classified as

A. Centrifugal governor
B. Inertia governor

The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows :

1. Pendulum type (Watt governor )

2. Loaded type
a) Dead weight governor (Porter governor and Proell governor)
b) Spring controlled governors (Hartnell governor, Hartung governor, Wilson-
Hartnell governor and Pickering governor)

Watt Governor :- The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor. It is basically a
conical pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms of the governor may be
connected to the spindle in the following three ways :

(i) The pivot P, may be on the spindle axis.

(ii) The pivot P, may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced intersect at O.
(iii)The pivot P, may be offset, but the arms crosses the axis at O.

Porter Governor :- The porter governor is a modification of a Watt’s governor, with central load
attached to the sleeve. The load moves up down the central spindle. This additional downward force
increases thespeed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to any to any pre-determined level.

OBSERVATION :-

❖ Mass of the ball (m) =------------- kg.

❖ Weight of the ball (w)= -----------Newtons
❖ Height of the governor (h) =-------- metres
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N1) = -------r.p.m.
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N2) = -------r.p.m.
❖ Frictional force (F) = ------------- Newtons
❖ Mean equilibrium speed (N) = (N1 + N2)/2 in r.p.m
❖ Mass of the central load = -------- kg.
❖ Weight of the central load (W) = ------- N
❖ Angle of inclination of the arm to the vertical (α ) = ------
31
 ❖ Angle of inclination of the link to the vertical (β ) = ------

CALCULATION :-

895
❖ N2 = (For watt governor)
ℎ
❖ N2 = m + M (1+q)/2 x 895 (For porter governor ), where, q = tan β/ tanαmh

❖ Sensitiveness of the governor = 2(N1 – N2)/ N1 + N2 = 2 (ω2 – ω1)/ ω2 + ω1

A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a definite
configuration i.e; there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the governor is in
equilibrium. For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of governor balls must also
increase.

PRECAUTIONS :-

2. Take reading carefully.

2. Measure the angle very carefully.

2. Measure the height of governor carefully.

2. Speed of governor measure accurate.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 8
AIM :- To perform experiment on Proell Governor to prepare performance characteristic Curves, and to
find stability & sensitivity.

APPARATUS USED:- Proell Governor.

INTRODUCTION & THEORY :- The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine,
when there are variations in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore
it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. When the load on the engine decreases, its
speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor automatically controls the supply of
working fluid to the engine with the varying load conditions and keeps the mean speed within certain limits.

The governors may, broadly, be classified as

(i) Centrifugal governor

(ii) Inertia governor

The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows :

Pendulum type (Watt governor )

Loaded type

Dead weight governor (Porter governor and Proell governor)

Spring controlled governors (Hartnell governor, Hartung governor, Wilson-Hartnell governor and
Pickering governor)

Proell Governor :- The porter governor is known as a Proell governor if the two balls (masses) are fixed
on the upward extensions of the lower links which are in the form of bent links DFB and EGC (show in
fig.).

OBSERVATION:-

❖ Mass of the ball (m) =------------- kg.

❖ Weight of the ball (w)= -----------Newtons
❖ Height of the governor (h) =-------- metres
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N1) = -------r.p.m.
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N2) = -------r.p.m.
❖ Frictional force (F) = ------------- Newtons
❖ Mean equilibrium speed (N) = (N1 + N2)/2 in r.p.m
❖ Mass of the central load = -------- kg.
❖ Weight of the central load (W) = ------- N
❖ Angle of inclination of the arm to the vertical (α ) = ------
❖ Angle of inclination of the link to the vertical (β ) = ------

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 CALCULATION :-

❖ N2 = FM x [m +[ M (1+q)]/2 ] x 895 (For porter governor ) where, q = tan β/ tanαm h

❖ Sensitiveness of the governor = 2(N1 – N2)/ N1 + N2 = 2 (ω2 – ω1)/ ω2 + ω1

A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a definite
configuration i.e; there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the governor is in
equilibrium. For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of governor balls must also
increase.

PRECAUTIONS :-

❖ Take reading carefully.

❖ Measure the angle very carefully.
❖ Measure the height of governor carefully.
❖ Speed of governor measure accurate.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 9

AIM :- To perform experiment on Hartnell Governor to prepare performance characteristic Curves, and
to find stability & sensitivity.

APPARATUS USED:- Hartnell Governor.

INTRODUCTION & THEORY :- The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine,
when there are variations in the load e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore
it becomes necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. When the load on the engine decreases, its
speed increases and thus less working fluid is required. The governor automatically controls the supply.

1. The governors may broadly be classified as

a. Centrifugal governor
b. Inertia governor
2. The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows :
a. Pendulum type (Watt governor)
b. Loaded type Dead weight governor (Porter governor and Proell governor)

. Spring controlled governors (Hartnell governor, Hartung governor, Wilson-Hartnell governor and
Pickering governor.

Hartnell Governor :-

A Hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor as shown in fig.-A. It consists of two bell crank levers
pivoted at the points O, O to the frame. The frame is attached to the governor spindle and therefore rotates
with it. Each lever carries a ball at the end of the vertical arm OB and a roller at the end of the horizontal
arm OR. A helical spring in compression provides equal downward forces on the two rollers through a collar
on the sleeve. The spring force be adjusted by screwing at nut up or down on the sleeve.

OBSERVATION :-

❖ Mass of the each ball (m) =------------- kg.

❖ Mass of the sleeve (M)= -----------Newtons
❖ Minimum radius of rotation (r1) = ------- meters
❖ Maximum radius of rotation (r2) =-------- meters
❖ Angular speed of the governor at minimum radius (ω1) =------ rad./s
❖ Angular speed of the governor at maximum radius (ω2) = ------rad./s
❖ Spring force exerted on the sleeve at ω1 (S1) = -------Nt.
❖ Spring force exerted on the sleeve at ω2 (S2) = ------- Nt.
❖ Length of the vertical or ball arm of the lever (x) = ------ meters.
❖ Length of the horizontal or sleeve arm of the lever (y) = ------- meters.
❖ Distance of fulcrum ‘O’ from the governor axis or the radius of rotation when the
governor is in mid-position (r) = -------- meters.
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N1) = ------- r.p.m.
❖ Minimum equilibrium speed (N2) = ------- r.p.m.
❖ Frictional force (F) = ------------- Newtons

35
 ❖ Angle of inclination of the arm to the vertical (α) = ---------
❖ Angle of inclination of the link to the vertical (β) = ---------

CALCULATION :-

❖ Fc = Fc1+(Fc2 – Fc1)x(r- r1) = Fc2 - (Fc2 – Fc1) x (r1-r) (when friction is taken) (r2-r1)
(r2-r1)
❖ N2 = Fc x 3600/4π2m.r
❖ Sensitiveness of the governor = 2(N1 – N2)/ N1 + N2 = 2 (ω2 – ω1)/ ω2 + ω1
❖ A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a
definite configuration i.e; there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at
which the governor is in equilibrium. For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed
increases, the radius of governor balls must also increase.

PRECAUTIONS :-

❖ Take reading carefully.

❖ Measure the angle very carefully.
❖ Measure the height of governor carefully.
❖ Speed of governor measure accurate.

36
 EXPERIMENT No. 10

AIM:- To study gyroscopic effects through models.

APPARATUS USED:- Models of Aeroplane and ship.

THEORY :- The earliest observation and studies on gyroscopic phenomenon carried out during
Newton’s time. These were made in the context of the motion of our planet which in effect in a massive
gyroscopic. The credit of the mathematical foundation of the principles of gyroscopic motion goes to Euler
who derived at set of dynamic equation relating applied mechanics and moment inertia, angular acceleration
and angular velocity in many machines, the rotary components are forced to turn about their axis other than
their own axis of rotation and gyroscopic effects are thus setup. The gyroscopes are used in ships to
minimize the rolling & pitching effects of water.

Effect of the Gyroscopic Couple on an Aeroplane:-

1. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions. The effect of the reactive gyroscopic
couple will be to dip the nose and raise the tail of the aeroplane.

2. When the engine or propeller rotates in anticlockwise direction when viewed from the rear or tail end
and the aeroplane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to dip the nose and
raise the tail of the aeroplane.

3. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions as mentioned in note 2 above, the
effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail of the aeroplane.

4. When the engine or propeller rotates in clockwise direction when viewed from the front and the
aeroplane takes a left turn, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the tail and dip the
nose of the aeroplane.

5. When the aeroplane takes a right turn under similar conditions as mentioned in note 4 above, the
effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail of the aeroplane.

❖ The effect of gyroscopic couple on the naval ship in the following three cases:

1- Steering 2- Pitching and 3- Rolling

Effect of the Gyroscopic Couple on a Naval ship during Steering:-

1. When the ship steers to the right under similar conditions as discussed above, the effect of the reactive
gyroscopic couple will be to raise the stern and lower the bow.

2. When the rotor rotates in the anticlockwise direction, when viewed from the stern and the ship is
steering to the left, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to lower the bow and raise the stern.

3. When the ship is steering to the right under similar conditions as discussed in note 2 above, then the
effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the bow and lower the stern.

37
 4. When the rotor rotates in the clockwise direction when viewed from the bow or fore end and the ship
is steering to the left, then the effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the stern and lower the
bow.

5. When the ship is steering to the right under similar conditions as discussed in note 4 above, then the
effect of reactive gyroscopic couple will be to raise the bow and lower the stern.

6. The effect of the reactive gyroscopic couple on a boat propelled by a turbine taking left or right turn is
similar as discussed above.

Effect of the Gyroscopic Couple on a Naval ship during Pitching:-

1. The effect of the gyroscopic couple is always given on specific position of the axis of spin, i.e.
whether it is pitching downwards or upwards.

2. The pitching of a ship produces forces on the bearings which act horizontally and perpendicular to the
motion of the ship.

3. The maximum gyroscopic couple tends to shear the holding-down bolts.

4. The angular acceleration during pitching.

α = d2θ/dt2 = -Φ(ω1)

sin ω1t (Differentiating dθ/dt with respect to t)

The angular acceleration is maximum, if sin ω1t = 1

Therefore,

Maximum angular acceleration during pitching, αmax = Φ(ω1)

Effect of the Gyroscopic Couple on a Naval ship during Rolling:-

We know that, for the effect of gyroscopic couple to occur, the axis of precession should always be
perpendicular to the axis of spin. If, however, the axis of precession becomes parallel to the axis of spin,
there will be no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the body of the ship.

In case of rolling of a ship, the axis of precession (i.e. longitudinal axis) is always parallel to the axis of
spin for all positions. Hence, there is no effect of the gyroscopic couple acting on the body of a ship.

APPLICATIONS :-

The gyroscopic principle is used in an instrument or toy known as gyroscope. The

gyroscopes are installed in ships in order to minimize the rolling and pitching effects of waves. They are
also used in aeroplanes, monorail cars, gyrocompasses etc.

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 EXPERIMENT No. 11

AIM :- To determine gyroscopic couple on Motorized Gyroscope.

APPARATUS USED:- Four wheeler & two wheeler vehicle.

THEORY :- When a body moves along a curved path with a uniform linear velocity, a force in the
direction of centripetal acceleration (known as centripetal force) has to be applied externally over the body,
so that it moves along the required curved path. This external force applied is known as active force. When a
body, itself, is moving with uniform linear velocity along a circular path, it is subjected to the centrifugal
force radially outwards. This centrifugal force is called reactive force.

The change in angular momentum is known as active gyroscopic couple(I, ω, ωp). When the axis of spin
itself moves with angular velocity ωp, the disc is subjected to reactive couple whose magnitude is same (i.e.
I, ω, ωp) but opposite in direction to that of active couple.

OBSERVATION :-

❖ Mass of the vehicle (m) =-------------kg.

❖ Weight of the vehicle (W) =----------Newtons.
❖ Radius of the wheels (rw ) = ----------- metres.
❖ Radius of curvature ( R ) = ----------- meters.
❖ Distance of centre of gravity, vertically above the road surface(h) = ------------metres,
❖ Width of track (x) = ------------------- metres,
❖ Mass moment of inertia of one of the wheels( Iw ) = -----------------kg-m2
❖ Angular velocity of the wheels or velocity ofspin(ωw) = ------------rad/sec
❖ Mass moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine(IE) = ---------- kg-m2
❖ Angular velocity of the rotating parts of the engine (ωE) = ----------- rad/sec
❖ Gear ratio = ωE /ωw
❖ Linear velocity of the vehicle (ν) = rw ωw
❖ Angle of heal (θ) =---------rad.

CALCULATION :-

For 4-wheel drive:

❖ Gyroscopic couple due to 4 wheels, Cw = 4 Iw ωw ωp where, (ωp =ν/R)

❖ Gyroscopic couple due to the rotating parts of the engine, , CE = IE ωE ωp = Iw.G. ωw.
ωp
❖ Net Gyroscopic couple, C = Cw ±CE

For 2-wheel drive:

❖ Gyroscopic couple, C1 = ν (2 Iw ± IE..G) cosθ /R. rw

39
 PRECAUTIONS :-

I. When rotating parts of the engine rotate in opposite directions, then negative sign is used.
II. When CE ›Cw, then C will be negative. Thus the reaction will be vertically downwards on the outer
wheels and vertically upwards on the inner wheels.
III. The gyroscopic couple will act over the vehicle outwards i.e. in the anticlockwise direction when
seen from the front of the vehicle. The tendency of this couple is to overturn the vehicle in outward
direction.

RESULT:-

❖ Gyroscopic couple of four wheel drive is = --------------N-m.

❖ Gyroscopic couple of two wheel drive is =-------------- N-m.

40
 EXPERIMENT No. 12

AIM :- To perform the experiment for static balancing on static balancing machine.

APPARATUS USED:- Static Balancing m/c.

THEORY :- A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the combined mass centre of
the system lies on the axis of rotation. Whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, it exerts some
centrifugal force, whose effect is to bend the shaft and to produce vibrations in it. In order to prevent the
effect of centrifugal force, another mass is attached to the opposite side of the shaft. The process of
providing the second mass in order to counteract the effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass, is called
balancing of rotating masses.

The following cases are important from the subject point of view :

1. Balancing of a single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the same plane.

2. Balancing of a single rotating mass by two masses rotating in different planes.

3. Balancing of different masses rotating in the same plane.

4. Balancing of different masses rotating in different planes.

PROCESURE :- Remove the belt, the value of weight for each block is determined by clamping each
block in turn on the shaft and with the cord and container system suspended over the protractor disc, the
number of steel balls, which are of equal weight are placed into one of the containers to exactly balance the
blocks on the shaft. When the block becomes horizontal, the number of balls N will give the value of wt. for
the block.

For finding out Wr during static balancing proceed as follow:

1. Remove the belt.

2. Screw the combined hook to the pulley with groove. This pulley is diff. than the belt pulley.

3. Attached the cord end of the pans to above combined hook.

4. Attached the block no.-1 to the shaft at any convenient position and in vertical downward direction.

5. Put steel balls in one of the pans till the blocks starts moving up. (upto horizontal position).

6. Number of balls give the Wr value of block-1. repeat this for 2-3 times and find the average no. of

balls.

7. Repeat the procedure for other blocks.

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OBSERVATION :-

S.no. Plane Mass (m) kg. Radius Cent. Force ÷ Distance from Couple ÷ ω2
ω2(m×r) Kg-m plane x(l) m
(m.r.l) kg-m2

CALCULATION :-

(i) The balancing masses and angular positions may be determined graphically as given below:-
(ii) First of all, draw the couple polygon from the data which are calculated in table to some suitable
scale.
(iii)The vector distance represents the balanced couple.
(iv) The angular position of the balancing mass is obtained by drawing, parallel to vector distance.
(v) By measurement will be find the angle.
(vi) Then draw the force polygon from the data, which are calculated in table to some suitable scale.
(vii) The vector distance represents the balanced force. The angular position of the mass is
obtained by drawing, parallel to vector distance.
(viii) By measurement will be find the angle in the clockwise direction from mass.

PRECAUTIONS :-

❖ Couple should be represented by a vector drawn perpendicular to the plane of the couple.
❖ Angular position measure carefully in clockwise direction.
❖ Vector diagram should be represent with suitable scale.

42
 EXPERIMENT No. 13

AIM :-Determine the moment of inertial of connecting rod by compound pendulum method and tri-filar
suspension pendulum.

APPARATUS USED:- Compound Pendulum and tri-filar suspension system setup.

THEORY :-

Compound Pendulum :- When a rigid body is suspended vertically, and it oscillates with a small
amplitude under the action of the force of gravity, the body is known as compound pendulum. Trifilar
Suspension (Torsional Pendulum) :- It is also used to find the moment of inertia of a body experimentally.
The body (say a disc or flywheel) whose moment of inertia is to be determined is suspended by three long
flexible wires A, B and C, as shown in fig.-b. When the body is twisted about its axis through a small angle
θ and then released, it will oscillate with simple harmonic motion.

PROCEDURE :-

❖ For compound pendulum :

o Measure the mass of the body.
o Lift the pendulum from the mean position till for suitable height (h).
o Release the pendulum and note down the number of oscillations and time period taken to
complete the number of oscillation.
o Repeat the above steps for more readings.
❖ For tri-filar suspension :
o Measure the mass of the disc and connecting rod.
o Lift the connecting rod from the mean position till for suitable height (h).
o Release the connecting rod and note down the number of oscillations and time period
taken to complete the number of oscillation.
o Repeat the above steps for more readings.

OBSERVATION :-

❖ For compound pendulum:

i. Mass of the body (m) =-------- kg.
ii. Distance of point of suspension ‘O’ from the C.G. of the body (h) =------- metres.
iii. Frequency of oscillation (n) = ------Hz.

S.N Number of oscillations Time period taken

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 ❖ For tri-filar suspension:
1. Mass of the body (m) = ------- kg.
2. Distance of each wire from the axis of the disc (r) =------- metres.
3. Length of each wire (l) = ---- metres.

S.N Number of oscillations Time period taken

CALCULATION :-

❖ For compound pendulum :

o Frequency of oscillation, n = 1/ tp = 1 x √g.h/ kG + h2π
o I = m.(kG)2 in kg.-m2

❖ For tri-filar suspension :

o Frequency of oscillation, n = 1/ tp = r x √g./ l2π kG
o I = m.(kG)2 in kg.-m2

44
 EXPERIMENT No. 14

AIM :- To study Dynamically Equivalent System.

APPARATUS USED:- Models of different rigid masses.

THEORY:- In order to determine the motion of a rigid body, under the action of external forces, it is
usually convenient to replace the rigid body by two masses placed at a fixed distance apart, in such a way
that, the sum of their masses is equal to the total mass of the body. the center of gravity of the two masses
coincides with that of the body. And the sum of mass moment of inertia of the masses about their center of
gravity is equal to the mass moment of inertia of the body. When these three conditions are satisfied, then it
is said to be an equivalent dynamical system. Consider a rigid body, having its center of gravity at G,

Let, m = Mass of the body.

KG = Radius of gyration about its center of gravity G.

m1 and m2 = Two masses which from a dynamical equivalent system,

l1 = Distance of mass m1 from G

l2 = Distance of mass m2 from G

L = Total distance between the masses m1 and m2

Thus,

for the two masses to be dynamically equivalent,

m1 + m 2 = m …………………………………….. (i)

m1 l1 = m2 l2 …………………………………….. (ii)

and

m1(l1)2 =m2(l2)2 = m (KG)2 ………………………….(iii)

From equations (i) and (ii),

m1 = (l2 m)/ (l1+ l2 ) ……………………………... (iv)

and

m2 = (l1 m)/ (l1+ l2) …………………………….... (v)

Substituting the value of m1 and m2 in equation (iii),

45
 we have

l1× l2 = (KG)2 ……………………………………(vi)

This equation gives the essential condition of placing the two masses, so that the system becomes
dynamical equivalent. The distance of one of the masses (i.e. either l1 or l2 ) is arbitrary chosen and the other
distance is obtained from equation (vi).

When the radius of gyration (KG) is not known, then the position of the second mass may be obtained by
considering the body as a compound pendulum. We have already discussed, that the length of the simple
pendulum which gives the same frequency as the rigid body (i.e. compound pendulum ) is

L = [(KG)2 + l2]/l = [(KG)2 + l]/ l

We also know that, l1.l2 = (KG)2

Therefore

L = [ l1.l2 + 12]/ l1 = l1+l2

This means that the second mass is situated at the center of oscillation or percussion of the body which is at
a distance of

l2 = (KG2)/ l1

APPLICATIONS :-

❖ In Connecting rod of engine.

❖ In Crank shaft.
❖ In slider crank mechanism.
❖ In steam engine.

46
 EXPERIMENT No. 15

AIM: - To study the various types of dynamometers.

APPARATUS: - Models of dynamometer.

THEORY:- The dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted along a rotating shaft
so as to determine the shaft power.

Dynamometers are generally classified into:

I. Absorption dynamometers (i.e. Prony brakes, hydraulic or fluid friction brakes, fan brake and eddy
current dynamometers)
II. Transmission dynamometers (i.e. Torsion and belt dynamometers, and strain gauge dynamometer)
III. Driving dynamometers (i.e. Electric cradled dynamometer)

PRONY BRAKE: - The prony and the rope brakes are the two types of mechanical brakes chiefly
employed for power measurement. The prony brake has two common arrangements in the block type and
the band type. Block type is employed to high speed shaft and band type measures the power of low speed
shaft.

BLOCK TYPE PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER: -

The block type prony brake consists of two blocks of wood of which embraces rather less than one half
of the pulley rim. One block carries a lever arm to the end of which a pull can be applied by means of a dead
weight or spring balance. A second arm projects from the block in the opposite direction and carries a
counter weight to balance the brake when unloaded. When operating, friction between the blocks and the
pulley tends to rotate the blocks in the direction of the rotation of the shaft. This tendency is prevented by
adding weights at the extremity of the lever arm so that it remains horizontal in a position of equilibrium.

Torque, T = W×L in Nm

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Power P =
60

P = 2𝜋N (W×L)/60* 1000 in kW

Where, W= weights in Newton

L = Effective length of the lever arm in meter and

N = Revolutions of the crankshaft per minute.

47
 BAND TYPE PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER: -

The band type prony brake consists of an adjustable steel band to which are fastened wooden block which
are in contact with the engine brake-drum. The frictional grip between the band the brake drum can be adjusted
by tightening or loosening the clamp.

The torque is transmitted to the knife edge through the torque arm. The knife edge rests on a platform or
communicates with a spring balance.

Frictional torque at the drum = F×r

Balancing torque = W×L

Under equilibrium conditions, T = F*r = W*l in Nm.

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Power = in N-m/s
60

P= 2𝜋 N * W*L/60* 1000 in kW

ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETERS: -

A rope brake dynamometers consists of one or more ropes wrapped around the fly wheel of an engine
whose power is to be measured. The ropes are spaced evenly across the width of the rim by flywheel. The
upward ends of the rope are connected together and attached to a spring balance, and the downward ends are
kept in place by a dead weight. The rotation of flywheel produces frictional force and the rope tightens.
Consequently a force is induced in the spring balance.

Effective radius of the brake R = (D+ d)/2

Brake load or net load = (W-S) in Newton

Braking torque T = (W-S) R in Nm.

2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Braking torque = in N-m/s
60

= 2𝜋 N * (W-S)R/60* 1000 in kW

D= dia. Of drum

d = rope dia.

S = spring balance reading

48
 FLUID FRICTION (HYDRAULIC DYNAMOMETER):- A hydraulic dynamometer uses fluid-friction
rather than friction for dissipating the input energy. The unit consists essentially of two elements namely a
rotating disk and a stationary casing. The rotating disk is keyed to the driving shaft of the prime-mover and
it revolves inside the stationary casing. When the brake is operating, the water follows a helical path in the
chamber. Vortices and eddy-currents are set-up in the water and these tend to turn the dynamometer casing
in the direction of rotation of the engine shaft. This tendency is resisted by the brake arm and balance system
that measure the torque.

𝑊×𝑁
Brake power =
𝐾

Where,

W is weight as lever arm.

N is speed in revolutions per minute

k is dynamometer constant.

Approximate speed limit = 10,000rpm

Usual power limit = 20,000kW

BEVIS GIBSON FLASH LIGHT TORSION DYNAMOMETER: -

This torsion dynamometer is based on the fact that for a given shaft, the torque transmitted is directly
proportional to the angle of twist. This twist is measured and the corresponding torque estimated the
relation:

Ip× C×𝜃
T =
𝐿

Where Ip =

J/32 = polar moment of inertia of a shaft of diameter d

𝜃 = twist in radians over length l of the shaft

C = modulus of rigidity of shaft material

APPLICATIONS:-

i) For torque measurement.

ii) For power measurement.

49