Only two things are infinite, the universe and human stupidity,

and I'm not sure about the former.

Albert Einstein

LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
 • Introduction
– Properties of LASER
• Coherence
Overview – Temporal
– Spatial
• Interaction of radiation and matter
– Absorption of photon
– Emission of photon
• Spontaneous
• Stimulated
– Einstein’s coefficients
• LASER principle
• Examples
– Ruby laser
– He-Ne laser
 The theoretical basis for the development of laser was
provided by Albert Einstein in 1917.

Einstein’s prediction was put to practical use after 1954.

In 1960, the first laser device called Ruby Laser was
developed by T.H. Maiman. The Ruby laser emits red light
of wavelengths 694.3 nm.

The first gas laser called Helium-Neon laser was

developed by A. Javan using He and Ne gases. It emits
Introduction visible light at wavelength 632.8 nm and also in infrared
region at 1150 nm.

Historically the laser is the outgrowth of the maser, a

similar device using radio microwaves instead of visible
light waves.
The most important features of laser are:
(i) high degree of coherence,
(ii) high directionality,
(iii) extraordinary monochromacity,
(iv) high intensity.
 Coherent
Divergent

Monochromatic
LASER
High Directionality

High Intensity
Divergence less
 Directionality

The divergence of the laser beam is usually

limited by diffraction.
 Monochromacity

Nearly monochromatic light

Example:
He-Ne Diode
Laser λ0 = Laser λ0 =
632.5 nm Δλ= 900 nm Δλ=
0.2 nm 10 nm
 Coherence of light
• An ordinary light wave is the bundle of many sinusoidal waves. Each
sinusoidal wave has a phase relationship up to a short period in space and
time. The ordinary light has no phase relationship, i.e., individual photons
comprising the light are incoherent.
• The distance and time up to which a given light wave has a phase relationship
is called coherence length (Lφ) and coherence time (τφ) respectively.
Lφ = c.τφ

As an example the coherence length in

ordinary neon 632.8 nm line is about 3cm
and so coherence time is about 10-10 sec.
The coherence length and time for a laser
beam are very large. For a well controlled
laser the coherence time is as large as 3 ms
giving the coherence length of 900 m.

The coherence length is important in

telecommunication engineering.
 Few relations on coherence of light
• For a wave with finite coherence time, ∆ν ≠ 0 (realistic wave)
• For a wave with infinite coherence time, ∆ν = 0
or
τφ.∆ν = 1
𝜆2
𝐿φ =
Δ𝜆

Source τφ Lφ = c.τφ

Sunlight 2.67 fs 800 nm

Sodium lamp 2 ps 600 μm
He-Ne laser 0.67 ns 20 m
 Absorption

Basic Spontaneous Emission

concepts
for a laser Stimulated Emission

Population inversion
 • Consider two energy levels of an atom with
energies E1 and E2. A light photon of energy hν
(= E2 – E1) can be absorbed to excite an electron
(atom) from level E1 to E2. This absorption is
known as stimulated (Induced) absorption.

֍ The probability of stimulated absorption is

Stimulated directly proportional to the incident energy
density u(ν) and characteristics of excited and
absorption ground states:
P12  u(ν)
of photon or P12 = B12.u(ν)
 • The electron stays at an excited state for a very
short life-time 10-8 s and then returns to its
original state emitting a photon of energy hν.
This type of emission is called spontaneous
emission.
• The probability of spontaneous emission
depends only on characteristics of state 1 and
Spontaneous state 2:
(P21)spontaneous = A21
emission of • The light photon emitted this way are the main
sources of ordinary (incoherent) light. There is
photon another type of emission which gives a highly
coherent light.
 Spontaneous emission
(P21)spontaneous = A21

Stimulated absorption
(P12)stimulated = B12.u(ν)
 • During the time, an atom is in excited state (~ 10-8
s), if a photon of energy hν is allowed to incident
on the atom, the emitted photon by atom’s jump to
lower energy state moves with the incident photon.
The direction of propagation, phase and energy of
the emitted photon is exactly same as that of
incident photon. Therefore, the result is an
enhanced beam of coherent light.
Stimulated • This process is called stimulated emission.
• The probability of stimulated emission is directly
emission proportional to the incident energy density u(ν),
and characteristics of excited and ground states:
of photon (P21)stimulated  u(ν)
or (P21)stimulated = B21.u(ν)
Stimulated absorption
(P12)stimulated = B12.u(ν)

Stimulated emission
(P21)stimulated = B21.u(ν)
 Einstein’s coefficients
The probabilities of absorption and emission of electromagnetic
radiation (photon) are given by
P12 = B12.u(ν)
(P21)spontaneous = A21 B12, B21 and A21 are called Einstein’s
coefficient of stimulated absorption,
(P21)stimulated = B21.u(ν) stimulated emission and spontaneous
emission respectively

B12 A21 B21

Einstein’s Einstein’s Einstein’s
coefficient of coefficient of coefficient of
stimulated spontaneous stimulated
absorption emission emission Finally the probability
of emission of a photon
is given by:
P21 = A21 + B21.u(ν)
 Einstein’s coefficients
Einstein’s coefficient of ….
Stimulated absorption: B12
Spontaneous emission: A21
Stimulated emission: B21 Higher the frequencies, smaller
is the value of B21.

𝐵21
=1
𝐵12 It is comparatively difficult to obtain
the stimulated emission of higher
frequencies.
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈3
=
𝐵21 𝑐3
 Boltzmann distribution law
The states with lower energy have a higher probability of being occupied
than the states with higher energy. Quantitatively the probabilities of two
states being occupied are related as:
∆𝐸
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − ∆𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝑘

where N1 and N2 are the number of electrons in ground state of energy E1

and in exited state of energy E2, respectively.

The population of high energy state is less then that of low energy state.
 Population inversion
• According to Boltzmann equation if N1 and N2 are the number of atoms in ground
state and excited state respectively then:
𝑁1
𝑁2 =
𝑒𝑥𝑝 Δ𝐸/𝑘𝑇

where ΔE = E2 – E1. For an atomic radiation ΔE >> kT. Thus in thermal

equilibrium the population of higher state is very much smaller than that of
ground state, N1 >> N2. As a result the number of stimulated emission is very less.

• If somehow, we can make N2 > N1, the process of stimulated emission dominates,
and laser action can be achieved.

• The state of N2 > N1 is called population inversion. Therefore in population

inversion the general condition of N1 > N2 is inverted into the condition N2 > N1.
This state is also known as negative temperature state. The meaning of the
negative temperature state is that it is a non equilibrium state.
 Requirement of metastable state
• But if state of population inversion is not stable enough to give time for incoming
photon of required energy to make stimulated emission then laser will not be
produced.
• So, a state with higher life time is required to retain the state of population
inversion to realize stimulated emission. This state has a higher life time (~ 1 ms)
then ordinary excited state (~10 ns) and is known as metastable state.
• This metastable state is produced by combination of suitable atoms and is the
subject of separate study.
Steps for LASER production
Topics covered so far

• Laser properties Coherence length (Lφ)

Coherence time (τφ)
– Divergence Lφ = c.τφ
– Monochromaticity Bandwidth 𝐿φ =
𝜆2
τφ.∆ν = 1 Δ𝜆
– Coherence
• (Stimulated) absorption 𝐵 , 𝐴 , 𝐵
12 21 21
• Spontaneous emission 𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈3
=
𝑐3
• Stimulated emission 𝐵21

• Maxwell Boltzmann distribution law 𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −∆𝐸/𝑘𝑇

• Population inversion 𝑁2 > 𝑁1

• Metastable state
• Laser process
 The process by which the state of population
inversion can be achieved is known as pumping.
In pumping the excitation of medium atoms is
done by supplying a suitable energy.

Pumping can be done by many methods of

supplying energy:
• Optical pumping Ruby laser
• Electrical discharge Argon-ion laser

Pumping • Inelastic atom- atom collisions He-Ne laser

The pumping schemes which are most used are

Three level pumping scheme and
Four level pumping scheme
In these schemes one or two metastable states
are involved. Metastable states are the states
which have longer life times (~10-3 s) in
comparison to an excited state.
Three level
pumping
Four level
pumping
 LASER principle
• There are few conditions for stimulated emission to dominate the other
two processes:
– Ratio B21/A21 must be high. It can be achieved by presence of metastable
states.
– u(ν) must be high. It can be achieved by optical resonator.
– Ratio N2/N1 must be high. This is the condition of population inversion
achieved by pumping.

• Thus there are three steps required by laser action:

– Step1- Pumping
– Step2- Population inversion
– Step3- Stimulated emission

Typically the spontaneous emission

from E3 (excited state) to a metastable
state is nonradiative.
 Main components of LASER
• Energy source
– The energy source raise the system to an excited state.
• Active medium (working substance)
– When the active medium is excited, it achieves population inversion. The active
medium may be a solid, liquid or gas.
– Depending on the active medium, we have different types of lasers, i.e., solid state
laser (ruby), liquid lasers and gas lasers (He-Ne, CO2 lasers).

Optical resonator
– The optical resonator consists of two
mirrors facing each other. The active
medium is enclosed by this cavity.
– Out of the two mirrors, one is fully
reflective while the other is partially
transparent.
– The function of the optical resonator
is to increase the intensity of laser
beam.
 Suitable pumping
LASER Processes The initial stage
Spontaneous photons
 Suitable pumping
LASER Processes The initial stage
Spontaneous photons
The optical resonator

The amplified beam undergo multiple

reflections at the mirrors and gains strength.
 Suitable pumping
LASER Processes The initial stage
Spontaneous photons
The optical resonator

The amplified beam undergo multiple

reflections at the mirrors and gains strength.
 Suitable pumping
LASER Processes The initial stage
Spontaneous photons
The optical resonator
Strength gain

When the oscillations build up to enough

intensity then they emerge through front
mirror as a highly collimated intense beam,
i.e., laser light.
LASER procedure
Using suitable pumping process, the material in non-excited state is taken into
population inversion state. For this purpose, energy source is used.
At the initial stage, spontaneous photons are emitted in all directions.
The mirrors constituting the resonator cause the directional selectivity. The
photons travelling in random directions are lost. The stimulated photons are to
be made to pass through the medium a number of times. On reaching the
partially reflective mirror, some photons are transmitted out while the
remaining are reflected back.
The reflected photons de-excite more and more atoms. The beam is now
amplified.
The amplified beam undergo multiple reflections at the mirrors and gains in
Strength.
When the oscillations build up to enough intensity then they emerge through
front mirror as a highly collimated intense beam, i.e., laser light.
 A Solid state pulsed LASER
➢ In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 :
Cr3+) in the form of cylinder acts as a laser medium
or active medium. The ruby crystal is made of the
Ruby sapphire (Al2O3) with some Al 3+ ions replaced by
chromium ions (Cr3+).
LASER ➢ The pumping (three level) is provided by optical
flashtube (Xenon).
▪ In the ruby laser, a xenon flash lamp excites the Cr3+ ions to a
level of higher energy (2.25 eV) from which they fall to the
metastable level (1.79 eV) by losing energy to the lattice.
Thus, there is also a cooling system provided (circulating
water or liquid nitrogen) to cool the crystal.

▪ The metastable level in Cr3+ ion has lifetime approx. 0.003 s.

Level at 2.25 eV has lifetime of ~10-8 s, number of atoms keep
increasing in the metastable state.

▪ Once population inversion is achieved, light amplification can

take place, with two reflecting ends of the ruby rod forming a
cavity.

.
▪ Photons from the spontaneous decay of some Cr3+ions are
reflected back and forth between the mirrored ends of the ruby
rod, stimulating other excited Cr3+ ions to radiate. After a few
microseconds the result is a large pulse of monochromatic,
coherent red light from the partly transparent end of the rod.
Spiking in
ruby
LASER Pulse operation: Pulses of light 10 – 20 ns
 Spiking in ruby LASER

▪ The flash operation of the lamp leads to a pulsed output of

the laser. As soon as the flashlamp stops operating the
population of the upper level is depleted very rapidly and
lasing action stops till the arrival of the next flash.

▪ Even in the short period of a few tens of microseconds in

which the ruby is lasing, one finds that the emission is
made up of spikes of high-intensity emissions having
random amplitude fluctuations of varying duration. This
phenomenon is known as spiking.
 A Gas LASER
➢ It is an example of gas-LASER which utilizes four
level pumping scheme.
➢ Mixture of He and Ne in ratio 10:1 and the pressure
He-Ne inside the tube is around 1 torr.

LASER ➢ The required energy for the pumping is provided by

an electric discharge.
➢ The lighter He atoms are more easily excited than Ne
atoms.
▪ When an electrical discharge is passed through the gas,
the electrons which are accelerated down the tube collide
with helium and neon atoms and excite them to higher
energy levels.

▪ The He atoms are excited from the ground state to the

levels marked F2 and F3 (lifetime ∼ 10–4 and 5 × 10–6 s
respectively). These levels are metastable; i.e., He atoms
excited to these states stay in these levels for a
sufficiently long time before losing energy through
collisions.

▪ Since the levels E4 and E6 of neon atoms have almost the

same energy as F2 and F3 , excited helium atoms colliding
with neon atoms in the ground state can excite the neon
atoms to E4 and E6.
• The transitions from E6 to E5 , E4 to E3 , and E6 to E3 result in
the emission of radiation having wavelengths of 3.39 μm, 1.15
μm, and 6328 Å, respectively. The laser transitions
corresponding to 3.39 μm and 1.15 μm, are not in the visible
region. The 6328 Å transition corresponds to the well-known
red light of the He-Ne laser.

Relevant energy levels of He and Ne

▪ The Ne atoms then drop down from the lower laser levels to
the level E2 through spontaneous emission. From the level E2
the Ne atoms are brought back to the ground state through
collision with the walls.
 Comparison of Ruby and He-Ne laser

Gas lasers are, in general, found to emit light, which is more directional and
more monochromatic. This is so because of the absence of crystalline
imperfection, thermal distortion and scattering which are present in solid-state
lasers.

Gas lasers are capable of operating continuously without need for cooling.

Ruby laser is a pulsed laser while gas laser, like He-Ne laser is a continuous
laser.

In Ruby lasers, the pumping is usually done using a flashlamp. Such a technique
is efficient if the lasing system has broad absorption bands. In He-Ne lasers since
the atoms are characterized by sharp energy levels as compared to those in Ruby,
electrical discharge is used to pump the atoms.
Laser Application : Optical Communications