AP Lab Manual 2023
AP Lab Manual 2023
AP Lab Manual 2023
Department of Physics
Applied Physics Lab
List of Experiments
1. NEWTON’S RINGS ................................................................................................................... 1
ANURAG UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS APPLIED PHYSICS LAB
1. NEWTON’S RINGS
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens, by forming Newton Rings.
Apparatus: Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, a plano-convex lens, plane glass plate,
magnifying lens.
2 2
D Dn slope
Formula: R m = cm, where p = m-n
4p 4
Where Dm- is the diameter of the mth ring
Dn- is the diameter of the nth ring
R - is the radius of curvature of the Plano-convex lens
λ - is the wavelength of the sodium vapor lamp (5893°A)
m & n are the order of rings
Experimental setup:
Move the microscope to make the crosswire tangential to the next ring nearer to the
center and note the reading. Continue with this process till you pass through the center.
Take readings for an equal number of rings on both sides of the center.
Model graph: Plot the graph of D2 Vs n and draw the straight line of best fit.
2 2
D m Dn
From the slope of the graph, calculate the value where p=m-n.
p
Observations :
Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________cm
The wavelength of light = 5893Χ10-8cm
2 10
3 8
4 6
5 4
6 2
2. DIFFRACTION GRATING
Apparatus:- Germanium diode, Thermometer, Copper Vessel, Micro ammeter, Heater and
connecting wires
Circuit diagram :
Procedure:-
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
Pour some oil into the copper vessel. Fix the diode to the bakelite lid and it is fixed to the
copper vessel, a hole is provided on the lid such that it is reverse biased and a
thermometer is inserted into the vessel.
With the help of a heater, heat the copper vessel till the temperature reaches up to 80oC.
Note the current reading at 80oC apply a suitable voltage say 1.5v (which is kept
constant)
Note the corresponding currently with every 5oC fall of temperature, till the temperature
reaches room temperature.
Graph:
A graph is plotted between l /T (K) on X-axis and lnR on Y-axis is a straight line and
cuts Y-axis.
Precautions: Do not allow the temperature to rise 100oC if you switch off the heater at 80oC
it will keep on rising for a few minutes and may go up to 85/90 degrees before stabilizing/falling.
Observations:
V= 1.5 Volt
The deviated ray (spectrum) also moves onto the same side for some time and then the
ray starts turning back even though the prism table is moved in the same direction. The
point at which the ray starts turning back is called the minimum deviation position. In the
spectrum, it is sufficient if one color is adjusted for minimum deviation position. In this
limiting position of the spectrum, the deviation is minimum.
The telescope is now fixed on the violet color and the tangent screw is slowly operated
until the point of intersection of the cross wire is exactly on the image.
The reading for the violet color is noted in vernier I and vernier II and tabulated. The
reading is called the minimum deviation reading for the violet color. The telescope is
now moved to the red colour and the readings are taken as explained for the violet color.
The difference of readings between the deviated reading for the violet color and the direct
reading gives the θ angle of minimum deviation, reading for the violet color (Dv).
Similarly, the difference of readings between the deviated reading for the red colour and
the direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the red colour (DR).
The refractive indices for the violet and red rays are calculated using equation (1)
(Assuming the angle of the equilateral prism, A = 60O , the values of v and R are
substituted in equation (2) and the dispersive power of the prism is calculated.
OBSERVATIONS:-
The least count of the vernier of the spectrometer, LC=1’
The angle of prism A= 600
Direct reading VDL =
VDR =
1 Voilet
2 Red
6. C-R CIRCUIT
Aim: To study the decay of current in a C-R circuit and to determine of a given RC combination
time constant.
Apparatus: Micro board consists of a Fixed Power supply, Switch, Ammeter, and Combination
of Resistors & Capacitors.
Formula:
The time constant is found by using the formula =RC
Where C ----Capacitance of the capacitor
R-----Resistance of the resistor
While charging It is also equal to the time taken to establish ( l – e) part of the maximum charge
in the condenser. It is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632 part of the total charge
The time constant while discharging is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge
of the ‘e’ part of the maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of
0.368 part of the maximum charge.
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.
Flip the switch toward a push to charge, the capacitor starts charging toward the power
supply. The switch is in this position for a short interval of time until the ammeter shows
maximum deflection but is within the limit. Note down the maximum current as Io.
Now flip the switch to the other side and start the stop clock. The current starts falling.
Note the ammeter reading at regular time intervals.
Plot the graph of current (l) on Y-axis and time (t) on X-axis.
Identify 0.37 I0(t) on the graph, the corresponding time is called time constant.
Model Graph:
Observations:
Set -1 Set-2
R1= R2=
S.NO C1= C2=
Time Current Time Current
Result:
Theoretical Value of Practical Value of
Combination (RC) (graph)
R1 =
C1 =
R2 =
C2 =
7. SOLAR CELL
Aim: To study V – I characteristics of a solar cell and to find the Fill Factor of a solar cell.
Apparatus: Solar cell, light bulb, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Variable load resistor and
connecting wires.
Formulae:
circuit diagram:
Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
Switch on the light bulb.
Measure the short circuit current ( when resistive load = 0
Measure the open circuit voltage when the resistive load (or) variable load
resistance is maximum.
Vary the load resistance slowly and note the corresponding readings of voltage and
current.
TABLE 1: Distance of solar cell = 0cm
Voltage Current Power
S.No. (mV) (mA) (VxI)
Model Graph:
1. Plot the V–I curve and indicate and .
2. Draw a line making an angle with X –axis to meet the curve at a point
3. Find its coordinates .
OBSERVATIONS:
From graph:
1. Short circuit current, = 3. Maximum current, Im=
2. Open circuit voltage, 4.Maximum voltage,Vm=
RESULT:
1. V – I characteristics of a Solar Cell are studied
2. Fill Factor of a Solar cell is calculated. It is found to be FF =
4L w
2 2 2
Where ‘L’ is the distance from the emitting fiber end to the red spot on the screen
and ‘ W’ is the diameter of the red spot on the screen
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
Step1: Connect one end of the PMMA FO cable to Po of the TNS20EL TX Unit and the other
end to the NA Jig, as shown.
Step2: Plug the AC mains. The light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn
the Set Po knob clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.
Step 3: Hold the white scale screen, provided in the kit vertically at a distance of 15 mm (L)
from the emitting fiber end and view the red spot on the screen. A dark room will facilitate good
contrast. Position the screen-cum-scale to measure the diameter (W) of the spot. Choose the
largest diameter.
Step: 4 Compute NA from the formula NA = sinөmax = W/(4L2 +W2)1/2. Tabulate the reading and
repeat the experiment for 10mm, 20mm, 25mm and 30 mm distances.
Step5: In case the fiber is underfilled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed.
To ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first, remove twists on the fiber and then wind 5
turns of the fiber onto the mandrel. Use adhesive tape to hold the windings in position. Now
view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed within the core
OBSERVATIONS:
S. No W (mm) L (mm) NA
1
2
3
4
5
Table:1
At 850nm LED
S.N Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Losses in
O Reading Po1 in Reading Po2 in µW Reading Po1 in dB Reading Po2 in dB dB Po1-
µW Po2
Table:2
At 650nm LED
S. Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Power Meter Losses in
NO ReadingPo1 in Reading Po2 in Reading Po1 in dB Reading Po2 in dB dB Po1-
µW µW Po2
Aim: - To study the V-I characteristics of LED and find the threshold voltage and forward
resistance of led.
Apparatus: Micro board consists of Voltmeter, Ammeter, LED, Series Resistor & Variable
Power Supply.
Formula:
Forward resistance (Rf ) = (from the graph)
In a P n junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross from the n-
layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side while holes are in the
valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to the
valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in energy is given
out in the form of heat or light.
Circuit diagram: - + V
-
R
+ -
+ +
A
-
-
Procedure: -
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply voltage in steps and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings.
3. Observe the intensity of the LED as the voltage changes.
4. Plot the graph: Voltage on X-axis & Current on Y-axis.
Voltage Current
S.No (Volts) ( mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Model graph:
I(mA)
RESULT:
The V/I characteristics of a led are studied.
Calculated Threshold Voltage Vth = ________V.
Forward Resistance Rf = _______ Ω.
Aim: To Study L-I characteristics of Laser diode and to find the slope to determine slope
efficiency.
Apparatus: Micro board Consists of:
1) Variable Power Supply (0-5V)
2) Digital Voltmeter
3) Digital Ammeter
4) Digital Optical Meter
Formula: find the Slope Efficiency using the formula given below:
the slope efficiency is a measure of how good the laser is at converting electrical power to
optical power.
P1– P2
Slope Efficiency = X 100%
I1V1 – I2V2
A LASER diode is a semiconductor that emits electromagnetic radiation in optical and near
optical frequencies when a voltage is applied to them. LASER emits light only when the voltage
is forward-biased and above a minimum threshold value. This combination of conditions creates
an electron-hole pair in a diode. Electron hole pairs are charge carriers and move when placed in
electrical potential. Thus, many electron-hole pairs produce a current when placed in an electric
field. Above the threshold value, the current increases exponentially with voltage.
Procedure :
+ V -
COARSE +
0-5V A 0-10mA
-
2 Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using a coarse knob & note
down the values of Laser Diode voltage, Laser Diode current & Power from the optical
Meter.
3. Note down the Current & Optical Power at different Laser voltages from the threshold
voltage at 1.5v, 2v, 2.5v, 3v, and 3.5v as shown in the tabular column.
4. Plot the graph between Threshold current Vs Optical power, the plotted graph is the L/I
characteristics of laser Diode
Obersevations:
Model graph:
L (mW)
0
I(mA)
To calculate the Slope Efficiency of the Laser Diode, find the slope of the L/I curve
RESULT:
1. The L/I characteristics of a laser diode are studied.
2. Threshold current=
3. Efficiency of laser diode=