UNIT Mobile Radio Propagation Syllabus Large Scale Path Loss : Introduction To Radio Model - Three Basie Propagation Mechanism Scattering. Small Scale Fading And Multipath Influencing Small-Scale Fading, Doppler Shift, Coherence Time. Types Of Small - Scale Fading Spread, Fading Effects Due To Doppler Spread. Contents 21 2.2 23 24 25 2.6 27 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation Propagation Models Free-Space Propagation Mode! Basic Radio Propagation Mechanism Small-Scale and Multipath Fading Multipath Channel Parameters 2.8 Types of Small-Scale Fading 2.9 Multiple Choice Questions with Answers 2.10 Two Marks Questions with Answers Wave Propagation - Free Space Propagation : Reflection - Brewster Angle - Diffraction - Small Scale Multipath Propagation, Factors Coherence Bandwidth, Doppler Spread and : Fading Effects Due To Multipath Time Delay Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel (2- 0fs nicat 2-2 Moti Reap ———“——_ ee a Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation * Mobile radio channel is an important controlling factor in Wireless comm, Mie, path betiveen transmitter and receiver can vary in COmpleyity, * Wired channels are stationary and predictable, whereas radio channey, extre: plex models. : random and have © f radio channels is done in statistical fashion based on Measty for each individual communication system or frequency spectrum, Fen, ERET Probiems Unique to Wireless Systems 1. Paths can vary from simple line-of buildin and foliage. sight to ones that are severely obstrucias Radio channels are extremely random and difficult to analyze, y Interference from other service providers > out-of-band non-linear transmitter emissions Interference from other users (same network) a. Co-channel interference (CCI) due to frequeney reuse Channel Interference (ACI) due to Tx/Rx design limitations a-: 6. E ts, signals are received that ax tructions and diffractions around obstructions b. Multipath signals can be received that interfere with each other Channel ? random and unpred 1. Must be characterized in a statistical fashion 2 Held measurements often needed to characterize radio channel performance ‘The Mobile Radio Channel (MRC) has unique problems that limit performs 2 A mobile receiver in motion influences rates of fading : ~The faster a mobile moves, the more quickly characteristics change 2. When no clear lineo! Teflections ofJess Communication = eas Mobile Radio Propagation a Propagation Models 4, Large scale propagation models « To predict the average received si ignal strength over large transmitter - receiver (I - R) separation distances (Several i I hundreds or thousands of meters). + Typically, the local average received power is computed by averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40 wavelengths 2, Small scale propagation models (or fading models) * To characterize the rapid fluctuations of the receiver signal strength over very short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the order of seconds). In small scale fading, the received signal power may vary by as much as three to four orders of magnitude (30 to 40 4B). Fig. 2.2.1 shows small-scale and large-scale fading. -% -3se Ht dy I Received power (dBm) -70 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 T-R separation (meters) Fig. 2.2.1 The smoothed line is the average signal strength. The actual is the more jagged line. * Actual received signal strength can vary by more than 20 dB over a few centimeters. The average signal strength decays with distance from the transmitter, and depends on terrain and obstructions. Two basic goals of propagation modeling : 1. Predict magnitude and rate (speed) of received signal strength fluctuations over short distances/time durations. Short typically refers to a few wavelengths (A) or seconds at 1 GHz, 2 = c/ £=3 x108 /1 x10° = 0.3 meters At this distance, received signal strength can vary drastically by 30 to 40 dB. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgeile Fi Wireless Communication 2-4 Mobile Radio Propagation * Small-scale fluctuations caused by received signal coming from a sum of many signals coming together at a receiver. Multiple signals come from reflections and scattering. These signals can destructively add together by being out-of-phase. 2. Predict average received signal strength for given Tx/Rx separation, * To characterize received signal strength over distances from 20 m to 20 km, Large-scale radio wave propagation model needed to estimate coverage area of base station. * In general, large scale path loss decays gradually with distance from the transmitter will also be affected by geographical features like hills and buildings Eg Free-Space Propagation Model Path-loss Gradient * In most environments, the radio signal strength falls as some power a of the distance called as power distance gradient or path-loss gradient. * The signal strength is proportional to P, d~°, where P, is transmitted power and d is distance in meters. + When an antenna radiates signal in all direction, the signal strength density at a sphere of radius d_is the total radiated signal strength divided by the area of the sphere (4 nd’). Also, there are losses dependent on frequency, * The relation between transmitted power (P, 1) and received power (P,) is given by : P, ale = G;( zea) where, G, = Transmitter antenna gain in the direction from transmitter to receiver G, = Receiver antenna gain a = Distance between transmitter and receiver 2. = Wavelength of carrier * By the Friis free space equation : PiGG, A? Pd) = ae @2L Where; L is system loss factor not related to propagation (L >=1) * Received power at a distance d is given by - TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgeWireless Communication _ P,(d) dBm = rote Fido) |+20008 (2) d pal Two Ray Model of Mobile Environment * In free space, the signal travels from the transmitter to receiver alor path but in realistic environment, the signal reaches different paths. ene - « The two-ray model is shown in Fig. 2.3.1. « The Line of Sight (LOS) component between base station and mo! Line of sight path Ground reflection a Fig. 2.3.1 Two-ray model carries the signal similar to as in free space. Another path of signal is through the reflection off the earth's surface. These two paths travel different distances based on height of base station antenna (h,) and height of mobile terminal antenna (h,,)- At receiver these two signals and added constructively or destructively. The relation between transmit power for two-ray model can be approximated by expression : heh? him Py = PrGG, Bs trength falls as the fourth power of distance (4) It can be observed that the signal st cords, there is a loss of 40 dB per between the transmitter and receiver. In other w: decade or 12 dB per octave. ‘an up-thrust for knowledge © TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” - Nt~ Whratess Qammunication 2-6 Mobfe Radio Propagate, S50 W of power, express the transmit power in unit, applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz ni the received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from 10 don)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna. 900 MHz ; | 10 log[50 x 10°] = 47 dBm = 10 log[50) = 17 dBW = 35N107°W x 103 mw log Pum) 1 log @Sx10S mW) = ~ oe ( miV)= 24.5 dBm ws Ans. Feseved power at 10 km can be expressed in terms of dBm using equation tog] PHO) J, 29 tog ($2) d2dg 2d; re dy = 100 m and d = 10km . _ 100 Palin) = P(100)+26log [aaa as | = - 245 dBm - 40 dB = - 645 dBm + Ans, RSE) Ascene at revviner located 10 kor from a 50 W transmitter. The carrier ny & 900 MHz. Free space propagation is assumed. G,= 1 and G, = 2. Find : D The power at the receiver. 2) Tre magnitude of E field at the receiver antenna. cultage applied to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna has q puny mal inpedanee of 50 Q and i matched to the receiver.a wireless Communication 2-7 Mobile Radio Propagation solution : Given : Transmitter power, P= 50W Carrier frequency, f. = 900 MHz Transmitter antenna gain, G. = 1 Receiver antenna gain, G, = 2 Receiver antenna resistance = 50 Q 1) The power received at a distance d = 10 km is given by equation: mi oe Suse) P,(d) t : (nya? 1Olog (See ") " " (4m)? 100002 = -91.5 dBW = - 61.5 dBm w+ Ans. 2) The magnitude of the received E-field is given by equation: P(d)120 0 — [Pe(d)120n peace eat7ae GA? /4n =10 = x20 0039 Vin cane 2x0.337 /4n 3) The open circuit rms voltage at the receiver input is given by equation: V, fant = yPi(d)x4Rant = V7x1079 x4x50 = 0.374 mV . Ans, 1. With necessary equations explain free space propagation model in detail ba Basic Radio Propagation Mechanism * The radio propagation can be explained by three basic mechanisms : 1. Reflection and_ transmission 2. Diffraction 3. Scattering. IE] TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgeee Wireless Communication nea _ EZED Reflection and Transmission * Reflection occurs when electromagnetic wave impinges on object larger than the wavelength 2. The electromagnetic wave bounces off the object. Examples Waits, 2-8 Mobile Recto Proper, buildings, ground. + The electromagnetic signal is attenuated by a reflection factor. Attenuat depends on - 1. Nature of material 2. Frequency of the carrier 3. Angle of incidence 4. Nature of the surface. * Usually transmission through an object leads to larger losses (absorption) than reflection. Multiple reflections can result in a weak signal. EXE vittraction * Diffraction occurs when radio wave is incident upon the edge of a sharp object. Examples : Wall, roof edge, door. Each such object becomes @ secondary source of emission, In this case, the losses are much larger than with reflection or transmission, Diffraction is important in micro-cells for non-line of sight transmission ie. Propagation into shadowed regions Diffraction is not significant in indoor areas because of large losses in diffracted signal. Hl Fresnel Zone Symmetry For reliable Line of Sight (LOS) communication, the Path between transmitter and receiver must be free of obstruction (clear). It gives minimum or negligible multipath reception. This is called fresnel zone clearance. The Fresnel zone concept says that any small element of zone in the LOS path of electromagnetic wave may be considered as the source of secondary wavelet and radiated field may be built up by algebric sum of these wavelets, * There are series of concentric circles around the direct LOS path between transreceiver. Any obstacle in first circle produce adverse effects. * Let an obstacle in LOS path between transmitter and receiver as shown in Fig. 24.1. d, is distance between transmitter and obstacle. dz is distance between receiver and obstacle. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-tmust for kiMobile Radio Propagation First Fresnel zone Line of sight Multipath Fig. 2.4.1 First Fresnel zone clearance e The radius ‘R' of first Fresnel zone clearance is given by: Addy = | wd, +d,=D R= Vit) ee 2d (D-41) R=\—p R is radius of first Fresnel zone in meters where, Dis total distance between Tx and Rx is wavelength of signal in meters «From experiments, it is found that if there is no obstacle within 0.6 times the radius of first Fresnel zone then there will be negligible signal attenuation. Therefore, height of transreceiver is kept such that no obstacle along the LOS path within 0.6 times of the radius of first Fresnel zone. «Three special cases of Fresnel zone clearance. 4. Hyper reflectivity + Hyper-reflectivity may occur in wave propagation over water, metal, objects and large flat surfaces, this is the reason why additional path clearance is required. mR TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgei Communication aly obi Red Prepegiy, Wireless Communi PANE, 2. Bending ‘ ‘ ri ei ver the earth so bending o¢¢ * The dielectric permittivity varies with height over th HIng occurs | ie. K the effective earth radius is % times the actual earth rad 7 then sipe, gets bent downward. This condition is called Earth Buldge. * For K = 1, the earth is completely flat and signal travels in a straight line, signal bents upward and may cause interference at longer distance, The Fresnel zone clearance for different value of K is given by, didy _4 Reo i fork=3 2 Reddy ; fork =3 3. Microwave Antenna Location * The antenna location may cause reception even though it is mounted at a height, SUcieeenes Gama A general design rule for microwave links is 19 have 55% clearance of the first Fresnel zone, For a 1 km link at 2.5 GHz, whar {$ the maximum first Fresnel zone radius ? What clearance is required for this system ? Solution ; ie I~ to maximize: maxi ida da Ad yd fe dids 000 : Vd;+a, * amizer ty vee dy = tnd) To maximize this, Get its derivative with respect to dy and equa A (4 1000-a)) _ a(— i000 a te it with zero, 1000-d, h(t) _ 1000" T000 1000-di-dy _ 1000 7 node 1000 2d 1000 d; = 500m— d, = 500m L =0 TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an upethrust for knowledgoloss Communication an Mobile Fado Propagelian 10.12 500% 500 1000 Th max = = 5A77 mn (= O12) Clearance = 5.1 AI 3.012 m van ANS: In a treo-ray ground reflection model, assume that phase difference muck be kept below 6.261 radians for phase cancellation reasons, Assuming a receiver height of 2.m, and given a requirement that angel of incidence must be less than 5°, rohat are the mininnan ‘allowable values for the Transmitter-Receiver separation distance and the height of the transmitter antenna? Take the carrier frequency as 900 MHz, solution : Condition 1: 04 < 6.26 8 pp a x10 26x go0x10° _ 313 Tnx2 1200 n : 313 . be = Tao min | _313_ he T0n Amin Q@) Condition 2: 0, < 5° From the geometry : hy +h, tan 6; tan0; < tan5° Fig. 2.4.2 I Mt? Stans? hy +2 ai = tans * dinin Amin Xtan 5 = hy +2 : | Ry =d min % fan5— 4 v2) Equating equations (1) and (2) dimin tN5-2- = 75GE— Xd min ia TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgo2-12 Mobile Radio Wireless Communication Prop. dinin X tan 5~ =2 2 = 448.146 ining = apg = 448.146 m tan 313 = = — «448.146 = 37.208 m he = pope HS 6 EXEEY Knito-£dgo bittraction Model * Knife-edge diffraction model the diffraction loss, It consi sharp object. The ele by: 1 is one of the simplest diffraction model to iders the object like hill or mountain as “tric field strength, Ey of a knife-edge diffracted estimary | a knife edge wave is given Eq /Eg = FW) =(1+9/2f (exp((—jmt2)/2Vat ‘ The diffraction gain due to presence of knife edge (db) = 20log 1F(W)I G db) can be given as Ov <= 1 Gab) = 2Wlog(0.5 - 0.62) 1 <= v <= 0 Galdb) = 2Dlog(O.5exp(- 0.95v)) 0 24 When there are more found by one . than one obstruction, then the equivalent model can be knife-edge diffraction model as shown in Fig, 2.4.3, Single equivalent knife edge Obstruction 1 Obstruction 2 Fig. 2.4.3 Knifo-odge diffraction modo! TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledgereless Communication 2293 Mobile Radio Propayation pa Scattering = « Scattering is caused These objects scatter me by irregular objects comparable in size to the wavelength. Tays in all directions, Each scatterer acts as a source resulting 1. Signal propagates in all directions re, lampposts, vehicles. o Fig. 24.4 and Fig. 2.45 illustrates all three mechanisms for outdoor and indoor applications. | Building reflection Rooftop diffraction Line of sight pat Ground reflection Fig. 2.4.4 Radio Propagation mechanisms in an outdoor area Scatte Reflection | | 2 Fig. 2.4.5 Radio propagation mechanisms in an indoor area bor w Questions 1. What is a Fresnel Zone ? ee 2. With figure explain Knife-edge difraction model in detail. Write the equation for diffraction gain, 3. Enumerate various radio propagation model and explain any two of them."4 i Communication po ee [2] Small-Scale and Multipath Fading arrive at the receiver from different directions with different delayy * Radio wav a At the receiver antenna they combine via vector addition ¢ Received signal level varies (10s of dBs) due to short-term (rapid) variations ang long-term (slow) variations. Fading * The term f amplitudes, phases, or multipath del short travel distance. This might beso severe that jading or small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the lays of a radio signal over a short period of large scale radio propagation loss effects might be ignored, EEE muttipath Fading Effects * Rapid fluctuation is caused by three important effects 1. Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval. 2, Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different mulipath signals - Movement of mobile terminal toward oe away from the base station transmitter is called as Doppler. 3. Time dispersion caused by multipath Propagation delays - Addition of signals arriving via different paths called as multipath fading [EA Factors Influencing Fading * The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio Propagation channel : (1) Multipath propagation * Multipath is the propagation phenomenon that results in radio signals reach . the receiving antenna by two or more paths. ° The effects of multipath include constructive and destructive interference, and Phase shifting of the signal. (2) Speed of the mobilo * The relative motion between the base station and the mobile results in random frequency modulation due to different doppler shifts on each of the multipath components. (3) Speod of surrounding objects * If objects in the radio channel are in motion, shift on multipath components. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledge they induce a time varying DopplerWireless Communication 2-15 Mobile Radio Propagation « If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then this effect dominates fading. | transmission bandwidth of the signal « If the transmitted radio si, nal bandwidth is greater than the "bandwidth" of the multipath channel (quantified by coherence bandwidth), the received signal will be distorted. [EEL Doppler Effect © Doppler effect implies that the frequency of a wi is not necessarily the same as the fre up by a receiver. ave when transmitted by a source quency of the transmitted wave when picked + The received frequency depends upon the relative motion between the transmitter and receiver, + If the transmitter and receiver both are moving towards each other, the received frequency is higher. This is true even if one is f moving. If they are moving apart, t the received” signal frequency E decreases. If both are stationary, the frequency remains the same. This change in frequency is : known as Doppler shift. * Doppler shift depends upon the relative velocity between the two. Fig. 2.5.1 Doppler effect i a) ¥ Doppler shift is given by fy = 72 57 = 50050 * The difference in path length = Al = vAtcos® * The phase change in the received signal due to the difference in path lengths is given by: 2nAl_ 2nvdt a a * The Doppler frequency is a function : 1. The mobile velocity. cos 8 Ao = 2 The spatial angle between the direction of motion of the mobile and the direction of arrival of the wave. 3. The wavelength of the signal. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledge2-16 Mobile pa, I Wireless Communication Ce Baus | v E- ider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier freq, | sider A ’ | ine a vehicle moving 60 mph, compute the received carrier Frequey, | 1850 MHz. For Is mobile is moving : 1) Directly toward the transmitter. , itter. 2) Directly arway from the transmit ; ; Ina ies which is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of transmitted t Le. the internal limits are changed to ya) = fl xa) Wh te ode Since the receiver moves along, the yromnd at a constant velocity v, the position of the receiver ind = vt be / yh Do = fx NO, be de Since vis a constant, y(vt, 0) is just a function of t Therefore the above equation can be expressed a9, yi) = f x(a) h(vt, Ca) dt = xf) (Yt, Dx) * WG) (26.1) Tis useful to discretize the multipath delay axis Cot the Impulse response inte equal {ine delay segments called excess delay bins, enc A bin having a tine delay with equal Mpa) At and ty = At for be WO.12)0M oA] wher N cepreaents the total number Of possible equally-apaced multipath componente, Including the fiat arriving component, The useful frequency span of the model I 4p The model may be ved to analyee Nansmitted rn pignale having bandwidth Joan than Vr TROHNIOAL PUBL IGATIONS™ « an upsthnust for kaottodtaaAverage power is, ys fear The baseband impulse response of a multipath channel can be expressed as, Laie verphi2st,T,)+0 (0) ae Where a,(t, 3) and 1,(t)are the real amplitudes and excess delays, respectively, of the at time t. The phase term 2nf,t, +9,(t.1) in the above equation tion of the ith multipath component, d in the channel = multipath compone represents the phase shift due to free space propa plus any additional phase shifts which are encoun It the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over a small-scale time or distance interval, then Not he) = Dayerplia,)r—-4,) fn) For measuring h(x), we use a probing pulse to approximate &t) ie p(t) = &t-1) Power delay profile is taken by spatial average of |hy(tt)|? over a local area. The received power delay profile in a local area is given by PU) = Multipath Channel Parameters * To compare the different multipath channels and to quantify them, we define some parameters. They all can be determined from the power delay profile. These parameters can be broadly divided in to two types. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - en up-thrust for knowledge rei i as? sng- wireless Communication 2-19 Mobile Radio Propagation 1, Time Dispersion Parameters 2, Frequency Dispersion Parameters ea Time Dispersion Parameters + These parameters include the mean excess delay, rms delay spread and excess delay spread. + The mean excess delay is the first moment of the power delay profile and is defined as : Whereay, is the amplitude, 1}, is the excess delay and P(t.) is the power of the individual multipath signals * The mean square excess delay spread is defined as : = LPR DP) « The rms delay spread is the Square root of the second central moment of the power delay profile, it can be written as * Asa rule of thumb, for a channel to be flat fading the following condition must be satisfied Sr q. $01 Where; Tg is the symbol duration. * For this case, no equalizer is required at the receiver. Frequency Dispersion Parameters * To characterize the channel in the frequency domain, we have the following parameters. (1) Coherence bandwidth (2) Coherence time © TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” - an up-thrust for knowledgeWiretess Communicaton Mobie Rasta 5 Coherence Bandwidth (B,) + The Coherence bandwidth is a statisti of the range of frequencies ., vidth i stical measure of the range of frequencies idth is a statis ‘ vhich the channel can be considered to pass all the frequency components y., whiel most equal gain and linear phase. When this condition is satisfied then yy, almos the channel to be flat © Say Practically, coherence bandwidth is the minimum separation over which the 4, frequency components are affected differently. If the coherence bani width ig considered to be the bandwidth over which the frequency correlation function is above 0.9, then it is approximated as- oe Rey * However, if the coherence bandwidth is considered to be the b. which the frequency correlation function is above 0.5, then it is det Be = andwidth over fined as- the local area. A more cont time variation of the channel is the coherence time. This variation may between the mobile and be due to the relative motion the base station or the channel, motion of the objects in the EEX] coherence time * The Coherence time is a stat tistical measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse Tesponse is almost invariant. When channel behaves like this, it is said to be slow faded. : Essentially it is the minimum time duration over which affected differently. For §Wo received signals are an example, if the coherence time ig considered to be the bandwidth over which the time correlation is above 05, then it can be approximated as = 9 Te Geary Where; f., is the maximum doppler spread given be fu ® Another parameter is the Dopple over which the received Doppler 4. * spread (Bp) which is the range of frequencies spectrum is non zero, : TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS” « an upsthrust for knowtodge PRI> ‘Communication : wireless 2-21 Mobile Radio Propagation pe Doppler Spread and Coherent Time « Doppler spread and coherent time are parameters which describe the ti i nature of the channel in a small-scale region. eisai + When a pure sinusoidal tone of f, is transmitted, the received si ‘ i ignal spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range (f; ~ f) and (f, + fg), where fy is the Doppler shift. : Channel fe fot ly Fig. 2.7.1 Doppler spectrum * fq is a function of the relative velocity of the mobile and the angle between the direction of motion of the mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves. * Coherent time T, is the time domain dual of Doppler spread. Coherent time is used to characterize the time varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain. 1 Tor © Fm Where fm is maximum Doppler shift given by fm, = 4 v : Speed of the mobile «Two signals arriving with a time separation greater than T, are affected differently by the channel * A statistic measure of the time duration over which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant. * If the coherent time is defined as the time over which the time corrleation function is above 0.5, then 9 Te * Ténfp TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowiedge iO Whe Wah,r Wireless Communication 2-22 Mobilo Radio Propo, ey EGY Types of Small-Scale Fading * The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel Aepeng, on the relation between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and yy channel parameters (rms delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence there fol different types of fading, Classification based on multipath time delay spread is shown in Fig. 2.8.1 There are two types of fading due to the time dispersive nature of the channel, Small - scale fading (Based on multipath time delay spread) Flat fading Frequency selective fading Fig. 2.8.1 Classification based on doppler spread is shown in Fig. 2.8.2, Small - scale fading (Based on Doppler spread) Fast fading Slow fading Fig. 2.8.2 Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading, Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading. * Multipath delay spread and Doppler spread are independent of one another EEEH Fading Effects due to Multipath Timo Delay Spread * Time dispersion due to multipath causes the transmitted signal to undergo either flat or frequency selective fading. "Bi P2SRE Flat Fading * Such type of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. i ¢ If the channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, the received signal will undergo flat fading. * The received signal strength changes with time due to fluctuations in the gain op the channel caused by multipath. TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-tvust for kno»Mobile Radio Propagation + The received signal varies in gain but the spectrim of the transmission is preserved. Fig. 2.8.3 shows flat fading channel characteristics, > | yelass Communication 2-29 | s(t) 0) sil) han) rit) o 7% or o T+ ee sit) Hi) RO (ee ee ere ie fe, a fe le) f, ! Fig. 2.8.3 Flat fading Flat fading channel is also called amplitude varying channel. Also called narrow band channel because bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the channel bandwidth. A signal undergoes flat fading if : Bg << Bo and Ts << 6, Where, Tg : Reciprocal bandwidth (symbol period) B, : Bandwidth of the transmitted signal Bc : Cohernet bandwidth o, : rms delay spread In such a case, mobile channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over its bandwidth. . P2RRA Frequency Selective Fading ‘* Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than the coherence bandwidth of the mobile radio channel or equivalently the symbols duration of the signal is less than the rms delay spread. « If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency selective fading. PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledge MhWiss Communicate and Signal spectrum S(t) Channol response B, Received signal spectrum a Fig. 2.8.4 Frequency selective fading Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted sym within the channel. It induces intersymbol interference. For frequency selective fading : Bs > Be To > c: Fig. 2.8.5 shows characteristics of frequency selective fading. st) 0) » sit) hit) no ey ee a ot 0 t 5 S10) HD) Rwy ae ee f, le ‘ Fig. 2.8.6 Frequency selective fading characteristics Frequency selective fading channels are much fading channels. more difficult to. model than flat At the receiver, we obtain multiple copies of the transmit and delayed in time, The channel introduces inter a signal, all attenuated Nit ‘ thumb for a channel to have flat fading is if interference, A rule of St Te $01and Communioation 7 | poles C : and Mobile Radio Propagation | po Fading Effects Duo to Dopplr Sprond ga Fast Fading + Ina faet fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion lending to distortion, ‘Therefore a signal undergoes fast fading If: Ty > Te By < Bp Where, Te in the coherence time and Hy in the Doppler spread + Transmission involving very low data rates suffers from fast fading. FEED Siow Fading In such a channel, the channel impulse response changes at a rate much slower than the tranomitted baseband signal s(t). The Doppler spread of the channel is much less then the bandwidth of the baseband nignal, We can consider a slow faded channel a channel in which channel is almost constant over atleast one symbol duration, A aignal undergoes slow fading if : Ts << Te By >> By ‘The velocity of the user plays an important role in deciding whether the signal experiences fast or slow fading. Loe te 1. Give complete classification of small scale fading and summarize the conditions for each type of tmall scale fading. 2. Describe briefly the typen of sma ecale fading (based on multipath time delay spread). 3+ What ts fading ? Liot and explain various types of small scale fading. TECHNICAL PUDLIGATIONS® « an up-hrust for knowr a _ 2-26 Mobilo Ractig Propay Wireless Communication Answers i ice Questions with EJ muttipte cho! Qi Large scale fading refers the attenuation In hase 2 amplitude bP d_ none of the mentioned © signal power Explanation : large scale fading refers to signal power attenuation or Path log Pl : s motion in lange area, Q2 Small scate refers to changes In 2 amplitude 'b) phase | © both of the mentioned d none of the mentioned Explanation ; Smal Scale fading refers to changes in amplitude and Phase as a Tesult of | small changes in Spatial Positioning between transmitter and receiver, | Q3 Small scale fading manifests duo to 2 signal dispersion time variant behavior both of the Mentioned None of the mentioned reference distance , 2 path toss exponent < standard deviation of random variable | all of the mentioned QS Smatt Scale fading Occurs due to 2 doppler shift £ both of the mentionedwink op ean connie “i dor Mobily Hasty Propel an What ae te tym ff email eaals feuing tint ooaure due to Doppler silt 7 hy) Bot foding Slow fading, dd) None of the mentioned Hoth of the mentioned a pyplanation STOW fading and fast fading ocoure due ty Doppler or frequency shit ar The revalved powor Ie attonuntod by # fautor called path tone [b) free apace toss fe both of the mentioned: do none of the mentioned od in terms of transaniited power Sx atternssted yplanation ¢ The recelved power expre py a factor cated path Tons or free apace Town qa Line-of-alght propagation es above __ b) 0 Mit. al AS Ki fd) 30 kz ve) 18 Miz Anawor Keys for Multiple Choice Questions : oo « | Qs ‘ aij) oe | O58 © Q6 « | O7 c | Qa El Two Marks Quostlons with Answors 1 EM wavos 7 - 1 What aro diffaront propagation mochaniame o ‘Ana. : The four propagation mechanisms of EM waves are 1. Free space propagation i, Reflection Uii, Diffraction iv, Scattering, 2 What Is tho significance of propagation model 7 Ana, : ‘The major significance of propagation model are + 1. Propagation model predicts the parameter of receiver. ii, It predicts the average received signal strength at a given distance from the | transmitter, qa What do you moan by small scalo fading 7 What aro tho factors Influencing a ry TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-ttrust for knowtodge fanaa small scalo fading 7a 2 Mobile Rodlo Pry Whroloes Communication 2-80 . etl Prop, Ans. + Rapid fluctuations of the amplitude, phase as multipath delays of a radio Alena) over # short perlod of time ts called amall acale fading, * ‘The factors which influence nmall acale fading, are : Multipath propagation, Spee of the mobile, Speed of surrounding objects and the trannmission bandwidth», the nignal, 0.4 Whon doos largo ncalo propagation occur 7 Ana. : Large scale propagation occurs due to general terrain and the density and heighy of buildings and vegetation, large scale propagation occurs. 5 Differontiate tho propagation offects with mobile radio, Ans. : . : ee | Slow fading Fast fading Slow varlation in the signal atrength, Rapid variations inthe signal strength, Mobile Station (MS) moves slowely, Local objects reflect the signal causes fast fading, 1t occurs when the large reflectors and It occurs when the user terminal (MS) moves diffracting objects along the for short distances, transmission paths are distant from the terminal. Rayleigh fading, Rican fading and Binh ie Ne te Q6 Dofino Dopplor shift. known as the Doppler shift (fy ) Fp = ff =-fy VIC Where, fo - Transmission frequency f, - Received frequency. Ans. : The gain and the signal strength ofthe received « imme ee then the channel is described a8 time selective channel, ® Hime varying means | The frequency response of the time selective cha flat channel. A ¢ The channel is time invariant but the impulse regp | | | 27 Ditfrantiate timo solectivo and troquency selective channol, i | innel is constant 50 that frequeny| pnse of the channel show a frequency-dependent response 60 called frequency selecting can “Prthrist for krowiadgyee —— og ef qe Define | : Coherence time is the maximum duration for which the channel can be assumed. imately constant. It is the time separation of the two time domain samples. oherence time and coherence bandwidth. s. he approx samples. 49. What I free space propagation model ? na: The fee space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength, when unobstructed line-of-sight path between transmitter and receiver. Friis free space equation is given by, xr 2 =P. G ae Pax(@) = PrxGaxGrx( 744) The factor (4/4nd)? is also known as the free space loss factor. 10 Define EIRP. given direction is defined as the transmitter power that would be needed, with an isotropic radiator, to produce the same power density in the given direction. EIRP = P,Gy Where, P; - Transmitted power in W Gy - Transmitting antenna gain Q.11 What Is path loss 7? Ans.: The path loss is di transmitted power and the received power. Path los of the antenna gains. Loss in signal strength as a function of distance lefined as the difference (in dB) between the effective 5 may or may not include the effect Path-loss. = Q.12 Define indoor propagation models. Ans. : The indoor inside the buildings. * The distances co much greater for smaller rangi + Features such as lay-out of the building, the construction materials and the building type strongly influence the propagation within the building. * Some of the . Long - distance path loss model ii. Ericession multiple breakpoint model ered are much smaller and the variability of the environment is e of transmitter and receiver separation distances. indoor propagation models a i, “attenuation factor model TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thrust for knowledge propagation models are used to characterizing radio propagation ans.: EIRP (Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power) of a transmitting system. in a | | gs communication 2-29 Mobile Radio Propagation » Coherence bandwidth is the frequency separation of the two frequency domain —2-30 Heb Wiroloss Communication Fan, jet 7 Q.13 What Is tho nocossity of link budg na. + The necessities of link budget are : ns. : ink budget is the clearest and most intuitive way of A a ieee power. It tabulates all equations. thay require s : transmitter power to the received SNR It is reliable for communications. | | \ It is used to ensure the sufficient receiver power is available, iv. To meet the SNR requirement link budget is calculated, Q.14 Dofino diffraction, Ans. : Diffraction is the spreading of a beam through gaps and around core, maximum effect occurs when the gap has a similar size to the wavelength, * Radio waves of about 5 m are diffracted by large buildings. Radio Waves of |, are diffracted around hills and through valleys, so they are able to Teach areas and are suitable for broadcasting, Microwave beams of a few centimetres do not spread round corners or aroun: ters and receivers must be in line of sight, | ‘om a satellite dish the Wavelength must be « to reduce diffraction. This means that, microwaves can be sent as a thi lin beam, lous typos of fading, compared to the dish diamete to radio waves, Q.15 Classify tho va Ans. compares Small-scale fading (Based on mutipath time doBy spread) Flat fading Froquone; 4. BW of signal < BW of channel 1. BW ot signst eee ot 2. Delay spread < Symbol period 2. Delay cnet WW of channel > ‘Symbol period Small-scalo fading (Based on doppler spreagy Fast fading 1. High doppler spread 1. Stow ago faa 2. Coherence time < Symbol period 2 Cone goPler Spreag 3. Channol variations faster than 3. channey® i baseband signal variations TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS® - an up-thaust for inom ——.. QQ Slower Sonal arte than