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Table of Contents
I. Introduction........................................................................................................................5

II. All the information about Operating Systems....................................................................5

A. Overview about Operating Systems............................................................................5

1. What is an Operating Systems.................................................................................6

2. Why we need Operating system..............................................................................7

3. Functions of an operating system............................................................................8

4. Types of Operating Systems..................................................................................25

B. The evolution of Operating Systems.........................................................................27

1. Serial Processing Systems (1940s-1950s):............................................................28

2. Simple Operating Systems (1950s-1960s).............................................................30

3. Time-Sharing Systems (1960s-1970s)...................................................................32

4. Mainframe Operating Systems (1960s-1980s)......................................................35

5. Personal Computer Operating Systems (1970s-1980s).........................................37

6. Graphical User Interface (GUI) Operating Systems (1980s-1990s)......................40

7. Networked Operating Systems (1990s-Present)....................................................43

8. Mobile Operating Systems (2000s-Present)..........................................................45

9. Cloud and Virtualization Operating Systems (2000s-Present):.............................49

C. The importance of Operating Systems......................................................................54

III. Explore the processes managed by an Operating System.............................................56

A. Memory management................................................................................................56

1. Main memory.........................................................................................................56

2. What is memory management...............................................................................57

3. Why we should use memory management............................................................59

B. Process Schedulers....................................................................................................60

1. Long term or job scheduler....................................................................................60

 2. Short term or CPU scheduler.................................................................................60

3. Medium term..........................................................................................................61

C. Some Scheduling Algorithms use in operating systems............................................61

1. Round Robin Schduling.........................................................................................61

2. First Come First Serve (FCFS)..............................................................................64

3. Shortest Job Next (SJN).........................................................................................67

IV. Commands on different operating system.....................................................................69

A. Commands on Window Operating system................................................................69

B. Commands in Linux..................................................................................................75

C. The difference between Windows and Linux commands.........................................81

V. Core features modern operating systems will require to meet future needs....................82

A. Object-Oriented Design.............................................................................................82

B. Multi-threading..........................................................................................................83

C. Symmetric Multiprocessing.......................................................................................84

D. Distributed Operating System...................................................................................86

E. Microkernel Architecture..........................................................................................87

F. List of other features.....................................................................................................89

VI. Pagination technique: paging........................................................................................91

A. Address conversion in paging...................................................................................92

B. Implement pagination table.......................................................................................93

VII. REFERENCE................................................................................................................94
 I. Introduction

II. All the information about Operating Systems

A. Overview about Operating Systems

- An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages computer hardware

and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. It
acts as an intermediary between the user and the computer hardware, allowing
users to interact with the computer and run applications.
- Here's an overview of operating systems:
o Windows: Developed by Microsoft, Windows is the most widely used
operating system for personal computers. It offers a graphical user
interface (GUI) and supports a wide range of software and hardware
devices. The latest version as of my knowledge cutoff is Windows 10.
o macOS: Developed by Apple Inc., macOS is the operating system used on
Apple's Mac computers. It is known for its sleek design, ease of use, and
integration with other Apple devices and services. The latest version as of
my knowledge cutoff is macOS Monterey.
o Linux: Linux is a free and open-source operating system that is widely
used in servers, supercomputers, and embedded systems. It is highly
customizable and has many distributions (versions) available, such as
Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian. Linux is known for its stability, security, and
flexibility.
o Unix: Unix is a family of multitasking, multiuser computer operating
systems originally developed in the 1970s. It has influenced the design of
 many other operating systems, including Linux and macOS. Unix is
known for its robustness, security features, and support for networking.
o Android: Android is an open-source operating system based on the Linux
kernel and primarily designed for mobile devices such as smartphones and
tablets. It is developed by Google and used by many device manufacturers
worldwide. Android offers a vast ecosystem of apps through the Google
Play Store.
o iOS: iOS is the proprietary operating system developed by Apple Inc. for
its mobile devices, including iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch. It is known
for its stability, security, and seamless integration with other Apple devices
and services.
o Chrome OS: Chrome OS is a Linux-based operating system developed by
Google. It is designed to work primarily with web applications and is
commonly found on Chromebooks, which are lightweight laptops focused
on online services and cloud storage.
- These are just a few examples of operating systems, and there are many more
specialized and niche operating systems available for different purposes, such as
real-time operating systems for embedded systems, server operating systems for
data centers, and more.
- Each operating system has its own strengths, weaknesses, and target platforms,
catering to the specific needs of users and devices.

1. What is an Operating Systems

- An operating system (OS) is a software program that serves as the foundation or
core software of a computer or mobile device. It acts as an intermediary between
the hardware components of a device and the applications or software programs
that run on it. The primary purpose of an operating system is to provide an
environment in which applications can execute and to manage the computer's
hardware resources efficiently.
- Different operating systems have different design principles, features, and
compatibility with hardware and software applications. The choice of operating
system depends on the intended use, device type, user preferences, and specific
requirements of the computing environment.
2. Why we need Operating system
- Operating systems are essential for several reasons:
o Hardware abstraction: Operating systems provide a layer of abstraction
between the hardware components of a computer or device and the
applications that run on it. This abstraction allows software developers to
write programs without having to worry about the intricate details of the
hardware. The operating system handles low-level tasks such as managing
memory, scheduling processes, and interacting with peripherals, making it
easier for developers to create applications.
o Resource management: Operating systems efficiently manage system
resources such as CPU time, memory, disk space, and input/output
devices. They allocate and schedule resources among multiple processes or
applications, ensuring fair and optimal usage. The OS prevents conflicts
and manages contention for resources, allowing multiple programs to run
concurrently without interfering with one another.
o Process and task management: Operating systems oversee the execution of
processes or tasks on a computer. They manage the creation, scheduling,
and termination of processes, enabling multitasking and allowing users to
run multiple programs simultaneously. The OS ensures that processes have
fair access to resources, enforces priority levels, and handles process
synchronization and communication.
o Memory management: Operating systems handle memory allocation and
management. They keep track of available memory, allocate memory to
processes as needed, and deallocate memory when it is no longer in use.
Memory management includes techniques such as virtual memory, which
allows the OS to use disk space as an extension of physical memory,
enabling efficient memory utilization and supporting larger programs.
o File system management: Operating systems provide a hierarchical file
system that organizes and manages files stored on storage devices. They
handle file creation, deletion, access, and modification, providing a
consistent and secure way for users and applications to store and retrieve
data.
 o Device management: Operating systems manage interactions with
hardware devices such as printers, keyboards, displays, and network
interfaces. They provide device drivers that facilitate communication
between software applications and hardware components. The OS handles
device configuration, input/output operations, and error handling, ensuring
compatibility and efficient utilization of devices.
o User interface: Operating systems provide a user interface that allows
users to interact with the computer or device. This can be a command-line
interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or a touch-based
interface. The user interface provides a way to launch applications, access
files and settings, and perform various tasks in a user-friendly manner.
o Security and protection: Operating systems incorporate security features to
protect the system and user data from unauthorized access, malware, and
other threats. They implement user authentication mechanisms, access
control policies, and encryption techniques. The OS also includes security
patches and updates to address vulnerabilities and ensure system integrity.
- Overall, operating systems are crucial because they enable efficient resource
management, provide a platform for software development, ensure hardware
compatibility, and offer a user-friendly environment for users to interact with
computers and devices.

3. Functions of an operating system

- Operating systems perform a variety of functions to manage computer hardware
and software resources and provide a seamless user experience. Here are some
key functions of an operating system:

a. Security
- The security functions of an operating system are crucial in protecting the system
and user data from unauthorized access, malware, and other threats. Here are
some key security functions provided by operating systems:
o User authentication: The operating system ensures that only authorized
users can access the system. It implements user authentication mechanisms
such as passwords, biometrics, or smart cards to verify the identity of users
before granting access to resources.
o Access control: The OS enforces access control policies to regulate the
actions and privileges of users or processes. It determines who can access
specific resources, sets permissions on files and directories, and manages
user roles and groups. Access control mechanisms prevent unauthorized
access and limit the impact of security breaches.
o Encryption: Operating systems offer encryption capabilities to protect
sensitive data from unauthorized access or interception. They provide
encryption algorithms and secure storage mechanisms to safeguard data at
rest and during transmission. Encryption helps ensure data privacy and
confidentiality.
o Firewall and network security: Many operating systems include built-in
firewall functionality or support third-party firewall software. Firewalls
monitor and control network traffic, filtering out potentially malicious
connections and protecting against unauthorized access. The OS also
incorporates network security protocols and services to secure network
communications.
o Malware protection: Operating systems include features to detect, prevent,
and remove malware (malicious software) such as viruses, worms, and
trojans. They offer built-in or third-party antivirus and anti-malware
software, real-time scanning, and periodic system scans to identify and
neutralize threats.
o Security patches and updates: Operating system vendors release security
patches and updates to address known vulnerabilities and protect against
emerging threats. These updates address software vulnerabilities, improve
security features, and fix bugs. Regularly applying these patches helps
maintain a secure and resilient system.
o Auditing and logging: The OS provides auditing and logging mechanisms
to monitor system activities, track security events, and generate logs for
analysis. Auditing helps detect unauthorized access attempts, suspicious
activities, and policy violations. Logs can be used for forensic analysis and
compliance auditing.
o Secure boot and firmware integrity: Operating systems support secure boot
processes to ensure the integrity of the boot sequence and prevent the
 execution of unauthorized or malicious code. They verify the digital
signatures of boot components and firmware to ensure that only trusted
software is loaded during system startup.
o Sandboxing and virtualization: Some operating systems offer sandboxing
and virtualization features to isolate processes and applications from one
another. Sandboxing provides a controlled environment for running
untrusted or potentially malicious programs, limiting their access to system
resources. Virtualization allows multiple operating systems or virtual
machines to run on a single physical system, enhancing security through
isolation.
o Incident response and recovery: Operating systems facilitate incident
response by providing tools and utilities to investigate security incidents,
analyze system logs, and mitigate the impact of security breaches. They
support backup and recovery mechanisms to restore the system to a known
good state after a security incident.
- These security functions, along with user awareness and responsible computing
practices, contribute to a robust and secure operating system environment. It's
important to regularly update the operating system, use strong passwords, exercise
caution when installing software, and follow security best practices to ensure a
secure computing experience.

b. Control system performance

- Controlling system performance is an important function of an operating system
to ensure efficient resource utilization and responsiveness. Here are some key
functions related to controlling system performance:
o Process scheduling: The operating system employs various scheduling
algorithms to determine the order and priority of executing processes. It
aims to optimize CPU utilization, minimize response time, and ensure fair
allocation of resources among different processes. Scheduling algorithms
may consider factors like process priority, CPU burst time, and the
scheduling policy defined by the system administrator.
o Memory management: The operating system manages memory resources
to maximize the utilization of available memory and optimize system
performance. It allocates memory to processes dynamically, ensuring
 efficient usage of memory space. Memory management techniques, such
as paging, segmentation, and virtual memory, help optimize memory
allocation, minimize swapping, and prevent excessive memory
fragmentation.
o I/O device management: The operating system handles input/output (I/O)
operations and manages I/O devices to optimize system performance. It
employs techniques like buffering, caching, and spooling to enhance I/O
efficiency. The OS also implements I/O scheduling algorithms to prioritize
and optimize access to I/O devices, reducing bottlenecks and improving
overall system performance.
o Resource allocation and monitoring: The operating system monitors the
usage of system resources like CPU, memory, disk, and network. It tracks
resource utilization and makes decisions on resource allocation based on
system policies and priorities. By efficiently allocating resources, the OS
aims to prevent resource contention and ensure optimal performance for
running processes and applications.
o Load balancing: In multi-processor or multi-core systems, the operating
system performs load balancing to distribute processing tasks evenly
across available processors or cores. It monitors system load and
dynamically redistributes tasks to balance the workload, preventing
overloading of specific processors and maximizing overall system
performance.
o Performance monitoring and tuning: The operating system provides tools
and utilities to monitor system performance and gather performance
metrics. It allows system administrators to track CPU usage, memory
usage, disk activity, network traffic, and other performance indicators.
Based on these metrics, administrators can identify performance
bottlenecks and make necessary adjustments to optimize system
performance.
o Power management: In devices with power constraints, such as laptops
and mobile devices, the operating system incorporates power management
features. It controls and optimizes power usage by adjusting CPU
frequency, screen brightness, and other system settings. Power
 management aims to extend battery life, reduce power consumption, and
balance power usage with system performance requirements.
o System tuning and optimization: The operating system provides
configuration options and parameters that can be adjusted to fine-tune
system performance. System administrators can modify settings related to
process scheduling, memory management, disk caching, and other
performance-related aspects to optimize system performance for specific
workload characteristics and hardware configurations.
- These functions collectively contribute to the control and optimization of system
performance, ensuring efficient resource utilization, responsiveness, and overall
system efficiency. Operating systems continuously evolve to incorporate new
performance-enhancing techniques and adapt to evolving hardware architectures
and user requirements.

c. Job accounting
- Job accounting is a function of an operating system that involves tracking and
recording information about the resource usage and performance of various
processes or jobs running on the system. The primary purpose of job accounting is
to collect data for billing, system monitoring, performance evaluation, and
resource allocation purposes. Here are some key functions related to job
accounting:
o Resource usage tracking: The operating system collects data on the
resources utilized by individual processes or jobs. This includes
information such as CPU usage, memory consumption, disk I/O activity,
network utilization, and other relevant metrics. The OS tracks these
resource usage statistics over time to provide a comprehensive view of job
performance.
o Job identification and classification: The operating system assigns unique
identifiers or job numbers to different processes or jobs. This identification
helps in tracking and associating resource usage data with specific jobs.
The OS may also categorize jobs based on user accounts, job types, or
other criteria, enabling efficient organization and analysis of job
accounting data.
 o Data collection and storage: The operating system captures and stores job
accounting data in a structured format. This data includes timestamps, job
identifiers, resource usage statistics, and other relevant attributes. The OS
may maintain logs or databases to store this information, allowing for later
analysis and reporting.
o Reporting and analysis: The operating system provides tools or utilities to
generate reports and analyze job accounting data. These reports may
include summaries of resource usage, job durations, peak usage periods,
and other performance-related metrics. System administrators or users can
utilize these reports to evaluate system efficiency, identify resource-
intensive jobs, and optimize resource allocation.
o Billing and accounting: Job accounting data is often used for billing
purposes in environments where resource usage is associated with costs.
The operating system may provide mechanisms for generating invoices or
usage reports based on the recorded job accounting data. This enables
organizations to allocate costs accurately and bill customers or
departments accordingly.
o Performance evaluation and optimization: Job accounting data allows
system administrators to assess the performance of individual jobs or
processes. By analyzing resource usage patterns and identifying
bottlenecks or inefficient resource utilization, administrators can make
informed decisions to optimize system performance. They can allocate
resources more effectively, tune system parameters, or identify areas
where system upgrades or modifications are required.
o Quota management: The operating system may include quota management
features to enforce resource limits for individual users or groups. Job
accounting data assists in monitoring and enforcing these quotas. The OS
tracks resource usage against defined quotas and generates alerts or takes
action when limits are exceeded, ensuring fair resource allocation and
preventing resource monopolization.
- Job accounting functions may vary depending on the specific operating system
and its configuration. Some operating systems provide built-in job accounting
features, while others rely on third-party tools or extensions for this functionality.
 Job accounting is particularly important in multi-user or shared computing
environments where resource usage needs to be monitored, controlled, and billed
accurately.

d. Error detecting aids

- Error detecting aids in an operating system are mechanisms designed to identify
and detect errors or abnormalities that may occur during system operation. These
aids help in diagnosing and resolving issues, improving system reliability, and
ensuring proper functioning. Here are some key functions related to error
detecting aids:
o Error logging and reporting: The operating system generates error
messages and logs to record and report encountered errors or exceptional
conditions. These logs provide information about the nature of the error,
its location, and potentially the cause. They assist in troubleshooting and
analysis of system issues.
o Exception handling: The operating system incorporates exception handling
mechanisms to catch and handle errors or exceptional conditions that arise
during program execution. This includes handling situations like divide-
by-zero errors, invalid memory access, and other runtime exceptions.
Exception handling aids in preventing program crashes and allows for
graceful error recovery.
o Assertions and assertions checking: Operating systems support assertions,
which are statements or conditions that are expected to be true at specific
points in a program. Assertions checking verifies whether these conditions
hold true during program execution. If an assertion fails, an error is
detected, and appropriate actions can be taken.
o Data integrity checks: The operating system employs techniques to ensure
data integrity and detect data corruption or errors. This may involve
checksums, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), or other error-detection
codes that verify the integrity of data during storage, transmission, or
processing.
o Error detection and correction codes: The operating system uses error
detection and correction codes to identify and correct errors in data
transmission or storage. These codes add redundancy to data to enable
 error detection, and in some cases, error correction. Error detection and
correction codes help ensure data integrity and reliability.
o Hardware diagnostics: The operating system includes diagnostic tools that
help detect and diagnose hardware-related errors or faults. These tools
perform tests on hardware components such as memory, disks, processors,
and network interfaces to identify issues. Hardware diagnostics aid in
identifying and isolating hardware failures.
o Resource monitoring and anomaly detection: The operating system
monitors system resources such as CPU usage, memory utilization, disk
activity, and network traffic. Anomaly detection algorithms analyze
resource utilization patterns and detect deviations from expected behavior.
This helps in identifying abnormal resource consumption, which could
indicate errors or system performance issues.
o Performance profiling and profiling tools: The operating system provides
performance profiling tools to measure and analyze the performance of
programs or system components. Profiling aids in identifying performance
bottlenecks, resource-intensive operations, and areas where optimizations
or improvements can be made.
o Self-diagnosis and self-healing: Some operating systems incorporate self-
diagnostic and self-healing capabilities. They continuously monitor system
health, identify errors or failures, and attempt to automatically recover
from them. Self-diagnosis and self-healing mechanisms improve system
resilience and reduce the need for manual intervention.
o Error recovery and fault tolerance: The operating system includes error
recovery mechanisms that allow the system to recover from errors or
failures. These mechanisms may involve restarting processes, rolling back
transactions, restoring system state, or activating redundant components.
Fault tolerance techniques aim to ensure system availability and reliability
in the presence of errors or failures.
- These error detecting aids collectively contribute to identifying, diagnosing, and
resolving errors and exceptional conditions within the operating system. By
promptly detecting and addressing errors, the operating system can enhance
 system reliability, minimize disruptions, and provide a more stable and robust
computing experience.

e. Coordination between other software and users

- Coordinating between other software and users is a crucial function of an
operating system to ensure seamless interaction and efficient utilization of system
resources. Here are some key functions related to coordination between other
software and users:
o Process management: The operating system coordinates the execution of
multiple processes or programs running concurrently. It manages the
creation, scheduling, and termination of processes, ensuring fair resource
allocation and efficient utilization of CPU time. It provides mechanisms
for inter-process communication (IPC) to facilitate coordination and data
exchange between different processes.
o Memory management: The operating system handles memory allocation
and deallocation for processes and manages the sharing of memory
resources among different software components. It coordinates the
memory requirements of various programs, ensuring that each process has
sufficient memory space to execute. Memory management also involves
virtual memory techniques that allow processes to utilize more memory
than physically available.
o File and data management: The operating system provides a file system
that enables the storage, organization, and access of data by different
software applications. It coordinates file operations, such as reading,
writing, and sharing files among multiple users or programs. The OS
ensures data integrity, access control, and synchronization to prevent
conflicts and facilitate coordinated data sharing.
o Device management: The operating system coordinates access to hardware
devices and manages their interaction with software applications. It
provides device drivers and interfaces that allow software programs to
communicate with devices efficiently. The OS handles device allocation,
input/output (I/O) scheduling, and coordination between multiple
programs that require access to the same device.
 o User interface management: The operating system provides a user
interface through which users interact with software applications and the
system itself. It manages input and output devices such as keyboards,
mice, displays, and printers, ensuring proper coordination between user
actions and software responses. The OS handles event-driven input, screen
updates, and user input/output coordination.
o Interfacing with software libraries and frameworks: The operating system
provides interfaces and services that allow software applications to interact
with system libraries, frameworks, and APIs. It ensures proper
coordination and integration between applications and the underlying
software infrastructure. This coordination enables efficient utilization of
system resources and facilitates the use of shared libraries and reusable
software components.
o Security and access control: The operating system enforces security
policies and access controls to protect system resources and ensure proper
coordination between software applications and users. It manages user
authentication, authorization, and permission management, preventing
unauthorized access and protecting sensitive data. The OS coordinates
security mechanisms to ensure secure communication and interaction
between software components.
o Interprocess communication and synchronization: The operating system
provides mechanisms for interprocess communication (IPC) and
synchronization between software components. These mechanisms enable
processes to exchange data, coordinate actions, and share resources. The
OS offers communication channels such as pipes, shared memory,
message queues, and synchronization primitives like semaphores and
mutexes to facilitate coordination.
- These functions collectively enable the operating system to coordinate and
facilitate the interaction between software applications and users. The OS ensures
efficient resource utilization, seamless data sharing, and secure communication,
creating an environment where software components can effectively collaborate
and users can interact with the system in a coordinated manner.
f. Memory management
- Memory management is a critical function of an operating system that involves
controlling and organizing the allocation, utilization, and deallocation of system
memory. It ensures that processes and applications have access to the memory
they require while optimizing overall system performance. Here are the key
functions related to memory management in an operating system:
o Memory allocation: The operating system is responsible for allocating
memory to processes and applications. It tracks the available memory
space and assigns portions of it to processes based on their memory
requirements. The OS may use various allocation strategies, such as fixed
partitioning, variable partitioning, or dynamic memory allocation
algorithms like best-fit or first-fit, to efficiently allocate memory.
o Memory deallocation: When a process completes its execution or is
terminated, the operating system releases the memory allocated to that
process. This deallocation ensures that memory resources are efficiently
recycled and made available for other processes. The OS tracks and
manages the deallocation of memory blocks to prevent memory leaks and
optimize memory usage.
o Memory protection: The operating system enforces memory protection
mechanisms to prevent processes from accessing memory regions that do
not belong to them. It sets up memory boundaries, such as address spaces
or virtual memory mappings, for each process and ensures that processes
cannot access memory outside their allocated regions. Memory protection
safeguards the integrity and security of both the operating system and
individual processes.
o Memory sharing: The operating system enables memory sharing among
multiple processes to facilitate efficient resource utilization. It allows
processes to share portions of memory, such as code segments or data
segments, to reduce memory duplication and improve performance. Shared
memory mechanisms, interprocess communication (IPC) techniques, and
memory mapping facilities are employed for coordinated memory sharing.
o Memory swapping and paging: To effectively utilize limited physical
memory, the operating system employs techniques like swapping and
 paging. Swapping involves moving an entire process or parts of it from
main memory to secondary storage (e.g., disk) when the available memory
becomes insufficient. Paging divides the physical memory into fixed-size
blocks (pages) and swaps them in and out between main memory and
secondary storage as needed.
o Memory fragmentation management: The operating system handles
memory fragmentation, which can occur due to memory allocation and
deallocation over time. Fragmentation can lead to inefficient memory
usage and fragmentation-related performance issues. The OS employs
techniques such as compaction, which rearranges memory to reduce
fragmentation, or memory compaction algorithms to optimize memory
organization.
o Virtual memory management: Operating systems often implement virtual
memory, a technique that allows processes to access more memory than
physically available by utilizing disk space as an extension of main
memory. The OS manages virtual memory mappings, page tables, and
page replacement algorithms to ensure efficient and transparent use of
virtual memory.
o Memory caching: The operating system utilizes memory caching to
improve system performance by storing frequently accessed data in a
cache, which is faster to access than main memory. The OS employs
caching strategies to determine which data to cache and when to update or
invalidate cached data. Memory caching helps reduce memory access
latency and enhance overall system performance.
o Memory monitoring and optimization: The operating system continuously
monitors memory usage, including memory utilization, allocation patterns,
and resource demands. It optimizes memory management by adjusting
allocation strategies, reclaiming unused memory, or balancing memory
allocation between processes. Memory monitoring and optimization
contribute to efficient memory utilization and improved system
performance.
- These functions collectively enable the operating system to efficiently manage
memory resources, ensuring that processes and applications have the memory they
 need while optimizing overall system performance and stability. Effective
memory management plays a crucial role in maintaining system responsiveness,
avoiding out-of-memory conditions, and providing a stable and reliable computing
environment.

g. Processor Management
- Processor management is a critical function of an operating system that involves
efficiently scheduling and utilizing the system's processors or CPU (Central
Processing Unit). The operating system manages the execution of processes and
threads, allocates CPU time, and ensures fair and effective utilization of
processing resources. Here are the key functions related to processor management
in an operating system:
o Process scheduling: The operating system implements process scheduling
algorithms to determine which processes should be assigned CPU time and
in what order. Scheduling policies can be based on factors such as priority,
fairness, response time, throughput, or resource requirements. The OS
ensures that processes are scheduled and dispatched in a manner that
optimizes CPU utilization and meets desired performance objectives.
o Thread management: Operating systems that support multithreading
manage the execution of threads within processes. Thread management
includes creating, scheduling, and synchronizing threads. The OS
coordinates the execution of multiple threads, ensuring efficient utilization
of CPU resources and providing concurrency and parallelism in program
execution.
o Context switching: The operating system performs context switching,
which involves saving and restoring the execution context of processes or
threads when they are interrupted or when a scheduling decision is made.
Context switching allows the operating system to switch between different
processes or threads, enabling multitasking and time-sharing of CPU
resources.
o CPU allocation and utilization: The operating system manages the
allocation of CPU resources to different processes or threads based on
their priority, resource requirements, and scheduling policies. It ensures
 that each process or thread receives a fair share of CPU time while
maximizing CPU utilization and system throughput.
o CPU scheduling policies: The operating system implements various CPU
scheduling policies or algorithms, such as First-Come-First-Served
(FCFS), Round Robin, Shortest Job Next (SJN), Priority Scheduling, or
Multilevel Queue Scheduling. These policies determine how CPU time is
allocated to processes or threads, aiming to optimize system performance,
response time, throughput, fairness, or other objectives.
o Process synchronization and coordination: The operating system provides
mechanisms for interprocess communication (IPC), synchronization, and
coordination. These mechanisms allow processes or threads to
communicate, share data, and coordinate their activities. Examples include
semaphores, mutexes, condition variables, and message passing. Process
synchronization ensures that concurrent processes or threads do not
interfere with each other's execution.
o Interrupt handling: The operating system manages interrupts, which are
signals generated by hardware devices or software events that require
immediate attention. Interrupt handling involves suspending the current
execution, saving the context, and transferring control to the appropriate
interrupt handler or service routine. The OS ensures that interrupts are
handled promptly and efficiently, minimizing system latency and
responding to events in a timely manner.
o Load balancing: In a multiprocessor or multi-core system, the operating
system may perform load balancing to distribute the workload evenly
across available processors. Load balancing helps optimize CPU
utilization, reduces resource bottlenecks, and improves overall system
performance. The OS may migrate processes or threads between
processors to achieve load balancing.
o Power management: The operating system incorporates power
management techniques to optimize CPU power consumption and extend
battery life in mobile devices or reduce energy consumption in desktop
systems. Power management strategies include dynamic frequency scaling,
 CPU idle states, and scheduling policies that take into account power-
saving considerations.
- These functions collectively enable the operating system to efficiently manage the
system's processors, ensuring fair allocation of CPU time, optimizing system
performance, and providing a responsive and efficient computing environment.
Effective processor management is crucial for achieving multitasking,
concurrency, and parallelism, and for meeting the performance requirements of
various applications and users.

h. Device management
- Device management is an essential function of an operating system that involves
handling and coordinating the interaction between software applications and
hardware devices connected to the system. The operating system manages device
drivers, device access, and provides an interface for software to communicate with
devices. Here are the key functions related to device management in an operating
system:
o Device driver management: The operating system manages device drivers,
which are software components that facilitate communication between the
operating system and hardware devices. It includes loading, initializing,
and unloading device drivers, ensuring compatibility between devices and
the operating system. The OS provides a driver interface and abstraction
layer for device drivers to interact with the system.
o Device enumeration and configuration: The operating system detects and
enumerates hardware devices connected to the system during the boot
process or when devices are hot-plugged. It identifies device capabilities,
resources, and configuration parameters. The OS assigns unique identifiers
(device IDs) to devices and manages device configuration settings.
o Device allocation and access control: The operating system allocates
hardware devices to software applications or processes that require access
to them. It ensures exclusive or shared access to devices, depending on
device characteristics and application requirements. Access control
mechanisms and device locking prevent conflicts and ensure safe and
coordinated device usage.
o Device I/O operations: The operating system provides an interface for
software applications to perform input and output operations on devices. It
offers system calls, APIs (Application Programming Interfaces), or device-
specific libraries for applications to interact with devices. The OS manages
device input (e.g., keyboard, mouse) and output (e.g., display, printer)
operations, including data transfer, error handling, and buffering.
o Device scheduling and prioritization: In systems with multiple devices or
concurrent access requests, the operating system manages device
scheduling and prioritization. It ensures fair and efficient device utilization
by coordinating access requests from different processes or applications.
Device scheduling algorithms determine the order in which requests are
serviced, optimizing performance, fairness, or meeting specific criteria.
o Device interrupt handling: Hardware devices generate interrupts to signal
events or completion of operations. The operating system manages
interrupt handling, which involves interrupt request (IRQ) management,
interrupt vectoring, and interrupt service routines (ISRs). The OS
coordinates and prioritizes interrupt handling to ensure timely response to
device events and efficient utilization of system resources.
o Plug and Play support: The operating system provides Plug and Play (PnP)
support to enable automatic detection, configuration, and installation of
new hardware devices without manual intervention. It manages device
recognition, driver installation, and resource allocation for newly
connected devices. PnP support simplifies device management and
enhances system usability.
o Device power management: The operating system incorporates power
management features to control the power state of devices and conserve
energy. It enables device power saving modes, such as sleep or standby
states, and manages device power transitions. Power management policies
balance power consumption, performance requirements, and user
preferences.
o Device monitoring and diagnostics: The operating system monitors device
status, performance, and error conditions. It provides diagnostic tools and
logging facilities to track device-related events, detect errors, and
 troubleshoot device issues. Device monitoring and diagnostics aid in
identifying hardware problems, optimizing device performance, and
ensuring reliable device operation.
o Device virtualization: In virtualized environments, the operating system
supports device virtualization, allowing virtual machines or containers to
access virtualized devices. It manages the mapping and emulation of
virtual devices onto physical devices, enabling efficient and secure sharing
of hardware resources among multiple virtual instances.
- These functions collectively enable the operating system to efficiently manage
hardware devices, facilitate device access and control, and provide a standardized
interface for software applications to interact with devices. Effective device
management ensures proper utilization, coordination, and reliability of hardware
resources in a computing system.

i. File management
- File management is a fundamental function of an operating system that involves
the creation, organization, manipulation, and access control of files and directories
on storage devices. The operating system provides a file system that acts as an
interface between applications and the physical storage media. Here are the key
functions related to file management in an operating system:
o File creation and deletion: The operating system enables the creation and
deletion of files and directories. It provides system calls or APIs for
applications to create new files, specify their attributes (such as name, size,
and permissions), and organize them within directories. Similarly, the OS
facilitates the deletion of files and directories, reclaiming the associated
storage space.
o File naming and directory structure: The operating system manages file
naming conventions and organizes files into a hierarchical directory
structure. It provides mechanisms for creating, renaming, and moving files
within directories. The OS ensures uniqueness of file names within a
directory and supports path-based addressing for locating files in the file
system.
o File access and permissions: The operating system controls file access and
enforces file permissions to protect data integrity and security. It manages
 permissions such as read, write, and execute, and provides mechanisms for
user authentication and authorization. The OS ensures that only authorized
users or processes can access files and directories according to the
specified permissions.
o File reading and writing: The operating system enables applications to read
data from files and write data to files. It provides system calls or APIs for
opening files, reading data from specific positions within a file, and
writing data to files. The OS handles buffering, caching, and disk I/O
operations to optimize file read and write operations.
o File organization and storage allocation: The operating system manages
the organization and storage allocation of files on physical storage devices.
It determines how files are stored, divided into blocks or clusters, and
mapped to physical disk locations. The OS utilizes file allocation methods,
such as contiguous allocation, linked allocation, or indexed allocation, to
efficiently manage file storage.
o File metadata management: The operating system maintains metadata
associated with files, which includes information such as file size, creation
date, modification date, ownership, and file permissions. The OS updates
and manages file metadata to support file operations, access control, and
file system integrity.
o File sharing and concurrency control: The operating system handles file
sharing and provides mechanisms for concurrent access to files by multiple
processes or users. It manages file locks, synchronization, and
coordination to prevent conflicts when multiple processes or users attempt
to access or modify the same file simultaneously. The OS ensures data
consistency and prevents data corruption in shared file environments.
o File backup and recovery: The operating system supports file backup and
recovery mechanisms to protect data from accidental loss or system
failures. It provides utilities or tools for creating file backups, restoring
files from backups, and managing file versioning. The OS ensures data
integrity and offers options for data recovery in case of file system errors
or hardware failures.
 o File system maintenance and optimization: The operating system performs
file system maintenance tasks to optimize file system performance and
ensure its integrity. This includes tasks like disk defragmentation, error
checking, and repair, garbage collection, and disk space management. The
OS maintains file system consistency, improves performance, and
enhances overall system reliability.
o File compression and encryption: The operating system may include
features for file compression and encryption. It provides utilities or APIs
for compressing files to reduce storage space requirements and
decompressing files for access. Additionally, the OS may offer encryption
capabilities to secure file contents, protecting sensitive data from
unauthorized access.
- These functions collectively enable the operating system to effectively manage
files and directories, providing a structured and secure storage environment for
applications and users. Proper file management ensures efficient data
organization, controlled access, data integrity, and reliable storage operations in a
computing system.

4. Types of Operating Systems

- Operating systems can be categorized into several types based on their design,
intended use, and characteristics. Here are some common types of operating
systems:
o Single-User, Single-Tasking: This type of operating system allows only
one user to execute one task at a time. Examples include older versions of
MS-DOS and early versions of Apple Macintosh operating systems.
o Single-User, Multi-Tasking: Single-user, multi-tasking operating systems
allow a single user to run multiple applications or processes
simultaneously. The operating system manages the CPU scheduling and
provides the illusion of concurrent execution. Examples include Windows,
macOS, and Linux distributions for personal computers.
o Multi-User: Multi-user operating systems are designed to support multiple
users concurrently. Each user can have their own user account and run
multiple processes or applications simultaneously. These operating
 systems provide user management, access control, and resource sharing
features. Examples include Unix, Linux, and server versions of Windows.
o Real-Time: Real-time operating systems are designed to meet strict timing
requirements for critical applications. They provide deterministic and
predictable response times to real-time events. Real-time operating
systems are commonly used in industries such as aerospace, industrial
automation, and medical devices.
o Embedded: Embedded operating systems are specifically designed for
embedded systems, which are dedicated computer systems embedded
within larger devices or machines. They are typically lightweight,
resource-efficient, and optimized for specific hardware platforms.
Examples include operating systems used in smartphones, digital cameras,
home appliances, and automotive systems.
o Network: Network operating systems are designed to manage and
coordinate network resources and provide services such as file sharing,
network printing, and user authentication. They facilitate communication
and resource sharing among multiple computers or devices on a network.
Examples include Windows Server, Linux-based server distributions, and
Novell NetWare.
o Distributed: Distributed operating systems are designed to run on multiple
interconnected computers and provide a unified and transparent computing
environment. They enable distributed processing, load balancing, and fault
tolerance across a network of computers. Examples include distributed
versions of Unix, Linux, and Windows.
o Mobile: Mobile operating systems are specifically designed for mobile
devices such as smartphones and tablets. They provide a user-friendly
interface, support mobile-specific hardware features, and offer various
mobile applications. Examples include Android, iOS, and Windows
Mobile.
o Virtualization: Virtualization operating systems, also known as
hypervisors, enable the virtualization of hardware resources, allowing
multiple operating systems (guest OSes) to run concurrently on a single
physical machine. They provide the infrastructure for running and
 managing virtual machines. Examples include VMware ESXi, Microsoft
Hyper-V, and KVM (Kernel-based Virtual Machine).
o Hybrid: Hybrid operating systems combine characteristics of different
types to provide a combination of features. For example, modern desktop
operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux distributions support
single-user multi-tasking, network capabilities, and virtualization features.
- It's worth noting that some operating systems may fall into multiple categories or
have specific characteristics that don't fit neatly into a single type. The
classification of operating systems can vary based on different perspectives and
evolving technologies.

B. The evolution of Operating Systems

- The evolution of operating systems has been a dynamic and continuous process,
shaped by advancements in hardware technology, changing computing needs, and
the evolution of software applications. Here's a general overview of the major
stages in the evolution of operating systems:

1. Serial Processing Systems (1940s-1950s):

- During the 1940s and 1950s, computers were in their early stages of development,
and operating systems as we know them today did not exist. Here's an overview of
the serial processing systems that were used during this period:
a. Manual Operation:
o Computers were large and complex machines that required manual
operation by highly skilled operators.
o Programs were manually entered into the computer using punch cards or
switches, and each program had to be loaded and executed separately.

b. Absence of Operating Systems:

o In the absence of operating systems, programming was done directly on
the machine.
o The focus was on developing efficient algorithms and writing programs in
low-level languages.

c. Single Program Execution:

o Computers were designed to execute one program at a time.
o After a program was loaded into the computer's memory, it would be
executed in its entirety before the next program could be loaded and run.

d. Lack of Multitasking:
o The concept of multitasking, where multiple programs can run
concurrently, did not exist in serial processing systems.
o Users had to wait for the completion of one program before they could
start another.

e. Limited Resource Management:

o Resource management was rudimentary and mostly handled manually.
o Operators had to allocate resources, such as CPU time and memory, to
different programs based on their requirements.

f. Minimal Error Handling:

o Error handling was limited, and programs were expected to run correctly
without encountering errors.
o If an error occurred during program execution, operators had to manually
diagnose and fix the issue before restarting the program.

g. Lack of User Interaction:

o Serial processing systems had limited user interaction capabilities.
 o Users mainly interacted with the computer through punch cards or
switches, and there was minimal feedback or interaction during program
execution.

h. No File Systems:
o Serial processing systems did not have file systems or the concept of
persistent storage.
o Programs and data were stored on punch cards or magnetic tapes, and
operators had to load and unload the appropriate media for each program.

i. Manual Hardware Configuration:

o Hardware configuration and reconfiguration were manual processes.
o Operators had to physically connect different components of the computer
to configure it for specific tasks.
- Serial processing systems laid the foundation for later developments in operating
systems and computing. They were eventually replaced by more advanced
systems that introduced multitasking, time-sharing, and the concept of operating
systems as we understand them today.

2. Simple Operating Systems (1950s-1960s)

- During the 1950s and 1960s, computers and their usage evolved, leading to the
development of simple operating systems. These operating systems introduced
 several key features that improved resource management and user interaction.
Here's an overview of simple operating systems during this period:

a. Resource Management:
o Simple operating systems provided basic resource management
capabilities, including memory allocation and I/O device handling.
o They allowed multiple programs to be loaded into memory simultaneously
and provided mechanisms to allocate memory segments to each program.

b. Job Scheduling:
o These operating systems introduced job scheduling algorithms to manage
the execution order of programs.
o Jobs were typically prioritized based on factors such as deadlines,
importance, or user-defined criteria.
o The operating system would allocate CPU time to different jobs, allowing
them to execute in a sequential manner.

c. Input/Output Handling:
o Simple operating systems facilitated I/O operations by providing interfaces
for devices such as printers, keyboards, and storage media.
o They managed I/O requests from programs and coordinated the transfer of
data between the CPU and devices.

d. Batch Processing:
o Batch processing continued to be a common mode of operation during this
period.
o Simple operating systems allowed users to submit batches of jobs that
would be executed sequentially without user intervention.
o They provided job control languages or scripts to specify job requirements
and dependencies.

e. Basic Error Handling:

o Error handling capabilities were enhanced compared to serial processing
systems.
o Simple operating systems introduced error detection mechanisms and error
codes to identify and handle common errors during program execution.
 o Operators were provided with diagnostic information to assist in
troubleshooting and fixing errors.

f. Improved User Interaction:

o Simple operating systems introduced basic command-line interfaces
(CLIs) that allowed users to interact with the system using textual
commands.
o Users could submit jobs, monitor their execution, and receive system
status updates through the command-line interface.

g. Limited Multitasking:
o While simple operating systems supported the execution of multiple
programs, they still lacked true multitasking capabilities.
o Programs were executed in a sequential manner, and only one program
could run at a time.
o However, the operating system facilitated the illusion of concurrent
execution by rapidly switching between programs, giving the appearance
of multitasking.

h. Limited User Support:

o Simple operating systems had limited user support, and users were
expected to have a deep understanding of the system and its operations.
o Users were responsible for managing their own programs, handling errors,
and ensuring program compatibility with the system.

i. Minimal Security Features:

o Security features in simple operating systems were minimal or non-
existent.
o Access control mechanisms were limited, and user authentication and
authorization were not common.

j. Assembly Language Programming:

o Programming in assembly language continued to be prevalent during this
period, as high-level programming languages were still in their early
stages of development.
 - These simple operating systems laid the foundation for more advanced operating
systems that would emerge in subsequent decades, incorporating features such as
multitasking, time-sharing, and higher-level programming languages.

3. Time-Sharing Systems (1960s-1970s)

- During the 1960s and 1970s, time-sharing operating systems revolutionized the
way users interacted with computers. Time-sharing systems introduced the
concept of interactive computing, allowing multiple users to simultaneously share
a computer's resources. Here's an overview of time-sharing systems during this
period:

a. Multitasking and Time-Slicing:

o Time-sharing systems enabled true multitasking, allowing multiple
programs to run concurrently.
o The CPU time was divided into small time slices, typically ranging from a
few milliseconds to a few seconds.
o Each user or program was allocated a time slice, and the system rapidly
switched between tasks to give the illusion of simultaneous execution.

b. Interactive User Interface:

o Time-sharing systems introduced interactive user interfaces, which
enabled users to directly interact with the computer in real-time.
o Users could interact through terminals or consoles and enter commands or
run programs interactively.
 o The system provided immediate feedback, allowing users to view output
and respond to prompts in real-time.

c. Terminal Handling:
o Time-sharing systems supported a variety of terminals or terminal
emulators for user interaction.
o Terminals were connected to the central computer via communication
lines, enabling remote access to the system.
o The system managed terminal input and output, handling terminal-specific
protocols and translating user actions into system commands.

d. User Accounts and Authentication:

o Time-sharing systems introduced user accounts, allowing multiple users to
have personalized settings, files, and privileges.
o Each user had a unique login ID and password, and the system
authenticated users to ensure secure access.

e. CPU Scheduling:
o Time-sharing systems implemented sophisticated CPU scheduling
algorithms to allocate CPU time among multiple users and programs.
o Scheduling algorithms, such as round-robin or priority-based scheduling,
ensured fair distribution of CPU resources and efficient task switching.

f. Virtual Memory:
o Time-sharing systems introduced virtual memory, which allowed
programs to use more memory than physically available.
o Virtual memory used techniques such as paging or segmentation to store
parts of programs in secondary storage (disk) when not actively in use,
swapping them back into memory when needed.

g. File System and File Sharing:

o Time-sharing systems provided file systems to manage user files and
facilitate sharing and organization of data.
o Users could create, read, write, and delete files, and the system enforced
access control to protect file privacy and integrity.
 o File sharing allowed users to collaborate on shared files and access data
concurrently.

h. Job Scheduling and Job Queues:

o Time-sharing systems implemented advanced job scheduling algorithms to
manage the execution of user jobs.
o Jobs were placed in job queues and prioritized based on factors such as
resource requirements, deadlines, or user-defined criteria.
o The system dynamically scheduled jobs based on available resources and
priorities, optimizing overall system utilization.

i. Resource Allocation and Protection:

o Time-sharing systems implemented resource allocation mechanisms to
manage shared resources, such as memory, CPU, and I/O devices.
o Access control and protection mechanisms were enforced to ensure that
users or programs did not interfere with each other or misuse system
resources.

j. Online Help and Documentation:

o Time-sharing systems provided online help and documentation to assist
users in understanding system commands, features, and troubleshooting
common issues.
o Users could access help information through built-in commands or
documentation systems.
- Time-sharing systems marked a significant shift from batch processing to
interactive computing, allowing multiple users to work simultaneously on a shared
computer. These systems formed the foundation for the development of modern
interactive operating systems and paved the way for further advancements in
computing.
4. Mainframe Operating Systems (1960s-1980s)

- During the 1960s to 1980s, mainframe computers dominated the computing

landscape, and mainframe operating systems were developed to manage these
powerful machines. Mainframe operating systems were designed to handle large-
scale computing tasks and provided advanced features for high-performance
computing. Here's an overview of mainframe operating systems during this
period:

a. IBM OS/360 and successors:

o IBM OS/360, released in the 1960s, was a milestone in mainframe
operating systems. It provided a unified operating system architecture for a
range of IBM mainframe computers.
o OS/360 introduced the concept of multiprogramming, allowing multiple
programs to run concurrently.
o It supported batch processing, time-sharing, and real-time computing.

b. Job Control Language (JCL):

o Mainframe operating systems, including OS/360, introduced Job Control
Language (JCL) as a means of specifying job requirements and
dependencies.
o JCL allowed users to describe the resources needed by a job, such as
input/output files, memory requirements, and execution priorities.
c. Hierarchical File System:
o Mainframe operating systems employed hierarchical file systems, which
organized files in a tree-like structure of directories and subdirectories.
o Hierarchical file systems provided efficient file organization, easy file
access, and support for file permissions and access control.

d. Virtual Memory and Paging:

o Mainframe operating systems introduced virtual memory techniques, such
as paging, to allow programs to use more memory than physically
available.
o Paging divided memory into fixed-size pages, allowing pages of a program
to be stored in secondary storage (disk) and brought into memory as
needed.

e. System Resource Management:

o Mainframe operating systems provided sophisticated resource
management capabilities.
o They managed system resources, including CPU time, memory, I/O
devices, and network connections, to ensure efficient utilization and fair
allocation among users and jobs.

f. Transaction Processing:
o Mainframe operating systems introduced transaction processing
capabilities for handling large-scale business transactions.
o Transaction processing systems facilitated reliable and efficient processing
of concurrent database operations, ensuring data integrity and consistency.

g. High Availability and Fault Tolerance:

o Mainframe operating systems emphasized high availability and fault
tolerance.
o They incorporated features such as fault detection, error recovery,
redundancy, and backup mechanisms to minimize downtime and ensure
continuous operation.

h. Security Features:
o Mainframe operating systems placed strong emphasis on security.
 o They provided comprehensive access control mechanisms, authentication,
and encryption to protect sensitive data and resources.

i. Batch Processing and Spooling:

o Mainframe operating systems continued to support batch processing,
where jobs were executed sequentially without user interaction.
o Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operation Online) allowed jobs to be
submitted for execution and placed in a queue, with output sent to a spool
for later retrieval.

j. Multiple Operating System Instances:

o Mainframe operating systems allowed multiple instances of the operating
system to run on a single physical machine.
o Each instance, or virtual machine, could run its own set of applications and
had its own dedicated resources.
- Mainframe operating systems were designed to handle the demanding computing
requirements of large organizations, government agencies, and scientific
institutions. They provided robust, scalable, and high-performance computing
environments, and many of the concepts and technologies developed during this
period still influence modern operating systems.

5. Personal Computer Operating Systems (1970s-1980s)

- During the 1970s and 1980s, the personal computer (PC) revolution took place,
leading to the development of operating systems specifically designed for personal
 computers. Here's an overview of personal computer operating systems during this
period:

a. MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System):

o MS-DOS, released by Microsoft in 1981, became one of the most widely
used PC operating systems.
o It was a command-line based operating system that provided a basic set of
services, including file management, disk utilities, and a command
interpreter.
o MS-DOS was initially designed for IBM PC-compatible computers but
later became popular across various PC platforms.

b. Apple DOS and ProDOS:

o Apple computers, including the Apple II series, had their own operating
systems during this period.
o Apple DOS and later ProDOS provided file management, disk utilities,
and support for running programs on Apple II computers.

c. Multitasking Operating Systems:

o As personal computers became more capable, multitasking operating
systems started to emerge.
o These operating systems allowed multiple applications to run concurrently,
although typically only one application was visible to the user at a time.
o Examples include DESQview, OS/2, and Apple GS/OS.

d. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI):

o The introduction of graphical user interfaces revolutionized personal
computing.
o Operating systems began incorporating GUIs, enabling users to interact
with the computer through windows, icons, menus, and pointing devices.
o Notable examples include Apple's Macintosh System Software and
Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 1.0 in 1985.

e. File Systems:
o Personal computer operating systems introduced file systems tailored to
the needs of individual users.
 o File systems provided hierarchical organization of files and directories,
with support for file attributes, access permissions, and file extensions.
o Common file systems during this period included FAT (File Allocation
Table) for MS-DOS and HFS (Hierarchical File System) for Apple
computers.

f. Software Development:
o Personal computer operating systems provided development tools and
software libraries to support software development for the platform.
o Integrated development environments (IDEs) and programming languages,
such as Turbo Pascal, BASIC, and C, became popular for PC
programming.

g. Device Drivers and Plug and Play:

o Personal computer operating systems introduced device drivers to manage
hardware peripherals and ensure compatibility.
o The concept of plug and play emerged, allowing devices to be
automatically detected and configured by the operating system.

h. Gaming Support:
o Personal computer operating systems started to support gaming, with
improved graphics and sound capabilities.
o Gaming-specific APIs and libraries were developed to facilitate game
development and enhance the gaming experience.

i. Networking and Communication:

o Personal computer operating systems introduced networking capabilities,
allowing PCs to connect and communicate with each other.
o Networking protocols, such as TCP/IP, were implemented to support file
sharing, remote access, and email.

j. Expansion of Software Ecosystem:

o The availability of personal computer operating systems led to the growth
of a rich software ecosystem.
 o Software developers created a wide range of applications, including
productivity software, games, educational software, and utilities, catering
to the needs of personal computer users.
- The development of personal computer operating systems during the 1970s and
1980s laid the foundation for the widespread adoption of PCs and revolutionized
the way individuals used computers. The concepts and features introduced during
this period continue to shape modern personal computer operating systems.

6. Graphical User Interface (GUI) Operating Systems (1980s-1990s)

- During the 1980s and 1990s, the graphical user interface (GUI) became the
standard for personal computer operating systems. Graphical user interface
operating systems introduced visual elements, such as windows, icons, and menus,
making computers more user-friendly and accessible. Here's an overview of GUI
operating systems during this period:

a. Apple Macintosh System Software:

o Apple Macintosh System Software, introduced in 1984, was one of the
earliest GUI operating systems for personal computers.
o It featured a mouse-driven interface with a desktop metaphor, where files
and folders were represented by icons on the screen.
 o Users could manipulate windows, launch applications from the desktop,
and navigate the system using menus and graphical controls.

b. Microsoft Windows:
o Microsoft Windows became a dominant GUI operating system during this
period.
o Windows 1.0 was released in 1985, followed by subsequent versions like
Windows 2.0, Windows 3.0, Windows 95, and Windows 98.
o Windows offered a graphical interface built on top of MS-DOS, providing
a multitasking environment and compatibility with a wide range of
hardware.

c. X Window System:
o The X Window System, developed at MIT, became popular as a GUI
framework for Unix and Unix-like operating systems.
o X Window System allowed graphical applications to run on networked
computers, providing a consistent GUI experience across different
platforms.

d. OS/2:
o OS/2, jointly developed by IBM and Microsoft, was an advanced GUI
operating system released in the late 1980s.
o It provided preemptive multitasking, multithreading, and a 32-bit protected
mode, offering enhanced stability and performance compared to previous
operating systems.

e. AmigaOS:
o AmigaOS, used in Commodore Amiga computers, featured a highly
innovative GUI and multimedia capabilities.
o It offered features like multitasking, preemptive multitasking, and a unique
graphical interface known as the Workbench.

f. NeXTSTEP:
o NeXTSTEP, developed by NeXT Inc., was a GUI operating system known
for its advanced capabilities and object-oriented design.
 o It provided a highly intuitive user interface, development tools, and
networking features, and it laid the foundation for macOS, the successor to
Macintosh System Software.

g. Desktop Environments:
o GUI operating systems often included desktop environments that provided
a cohesive user experience.
o Examples include the Apple Macintosh Finder, the Windows shell, the
Common Desktop Environment (CDE) for Unix systems, and the GNOME
and KDE environments for Linux.

h. Multimedia Support:
o GUI operating systems began incorporating multimedia capabilities,
enabling users to play audio and video files, view images, and create
multimedia content.
o Sound cards, CD-ROM drives, and multimedia applications became
increasingly prevalent during this period.

i. Internet Integration:
o GUI operating systems started integrating internet connectivity and web
browsing capabilities.
o Web browsers, such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer, were
developed, allowing users to access the World Wide Web.

j. Software Applications:
o The popularity of GUI operating systems led to the development of a wide
range of software applications, including word processors, spreadsheets,
graphic design tools, and multimedia software.
o Software developers focused on creating user-friendly applications with
graphical interfaces that leveraged the capabilities of GUI operating
systems.
- The introduction of GUI operating systems in the 1980s and 1990s transformed
the computing experience, making computers more accessible to a broader range
of users. The concepts and features introduced during this period laid the
foundation for modern operating systems, where graphical interfaces are now the
standard across various computing platforms.
7. Networked Operating Systems (1990s-Present)

- The advent of networked computing in the 1990s brought about a significant shift
in the design and capabilities of operating systems. Networked operating systems
are designed to facilitate communication, resource sharing, and collaboration
among multiple computers connected over a network. Here's an overview of
networked operating systems from the 1990s to the present:

a. Novell NetWare:
o NetWare, developed by Novell, was one of the earliest networked
operating systems widely used in the 1990s.
o It provided robust networking capabilities, file and print services, and
centralized user management, making it popular in business environments.

b. Windows NT and Windows Server:

o Microsoft introduced Windows NT in the 1990s, targeting the business
and enterprise market.
o Windows NT provided advanced networking features, including directory
services, file sharing, and domain-based user authentication.
o It evolved into Windows Server operating systems, which catered
specifically to server roles in networked environments.
c. UNIX and Linux:
o UNIX operating systems, including various flavors like BSD, Solaris, and
AIX, have long been used in networked environments.
o UNIX offered powerful networking capabilities, multiuser support, and a
rich set of network tools and protocols.
o Linux, an open-source UNIX-like operating system, gained popularity as a
networked operating system due to its stability, flexibility, and community
support.

d. Client-Server Architecture:
o Networked operating systems adopted the client-server model, where
client machines request services or resources from server machines.
o Clients typically run user applications, while servers provide specialized
services like file sharing, email, databases, and web services.

e. Distributed File Systems:

o Networked operating systems introduced distributed file systems that
allowed files to be stored and accessed across multiple networked
machines.
o Examples include the Andrew File System (AFS), the Network File
System (NFS), and Microsoft's Distributed File System (DFS).

f. Network Protocols and Services:

o Networked operating systems supported a variety of network protocols,
such as TCP/IP, to facilitate communication and data exchange over
networks.
o They provided services like network printing, remote login (Telnet, SSH),
remote execution (RSH, SSH), and remote file transfer (FTP, SCP).

g. Internet Integration:
o Networked operating systems incorporated native support for internet
connectivity and internet protocols.
o Web browsers, email clients, and other internet applications were
integrated into the operating systems, allowing seamless internet access.
h. Cloud Computing and Virtualization:
o Networked operating systems played a crucial role in the rise of cloud
computing and virtualization.
o Virtualization technologies, such as VMware and Xen, enabled the
creation of virtual machines (VMs) that could run multiple operating
systems simultaneously on a single physical server.

i. Distributed Computing and Clustering:

o Networked operating systems introduced technologies for distributed
computing and clustering, where multiple computers work together to
perform complex tasks.
o High-performance computing clusters, load balancing, and fault-tolerant
systems became common in networked operating environments.

j. Mobile and IoT Integration:

o Networked operating systems expanded to include mobile and IoT
(Internet of Things) devices.
o Operating systems for smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices, such
as iOS and Android, incorporated networking capabilities for seamless
connectivity.
- Networked operating systems have played a critical role in enabling the
interconnectedness of computers and devices, facilitating collaboration, data
sharing, and resource utilization. They continue to evolve to meet the demands of
an increasingly connected world, supporting cloud computing, edge computing,
and the Internet of Things.
8. Mobile Operating Systems (2000s-Present)

- The 2000s marked a significant shift towards mobile computing, leading to the
development of specialized operating systems for mobile devices. Mobile
operating systems are designed to run on smartphones, tablets, and other portable
devices, offering optimized user experiences and providing features specific to
mobile usage. Here's an overview of mobile operating systems from the 2000s to
the present:

a. Symbian OS:

o Symbian OS was one of the earliest mobile operating systems, widely used
in the early 2000s.
o It powered many Nokia smartphones and featured a customizable user
interface, support for multitasking, and a range of applications.
b. BlackBerry OS:

o BlackBerry OS, developed by Research In Motion (now BlackBerry

Limited), gained popularity for its secure messaging and email
capabilities.
o It offered a physical QWERTY keyboard and focused on enterprise-level
security and productivity features.

c. Windows Mobile and Windows Phone:

o Microsoft introduced Windows Mobile in the early 2000s, targeting

smartphones and pocket PCs.
o Windows Mobile featured a stylus-based interface and support for
Microsoft Office applications.
o It later evolved into Windows Phone, which introduced a more touch-
centric interface and integration with other Microsoft services.
d. iOS:

o iOS, developed by Apple Inc., powers iPhones, iPads, and iPod Touch
devices.
o It features a sleek and intuitive interface, robust security, and a curated
App Store offering a vast range of applications.
o iOS is known for its seamless integration with other Apple devices and
services, creating a cohesive ecosystem.

e. Android:
o Android, developed by Google, has become the most widely used mobile
operating system globally.
o It is an open-source platform based on the Linux kernel and offers
extensive customization options for device manufacturers.
o Android provides a rich set of features, a diverse range of apps from the
Google Play Store, and deep integration with Google services.

f. Windows 10 Mobile:
o Windows 10 Mobile was Microsoft's attempt to bring a unified operating
system across PCs, tablets, and smartphones.
o It aimed to provide a consistent user experience and app compatibility with
Windows desktop applications.
 g. BlackBerry 10:
o BlackBerry 10 was a modern mobile operating system developed by
BlackBerry Limited, featuring a gesture-based interface and strong
security measures.
o It aimed to compete with iOS and Android but struggled to gain significant
market share.

h. Tizen:
o Tizen, backed by the Linux Foundation and major technology companies,
is an open-source operating system designed for a range of devices,
including smartphones, smart TVs, wearables, and IoT devices.

i. KaiOS:
o KaiOS is a lightweight operating system optimized for feature phones,
targeting users who require basic smartphone functionalities at an
affordable price point.
o It provides access to popular apps like WhatsApp, YouTube, and Google
Maps.

j. HarmonyOS:
o HarmonyOS, developed by Huawei, is a cross-device operating system
aimed at providing a unified experience across smartphones, tablets,
wearables, and IoT devices.
o It focuses on seamless connectivity and efficient resource management.
- Mobile operating systems have evolved rapidly, driven by advancements in
hardware, mobile applications, and user demands. They offer extensive app
ecosystems, innovative user interfaces, enhanced security measures, and
integration with cloud services. These operating systems have revolutionized the
way people use mobile devices, transforming them into powerful tools for
communication, productivity, entertainment, and more.

9. Cloud and Virtualization Operating Systems (2000s-Present):

- Cloud computing and virtualization have revolutionized the IT landscape, leading
to the development of specialized operating systems designed to support these
technologies. Cloud operating systems and virtualization platforms enable
efficient resource allocation, scalability, and management of virtualized
 infrastructure. Here's an overview of cloud and virtualization operating systems
from the 2000s to the present:

a. Xen:

o Xen is an open-source hypervisor developed at the University of

Cambridge. It provides a robust platform for running multiple virtual
machines (VMs) on a single physical server.
o Xen offers para-virtualization, hardware-assisted virtualization, and live
migration capabilities.
o It has become a popular choice for building cloud infrastructure and is
used by major cloud providers.

b. VMware ESX and ESXi:

 o VMware ESX and ESXi are hypervisors developed by VMware for server
virtualization.
o They provide enterprise-grade virtualization features, such as high
availability, live migration, and resource management.
o VMware vSphere, built on ESXi, offers a comprehensive suite of tools for
managing virtualized environments.

c. KVM:

o Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) is a virtualization module in the

Linux kernel that turns it into a hypervisor.
o KVM leverages hardware virtualization extensions and provides support
for running multiple virtual machines with various operating systems on
Linux servers.
d. Microsoft Hyper-V:

o Hyper-V is Microsoft's hypervisor for virtualization, offering features like

hardware-assisted virtualization, live migration, and integration with
Microsoft's ecosystem.
o Hyper-V is a key component of Microsoft's virtualization solutions,
including Windows Server and Azure cloud platform.

e. OpenStack:

o OpenStack is an open-source cloud computing platform that provides a

complete infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) solution.
 o It consists of various components, including Nova for compute, Glance for
image storage, and Neutron for networking, to manage and orchestrate
virtualized resources in a cloud environment.

f. Docker:

o Docker is a popular containerization platform that allows applications to

be packaged as lightweight, portable containers.
o Containers provide a way to run applications with their dependencies in an
isolated and reproducible manner.
o Docker has gained widespread adoption due to its ease of use and the
ability to deploy applications consistently across different environments.

g. CoreOS:

o CoreOS is a Linux-based operating system designed for running

containerized applications.
 o It provides a minimal and secure platform optimized for deploying and
managing containers at scale.
o CoreOS introduced technologies like etcd (distributed key-value store) and
systemd (service management) tailored for container environments.

h. Kubernetes:

o Kubernetes is an open-source container orchestration platform that

automates the deployment, scaling, and management of containerized
applications.
o It allows users to manage and schedule containers across a cluster of
machines, providing features like load balancing, service discovery, and
automatic scaling.

i. AWS EC2, Google Compute Engine, and Azure Virtual Machines:

 o Cloud service providers, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google
Cloud Platform (GCP), and Microsoft Azure, offer virtual machine
instances as part of their cloud offerings.
o These platforms provide preconfigured virtual machines with various
operating systems, allowing users to deploy and manage virtualized
resources in the cloud.

j. Cloud-native Operating Systems:

o Cloud-native operating systems, such as Container Linux (formerly
CoreOS) and Project Atomic, are specifically designed for running
containers and managing distributed systems in cloud environments.
o They provide lightweight, immutable, and scalable operating system
images tailored for containerized applications.
- Cloud and virtualization operating systems have transformed the way
infrastructure is provisioned, managed, and scaled. They enable efficient
utilization of resources

C. The importance of Operating Systems

- Operating systems are crucial components of modern computing systems, serving
as a bridge between hardware and software. They play a vital role in managing
and coordinating various resources, providing a user-friendly interface, and
ensuring the smooth operation of computer systems. Here are some key reasons
highlighting the importance of operating systems:
o Resource Management: Operating systems manage and allocate system
resources such as CPU time, memory, disk space, and peripherals
efficiently. They prioritize and schedule tasks, ensuring that multiple
processes can run simultaneously without conflicts or bottlenecks. By
optimizing resource utilization, operating systems enhance system
performance and responsiveness.
o Hardware Abstraction: Operating systems provide a layer of abstraction
between application software and hardware components. They shield
programmers from low-level hardware details, enabling them to write code
in a more portable and standardized manner. This abstraction allows
 software to run on different hardware configurations without significant
modifications, promoting compatibility and ease of development.
o User Interface: Operating systems provide user interfaces that allow users
to interact with computers and execute various tasks. Whether it's a
command-line interface (CLI) or a graphical user interface (GUI), the
operating system presents a user-friendly environment for executing
programs, managing files, configuring settings, and accessing system
resources. The interface simplifies complex operations, making computers
more accessible to a wide range of users.
o File Management: Operating systems facilitate file management by
organizing and controlling access to files and directories. They provide
mechanisms for creating, modifying, deleting, and searching for files,
ensuring data integrity and efficient storage. File systems, a part of the
operating system, enable data persistence, allowing users to store and
retrieve information across sessions.
o Device Drivers: Operating systems include device drivers that act as
intermediaries between hardware devices and software applications. These
drivers enable communication and interaction with various peripherals
such as printers, scanners, network cards, and storage devices. By
providing standardized interfaces, operating systems simplify hardware
integration, allowing applications to utilize diverse hardware components
seamlessly.
o Security and Protection: Operating systems implement security measures
to protect computer systems from unauthorized access, malware, and other
threats. They incorporate user authentication mechanisms, access controls,
and encryption techniques to safeguard sensitive data and ensure privacy.
Operating systems also enforce isolation between processes, preventing
one program from interfering with or accessing another program's memory
or resources.
o Multitasking and Multiuser Support: Operating systems enable
multitasking, allowing multiple programs to run concurrently on a single
machine. They allocate CPU time and system resources to different
processes, giving the illusion of simultaneous execution. Moreover,
 operating systems support multiuser environments, allowing multiple users
to log in and interact with the system simultaneously while maintaining
their data and settings separately.
o System Stability and Fault Tolerance: Operating systems employ
techniques to enhance system stability and handle errors gracefully. They
include mechanisms for process isolation, error detection, and recovery,
minimizing the impact of crashes or failures. Operating systems also
provide error reporting and logging features that help diagnose and
troubleshoot issues, improving system reliability and uptime.
- Overall, operating systems form the foundation of modern computing, enabling
the efficient and secure execution of software, managing system resources, and
providing an interface for user interaction. Their importance lies in their ability to
abstract complex hardware, facilitate software development, and ensure the
reliable and smooth functioning of computer systems.

III. Explore the processes managed by an Operating System

A. Memory management
1. Main memory
- Main memory, also known as primary memory or RAM (Random Access
Memory), is a crucial component of a computer system. It is a volatile form of
storage that provides temporary storage space for data and instructions that are
actively being processed by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).
- Main memory is different from secondary storage devices like hard drives or
solid-state drives (SSDs), which offer non-volatile storage for long-term data
retention. Unlike secondary storage, main memory allows for fast access and
retrieval of data, making it essential for the smooth and efficient operation of a
computer.
- The primary function of main memory is to hold the data and instructions that the
CPU needs to perform its tasks. When a program is executed, its instructions and
data are loaded from secondary storage into main memory. The CPU then fetches
the instructions and data from main memory, performs the necessary calculations
or operations, and stores the results back in main memory.
- Main memory is organized into individual storage units called memory cells or
memory locations, each of which has a unique address. These memory cells are
 arranged in a sequential manner, forming a contiguous address space. The CPU
uses these addresses to read or write data to specific locations in main memory.
- The capacity of main memory determines how much data and instructions can be
stored simultaneously. It is typically measured in bytes and commonly referred to
as memory size. The size of main memory can vary greatly depending on the
computer system, ranging from a few gigabytes (GB) in personal computers to
terabytes (TB) in high-end servers.
- Main memory is characterized by its speed, as it provides much faster access to
data compared to secondary storage. This high-speed access allows the CPU to
quickly retrieve instructions and data, resulting in improved system performance.
However, main memory is volatile, meaning that its contents are lost when the
computer is powered off or restarted. Therefore, it is important to save any
important data to non-volatile storage before shutting down the computer.
- In summary, main memory is a fast but volatile form of storage that holds the data
and instructions required by the CPU during computer operations. Its capacity and
speed play a crucial role in determining the overall performance of a computer
system.

2. What is memory management

- Memory management is a critical aspect of operating systems and computer
systems that involves controlling and coordinating the allocation, utilization, and
deallocation of memory resources. It is responsible for efficiently managing the
main memory (RAM) and ensuring that processes or programs have the necessary
memory space to execute.
- The primary goals of memory management are as follows:
o Allocation: Memory management handles the allocation of memory to
processes or programs. It keeps track of which parts of memory are
currently in use and which parts are available. When a process needs
memory, the memory manager finds a suitable block of memory and
allocates it to the process.
o Deallocation: When a process completes its execution or is terminated, the
memory manager releases the memory occupied by that process, making it
available for future allocations. This process is known as deallocation or
memory recycling.
 o Protection: Memory management ensures the protection and isolation of
memory areas assigned to different processes. It prevents one process from
accessing or modifying the memory space assigned to another process,
which helps maintain system stability and security.
o Sharing: Memory management facilitates memory sharing among
processes. It allows multiple processes to access and share the same
portion of memory, which can be useful for inter-process communication
and data sharing.
o Virtual Memory: Memory management often includes the implementation
of virtual memory, which provides an illusion of a larger address space
than the physical memory available. It allows processes to use more
memory than what is physically present by swapping data between the
main memory and secondary storage (such as the hard disk).
- To achieve efficient memory management, various techniques and algorithms are
employed, such as:
o Paging: Dividing the physical memory into fixed-size blocks (pages) and
allocating memory to processes in those fixed-size units.
o Segmentation: Dividing the memory into logical segments based on the
program's structure or data types.
o Memory mapping: Mapping virtual addresses to physical addresses in
virtual memory systems.
o Demand Paging: Loading only the necessary portions of a program into
memory when they are required, rather than loading the entire program at
once.
o Memory Compaction: Reorganizing the memory space to reduce
fragmentation and optimize memory utilization.
- Overall, memory management plays a crucial role in ensuring efficient utilization
of memory resources, preventing conflicts between processes, and facilitating the
smooth execution of programs within a computer system.

3. Why we should use memory management

- Memory management is an essential aspect of computer systems and
programming languages. It involves the allocation and deallocation of memory
resources to efficiently utilize available system memory. Here are some reasons
why memory management is crucial:
o Efficient resource utilization: Memory management ensures efficient
utilization of available memory resources. It allows multiple processes or
programs to share the available memory space without conflicting with
each other. By allocating memory as needed and reclaiming it when no
longer required, memory management prevents unnecessary memory
waste and maximizes system performance.
o Program execution: Effective memory management enables the execution
of programs and processes. When a program runs, it requires memory to
store its instructions, data, and variables. Memory management ensures
that the necessary memory is allocated to each program, allowing them to
run smoothly and produce the desired results.
o Memory protection: Memory management provides mechanisms for
protecting memory from unauthorized access or corruption. It helps
prevent programs from accessing memory that they should not, which
enhances system security and stability. Memory management also isolates
memory spaces for different programs, reducing the risk of one program
interfering with the memory of another.
o Memory allocation flexibility: Different programs have different memory
requirements, and memory management allows for flexible allocation. It
can dynamically allocate memory at runtime based on program needs,
ensuring that memory is available when required. This flexibility is
particularly crucial in situations where the memory requirements of
programs may change over time or when multiple programs are running
concurrently.
o Memory optimization: Memory management techniques, such as memory
caching and virtual memory, optimize memory usage. Caching involves
storing frequently accessed data in a faster, closer memory location for
quicker access, reducing the need to retrieve it from slower, distant
memory. Virtual memory allows efficient utilization of physical memory
by using disk storage as an extension, swapping data between disk and
memory as needed.
 o Memory cleanup and deallocation: When programs finish their execution
or are no longer needed, memory management ensures proper cleanup and
deallocation of memory resources. This prevents memory leaks, where
memory is allocated but not released, leading to a gradual depletion of
available memory. By reclaiming memory resources, memory
management allows other programs to utilize the freed memory.
- Overall, memory management is critical for efficient and reliable operation of
computer systems. It helps optimize resource utilization, protect memory, enable
program execution, and provide flexibility in memory allocation. By
implementing effective memory management techniques, system performance,
stability, and security can be significantly improved.

B. Process Schedulers
1. Long term or job scheduler
- The long-term scheduler, also known as the job scheduler, is responsible for
selecting processes from the job queue and admitting them into the system for
execution. Its primary role is to control the degree of multiprogramming, ensuring
that the system doesn't get overwhelmed with too many processes at once. The
long-term scheduler determines which processes are suitable for execution based
on various criteria like system resource availability, process priority, and system
load. Once a process is selected, it moves from the job queue to the ready state,
becoming eligible for execution by the CPU.

2. Short term or CPU scheduler

- The short-term scheduler, also called the CPU scheduler, determines which
process from the ready queue should be executed next and allocates CPU time to
it. It is responsible for making quick decisions on process execution, as it operates
at a very short time scale. The short-term scheduler selects a process based on
scheduling algorithms like round-robin, priority-based, or shortest job first. Its
goal is to maximize CPU utilization, minimize response time, and ensure fairness
in allocating CPU time among processes.

3. Medium term
- The medium-term scheduler, sometimes referred to as the swapping scheduler,
exists in some operating systems, but not all. It operates at an intermediate time
 scale, between the long-term and short-term schedulers. The medium-term
scheduler decides which processes should be temporarily removed from main
memory (RAM) and placed into secondary storage (such as the hard disk) to free
up memory resources. This process is known as swapping. By swapping out
processes, the medium-term scheduler can prevent memory congestion, optimize
memory utilization, and improve overall system performance. When a process is
swapped back into main memory, it typically transitions from the suspended state
to the ready state.

C. Some Scheduling Algorithms use in operating systems

1. Round Robin Schduling
- Round Robin Scheduling is a widely used scheduling algorithm in operating
systems. It is a preemptive scheduling algorithm that assigns a fixed time slice,
known as a time quantum, to each process in the system. Here are the key
characteristics of the Round Robin Scheduling algorithm:
o Time Quantum: Round Robin scheduling operates by dividing CPU time
into small, equal-sized time slices. Each process is allocated a time
quantum, typically ranging from a few milliseconds to a few hundred
milliseconds, during which it can execute on the CPU. Once a process's
time quantum expires, it is preempted, and the CPU is allocated to the next
process in the ready queue.
o FIFO Queue: Processes are placed in a FIFO (First-In-First-Out) queue
known as the ready queue. The ready queue contains all processes that are
ready for execution but are waiting for their turn based on the round-robin
scheduling algorithm.
o Preemptive Nature: Round Robin is a preemptive scheduling algorithm. If
a process does not complete its execution within its allocated time
quantum, it is moved to the end of the ready queue, and the next process in
line gets the CPU. This ensures fairness and allows all processes to have
an opportunity to execute, preventing a single long-running process from
monopolizing the CPU.
o Time Sharing: Round Robin provides time sharing among processes,
allowing each process to have a fair share of the CPU's execution time. It
 gives the illusion of simultaneous execution for multiple processes by
frequently switching between them at regular intervals (time quanta).
o Responsiveness and Real-Time Applications: Round Robin scheduling is
known for its good responsiveness, as each process gets a turn on the CPU
fairly quickly. This makes it suitable for interactive applications and
systems requiring quick response times. It also supports real-time
applications by guaranteeing a maximum wait time (equal to the time
quantum) before a process gets CPU time.
o Overhead: Round Robin scheduling may introduce some overhead due to
the frequent context switching between processes. The shorter the time
quantum, the more context switches occur, which can impact overall
system performance. The time quantum should be chosen carefully to
balance responsiveness and efficiency.
o Performance and Throughput: Round Robin scheduling provides fair
allocation of CPU time to processes, ensuring that no process is starved of
resources. However, it may not be the most efficient algorithm in terms of
overall throughput, especially when dealing with long-running processes
or processes with varying execution times.
- Overall, Round Robin scheduling is widely used due to its simplicity, fairness,
and responsiveness. It ensures that all processes receive a fair share of CPU time,
making it suitable for interactive and time-sharing systems. However, its
efficiency may be affected in certain scenarios, and other scheduling algorithms
may be more appropriate depending on the specific requirements of the system.
- Example: Assume we have three processes (P1, P2, and P3) with the following
characteristics:

Process Burst Time

P1 8 ms
P2 4 ms
P3 10 ms
o We will use a time quantum of 3 ms for this example.
 Initially, all processes are in the ready queue, waiting for their turn
to execute.
 Ready Queue: P1, P2, P3
 The scheduling begins, and the first process in the ready queue, P1,
is assigned the CPU for the initial time quantum of 3 ms.
 Time: 0 ms - 3 ms
 Execution: P1 (Remaining Burst Time: 5 ms)
 Ready Queue: P2, P3
 After 3 ms, P1's time quantum expires, and it is preempted. P1 is
moved to the end of the ready queue, and the next process, P2, is
selected for execution.
 Time: 3 ms - 6 ms
 Execution: P2 (Remaining Burst Time: 1 ms)
 Ready Queue: P3, P1
 After another 3 ms, P2's time quantum expires, and it is preempted.
P2 is moved to the end of the ready queue, and P3 is selected for
execution.
 Time: 6 ms - 9 ms
 Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 7 ms)
 Ready Queue: P1, P2
 P3 executes for 3 ms, and its time quantum expires. P3 is moved to
the end of the ready queue, and P1 is selected for execution.
 Time: 9 ms - 12 ms
 Execution: P1 (Remaining Burst Time: 2 ms)
 Ready Queue: P2, P3
 P1 executes for another 3 ms, and its time quantum expires. P1 is
moved to the end of the ready queue, and P2 is selected for
execution.
 Time: 12 ms - 15 ms
 Execution: P2 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P2
completes execution
 Ready Queue: P3, P1
 P2 has completed execution, so it is removed from the system. P3
continues execution.
 Time: 15 ms - 18 ms
  Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 4 ms)
 Ready Queue: P1
 P3 executes for 3 ms, and its time quantum expires. P3 is moved to
the end of the ready queue, and P1 is selected for execution.
 Time: 18 ms - 21 ms
 Execution: P1 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P1
completes execution
 Ready Queue: P3
 P1 has completed execution, so it is removed from the system. P3
continues execution.
 Time: 21 ms - 24 ms
 Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 1 ms)
 Ready Queue: P3
 P3 executes for the final time quantum of 3 ms, and it completes its
execution.
 Time: 24 ms - 27 ms
 Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P3
completes execution
 Ready Queue: Empty
o All processes have now completed their execution.
o This example demonstrates how Round Robin scheduling allocates a fixed
time quantum to each process, ensuring fairness and allowing each process
to have a chance to execute. The scheduling continues until all processes
have completed their execution or are in the terminated state.

2. First Come First Serve (FCFS)

- First Come First Serve (FCFS) is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm used in
operating systems. It is a simple and straightforward scheduling approach where
processes are executed in the order they arrive in the ready queue. Here are the
key characteristics of the FCFS scheduling algorithm:
o Arrival Order: In FCFS scheduling, processes are executed in the order
they arrive, forming a queue known as the ready queue. The process that
 arrives first is scheduled to run first, and subsequent processes join the
queue in the order of their arrival.
o Non-Preemptive: FCFS is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm,
meaning that once a process starts executing, it continues until it completes
or voluntarily relinquishes the CPU. Other processes in the ready queue
must wait for their turn, even if they have a shorter execution time.
o Sequential Execution: FCFS operates on a first-come, first-served basis,
treating the CPU as a shared resource. Each process runs to completion
without interruption, maintaining the sequential order of execution.
o Fairness: FCFS provides fairness by guaranteeing that each process gets a
chance to execute in the order it arrived. There is no priority differentiation
among processes, and all processes receive equal treatment regarding CPU
time.
o Lack of Preemption: Since FCFS is a non-preemptive algorithm, it may
suffer from the "convoy effect" or "necessity of a long burst." If a long-
running process arrives first, other short processes will have to wait for it
to complete, resulting in potential delays for subsequent processes.
o Waiting Time: The waiting time of a process in FCFS is directly
proportional to the length of the processes that arrived earlier. If shorter
processes arrive later, they may experience longer waiting times due to the
execution of longer processes in the queue.
o Deterministic Behavior: FCFS scheduling has a predictable and
deterministic behavior since it follows a fixed order of execution based on
the arrival time of processes. This property can simplify analysis and
predictability of system behavior.
o Lack of Optimality: FCFS may not provide optimal performance in terms
of average waiting time or throughput. It can lead to increased waiting
times, particularly if long processes arrive early, causing potential
inefficiencies in resource utilization.
- FCFS is commonly used in scenarios where simplicity and fairness are prioritized
over performance optimization. It is suitable for certain types of systems, such as
batch processing or scenarios where strict ordering of processes is required.
However, for systems with dynamic workloads or where responsiveness and
 efficient resource utilization are critical, other scheduling algorithms may be more
suitable, such as Round Robin, Shortest Job Next (SJN), or Priority Scheduling.
- Example: Assume we have three processes (P1, P2, and P3) with the following
arrival times and burst times:

Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0 ms 6 ms
P2 2 ms 4 ms
P3 4 ms 8 ms
o We will assume that the CPU is idle at time 0 ms.
 The first process, P1, arrives at time 0 ms and is assigned the CPU
since it is the only process in the ready queue.
 Time: 0 ms - 6 ms
 Execution: P1 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P1
completes execution
 The second process, P2, arrives at time 2 ms. However, since P1
has not completed its execution, P2 has to wait in the ready queue.
 Ready Queue: P2
 After P1 completes, P2 is assigned the CPU.
 Time: 6 ms - 10 ms
 Execution: P2 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P2
completes execution
 The third process, P3, arrives at time 4 ms. However, since P2 has
not completed its execution, P3 has to wait in the ready queue.
 Ready Queue: P3
 After P2 completes, P3 is assigned the CPU.
 Time: 10 ms - 18 ms
 Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P3
completes execution
o All processes have now completed their execution.
o This example demonstrates the FCFS scheduling algorithm where
processes are executed in the order they arrive. If a process arrives while
another process is executing, it has to wait in the ready queue until it is its
 turn. The order of execution is solely based on the arrival times of the
processes.
o It's important to note that in this example, the arrival times are given, and
the CPU is assumed to be idle at the start. In practice, the arrival times and
CPU status can vary, which affects the scheduling and waiting times of the
processes.

3. Shortest Job Next (SJN)

- Shortest Job Next (SJN), also known as Shortest Job First (SJF), is a non-
preemptive scheduling algorithm used in operating systems. It aims to minimize
the average waiting time of processes by prioritizing the execution of the shortest
job first. Here are the key characteristics of the SJN scheduling algorithm:
o Job Length: SJN operates based on the assumption that the length of a job
or process is known in advance. The length can be defined by the number
of CPU cycles, execution time, or other metrics.
o Non-Preemptive: SJN is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm, meaning
that once a process starts executing, it continues until it completes or
voluntarily relinquishes the CPU. Other processes in the ready queue must
wait for their turn, even if they have shorter execution times.
o Job Prioritization: SJN prioritizes the execution of the shortest job in the
ready queue. It selects the process with the smallest execution time,
allowing it to run until completion before moving on to the next shortest
job. This prioritization is aimed at minimizing the average waiting time.
o Deterministic Behavior: SJN has a predictable and deterministic behavior
since the scheduling decision is based on the known length of jobs. The
algorithm selects the shortest job, ensuring a specific order of execution.
o Waiting Time and Throughput: SJN scheduling can result in reduced
waiting times for shorter jobs, leading to improved overall throughput and
system efficiency. By executing shorter jobs first, the average waiting time
is minimized.
o Starvation: In SJN, longer jobs may suffer from starvation if they
continuously arrive after shorter jobs. They might have to wait a long time
for their turn to execute, leading to potential delays. Starvation can be
 mitigated by implementing techniques like aging, where the priority of a
process increases over time.
o Job Length Prediction: One challenge of SJN is accurately predicting the
length of jobs in advance. In practice, this prediction may not always be
accurate, leading to potential issues if the estimated job lengths do not
match the actual execution times.
o Variants: SJN has several variants, including Shortest Remaining Time
First (SRTF), which is a preemptive version of SJN. SRTF allows a
running process to be interrupted if a shorter job arrives and requires the
CPU. This preemptive behavior can further improve response times and
overall system performance.
- SJN scheduling can be beneficial in scenarios where the lengths of jobs or
processes are known or can be estimated accurately. However, it requires accurate
prediction or estimation of job lengths to achieve optimal results. In real-world
systems, where job lengths may vary or be uncertain, other scheduling algorithms
like Round Robin or Priority Scheduling may be more suitable.
- Example: Assume we have three processes (P1, P2, and P3) with the following
burst times:

Process Burst Time

P1 5 ms
P2 3 ms
P3 7 ms
 The processes arrive in the following order:
 Arrival Order: P1, P2, P3
 Initially, the ready queue is empty. P1 arrives first and is added to
the ready queue.
 Ready Queue: P1
 P1 is the only process in the ready queue, so it is assigned the CPU.
 Time: 0 ms - 5 ms
 Execution: P1 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P1
completes execution
 After P1 completes, P2 is the next shortest job, so it is added to the
ready queue.
  Ready Queue: P2
 P2 is the only process in the ready queue, so it is assigned the CPU.
 Time: 5 ms - 8 ms
 Execution: P2 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P2
completes execution
 After P2 completes, P3 is the next shortest job, so it is added to the
ready queue.
 Ready Queue: P3
 P3 is the only process in the ready queue, so it is assigned the CPU.
 Time: 8 ms - 15 ms
 Execution: P3 (Remaining Burst Time: 0 ms) - P3
completes execution
o All processes have now completed their execution.
o This example demonstrates how SJN scheduling prioritizes the execution
of the shortest job first. The processes are executed in the order of their
burst times, resulting in minimized waiting times for shorter jobs. SJN is
also known as Shortest Job First (SJF) since it selects the job with the
shortest burst time first.
o It's important to note that in this example, the burst times are given, and
the arrival times are not considered since SJN assumes that the burst times
of the processes are known in advance. In practice, the arrival times and
burst times may vary, which can affect the scheduling and waiting times of
the processes.

IV. Commands on different operating system

A. Commands on Window Operating system
- dir: Lists the files and directories in the current directory.
- cd: Changes the current directory.

- mkdir: Creates a new directory.

- rmdir: Removes a directory.

- copy: Copies files from one location to another.

- move: Moves files from one location to another.

- del: Deletes a file.

- ren: Renames a file.

- type: Displays the contents of a text file.

- cls: Clears the command prompt screen.

- ipconfig: Displays the IP configuration information of the network interfaces.

- ping: Sends a network request to a specific IP address to check connectivity.

 - tasklist: Displays a list of running processes.

B. Commands in Linux
- ls: Lists files and directories in the current directory.
- mkdir: Creates a new directory.

- cd: Changes the current directory.

- rm: Removes files and directories.

- cp: Copies files and directories.

- mv: Moves or renames files and directories.

- cat: Displays the contents of a file.

- grep: Searches for a pattern in files.

- pwd: Prints the current working directory.

- chmod: Changes the permissions of a file or directory.

- chown: Changes the ownership of a file or directory.

- man: Displays the manual pages of a command.

- ifconfig: Displays network interface configuration.

- find: Searches for files and directories.

- history: Shows a list of previously executed commands.

- ps: Lists the currently running processes.

- top: Displays real-time information about running processes.

- df: Displays disk space usage of file systems.

- du: Shows disk usage of files and directories.

 - sudo: Executes a command with administrative privileges.

C. The difference between Windows and Linux commands

- There are several differences between Windows and Linux commands due to the
fundamental differences in the underlying operating systems. Here are some key
differences:
o Command Line Interpreters: Windows uses the Command Prompt
(cmd.exe) or PowerShell as its default command line interpreters, while
Linux uses the Bash (Bourne Again SHell) or other variants like Zsh, Ksh,
and Csh.
o Command Syntax: Windows commands generally follow a verb-noun
syntax, where the command is followed by options and arguments. Linux
commands typically have a more flexible syntax and often use options
preceded by a hyphen (-) or double hyphen (--).
o Command Names: Windows commands typically have .exe extensions
(e.g., ping.exe, ipconfig.exe), while Linux commands are standalone
executable binaries without any file extensions (e.g., ls, grep).
o File Path Notation: In Windows, the file path separator is a backslash ()
(e.g., C:\Users\Username), while Linux uses a forward slash (/) (e.g.,
/home/username).
o Root/Administrator Access: In Windows, administrative commands often
require running the Command Prompt or PowerShell as an administrator
using the "Run as administrator" option. In Linux, the sudo command is
commonly used to execute commands with root (superuser) privileges.
o Command Documentation: Windows commands typically provide built-in
help using the /? option (e.g., command /?), while Linux commands often
 have extensive manual pages accessible using the man command (e.g.,
man command) or provide help using the --help option (e.g., command --
help).
o Package Managers: Linux distributions commonly use package managers
(e.g., apt, yum, dnf) to install, update, and manage software packages,
while Windows has its own package management systems like Chocolatey
or relies on installer executables (e.g., .msi files) or graphical installers.
o Drive Notation: In Windows, drives are identified by a letter followed by a
colon (e.g., C:, D:), while Linux treats everything as a file and uses mount
points to access partitions or devices (e.g., /, /home, /media/usb).
- These are some of the notable differences in commands between Windows and
Linux. It's important to note that while there are differences, both operating
systems provide powerful command line interfaces to perform various tasks and
automate operations.

V. Core features modern operating systems will require to meet future needs
A.
B. Object-Oriented Design
- Object-Oriented Design (OOD) is a software design paradigm that focuses on
organizing software systems around objects, which are instances of classes. It
promotes modular design, code reusability, and encapsulation of data and
behavior within objects. OOD is widely used in the development of modern
operating systems and offers several benefits:
o Modularity: OOD promotes breaking down complex systems into smaller,
self-contained modules (objects) that can be developed and tested
independently. This modular approach enhances code organization,
maintainability, and scalability.
o Code Reusability: OOD enables the creation of reusable software
components. Objects and classes can be designed in a way that allows
them to be easily reused in different parts of the operating system or in
other software projects. This saves development time, promotes
consistency, and reduces the likelihood of errors.
o Encapsulation: OOD emphasizes encapsulating data and behavior within
objects. Objects hide their internal state and implementation details,
 exposing only the necessary interfaces for interacting with them. This
encapsulation provides data protection, promotes information hiding, and
facilitates better control over access and modifications to the system's
components.
o Inheritance: OOD supports inheritance, which allows the creation of new
classes based on existing classes. Inheritance enables code reuse by
inheriting properties and behaviors from a base class and extending or
modifying them in derived classes. This promotes the organization of
related classes, simplifies code maintenance, and enhances flexibility in
system design.
o Polymorphism: OOD incorporates polymorphism, which allows objects of
different classes to be treated interchangeably through a common interface.
Polymorphism enables dynamic binding of methods at runtime, facilitating
flexibility, extensibility, and the ability to handle varying types of objects
efficiently.
o Collaboration and Communication: OOD encourages designing systems
that reflect real-world entities and their relationships. It enables better
communication and collaboration among development teams as system
components can be represented and discussed using familiar object-
oriented concepts, such as classes, objects, and interactions.
- By employing Object-Oriented Design principles and practices, operating systems
can achieve greater modularity, maintainability, reusability, and flexibility. OOD
facilitates the development of robust and scalable software systems that can adapt
to changing requirements and technological advancements.

C. Multi-threading
- Multi-threading is indeed a core feature that modern operating systems require to
meet future needs. Multi-threading refers to the ability of an operating system to
execute multiple threads concurrently within a single process. Here are some
reasons why multi-threading is essential:
o Improved Performance: Multi-threading allows for the parallel execution
of multiple tasks or threads, thereby utilizing the available processor cores
efficiently. This leads to improved performance, as different threads can
perform independent or concurrent tasks simultaneously.
o Responsiveness: Multi-threading enhances the responsiveness of an
operating system by enabling it to handle multiple user interactions or
events concurrently. For example, while one thread is processing a user
input, another thread can handle background tasks or respond to other user
inputs.
o Resource Utilization: Multi-threading helps optimize resource utilization
within the operating system. By efficiently distributing tasks among
threads, it ensures that processor time, memory, and other system
resources are utilized effectively, maximizing the overall system
efficiency.
o Concurrency and Asynchronous Operations: Multi-threading enables the
execution of concurrent and asynchronous operations. Different threads
can perform independent tasks simultaneously, allowing for efficient
handling of background processes, I/O operations, and parallel
computations.
o Scalability: Multi-threading provides scalability, as the operating system
can dynamically allocate and manage threads based on the workload. This
allows the system to adapt to changing demands, such as increased user
interactions or resource-intensive tasks.
o Responsiveness to I/O Operations: Multi-threading is crucial for efficient
handling of I/O operations, such as reading from or writing to storage
devices or network communications. By using separate threads for I/O
operations, the operating system can overlap I/O with other tasks, reducing
overall latency and improving system performance.
o Fault Isolation: Multi-threading helps isolate faults and failures within the
operating system. If one thread encounters an error or crashes, other
threads can continue their execution without affecting the entire system,
ensuring stability and fault tolerance.
o Parallel Processing: Multi-threading enables parallel processing of
computationally intensive tasks, making it well-suited for tasks like
multimedia processing, data analysis, scientific simulations, and other
performance-critical applications.
 - Overall, multi-threading is a crucial feature for modern operating systems to
efficiently utilize hardware resources, improve responsiveness, handle concurrent
tasks, and meet the increasing demands of future computing needs.

D. Symmetric Multiprocessing
- Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) is a core feature that modern operating
systems require to meet future needs. SMP refers to a multiprocessing architecture
in which two or more identical processors are connected to a single shared main
memory and are controlled by a single operating system. Here are some reasons
why SMP is essential:
o Increased Performance: SMP allows for parallel execution of tasks across
multiple processors. This enables the operating system to distribute the
workload among the processors, resulting in improved overall system
performance and faster task execution times.
o Load Balancing: SMP enables load balancing, where the operating system
dynamically distributes tasks across available processors to ensure optimal
utilization of resources. This helps prevent processor bottlenecks and
ensures that each processor is utilized efficiently.
o Scalability: SMP provides scalability by allowing the addition of more
processors to the system. As the demands on the system increase,
additional processors can be added to handle the increased workload,
thereby scaling the system's performance.
o Enhanced Responsiveness: With SMP, the operating system can allocate
different tasks to different processors, enabling concurrent execution. This
improves the system's responsiveness by allowing it to handle multiple
tasks simultaneously, such as running multiple applications or processing
multiple user requests concurrently.
o Fault Tolerance: SMP systems can provide fault tolerance by utilizing
redundant processors. If one processor fails, the remaining processors can
continue the system's operation, ensuring system availability and
reliability.
o Improved Throughput: SMP enables higher throughput by allowing
multiple processes or threads to execute simultaneously on different
processors. This is especially beneficial for multitasking environments
 where multiple applications or processes need to run concurrently without
significant performance degradation.
o Efficient Resource Sharing: SMP facilitates efficient sharing of system
resources among multiple processors. Since all processors have access to
the shared memory, they can easily communicate and share data, reducing
the need for complex inter-processor communication mechanisms.
o Simplified Programming: SMP provides a simplified programming model
for developers. With SMP, developers can design and write parallel code
that can take advantage of multiple processors, resulting in improved
application performance and responsiveness.
- SMP is widely used in modern operating systems to harness the power of multiple
processors, improve system performance, scalability, and responsiveness. It plays
a critical role in meeting the increasing demands of resource-intensive
applications, multitasking environments, and future computing needs.

E. Distributed Operating System

- A Distributed Operating System (DOS) is a type of operating system that runs on
a network of interconnected computers and allows them to work together as a
unified system. It provides a transparent and cohesive environment for users and
applications across multiple machines. Here are some key aspects and benefits of
distributed operating systems:
o Transparency: A distributed operating system aims to provide transparency
to users and applications, hiding the complexities of the underlying
distributed infrastructure. Users can interact with the system as if it were a
single, centralized operating system, regardless of the physical location of
resources or processes.
o Resource Sharing: A major advantage of a distributed operating system is
the ability to share resources across the network. This includes sharing
computational power, storage, and peripherals such as printers or scanners.
Distributed systems enable efficient utilization of resources and improve
overall system efficiency.
o Fault Tolerance: Distributed operating systems offer improved fault
tolerance compared to traditional centralized systems. By distributing tasks
and data across multiple machines, the system can continue functioning
 even if individual components or nodes fail. Redundancy and replication
mechanisms can be employed to ensure high availability and reliability.
o Scalability: Distributed operating systems are designed to scale
horizontally by adding more machines to the network. This scalability
allows the system to handle increasing workloads or accommodate a
growing number of users and applications. It provides the flexibility to
expand the system's resources as needed.
o Load Balancing: Distributed operating systems implement load balancing
techniques to evenly distribute computational tasks across available
resources. This ensures that no single machine is overwhelmed with
excessive workload, maximizing performance and resource utilization.
o Communication and Coordination: Distributed systems emphasize
efficient communication and coordination mechanisms between nodes.
Inter-process communication (IPC) protocols, message passing, and
distributed algorithms are used to facilitate seamless communication and
synchronization between processes running on different machines.
o Distributed File Systems: Distributed operating systems often include
distributed file systems that enable transparent access to files and data
across the network. These file systems provide features such as file
replication, caching, and fault tolerance, ensuring data availability and
consistency.
o Security and Privacy: Distributed operating systems address security
concerns by implementing robust authentication, access control, and
encryption mechanisms. They provide secure communication channels and
protect data integrity and confidentiality in a distributed environment.
- Distributed operating systems are utilized in various scenarios, such as cloud
computing, grid computing, and large-scale data processing. They allow for the
efficient utilization of resources, fault tolerance, and scalability, meeting the needs
of modern computing environments where distributed and collaborative
computing is essential.

F. Microkernel Architecture
- Microkernel architecture is a design approach used in operating systems where the
kernel is kept minimalistic and only essential services are implemented in the
kernel space. The primary idea behind the microkernel architecture is to minimize
the kernel's size and complexity, while moving non-essential services and device
drivers to the user space. Here are some key features and benefits of the
microkernel architecture:
o Modularity: The microkernel architecture promotes modularity by
separating the core functionality of the operating system, such as process
management and memory management, into the kernel space. Non-
essential services, such as device drivers, file systems, and networking
protocols, are implemented as user-space processes. This modular design
enhances system flexibility, ease of maintenance, and extensibility.
o Minimized Kernel: The microkernel itself provides only the essential
services, such as inter-process communication (IPC), thread scheduling,
and basic memory management. By keeping the kernel minimal, it reduces
the trusted computing base, which improves security and helps isolate
faults within the kernel. This makes the system more robust and less prone
to crashes or failures.
o Fault Isolation: In a microkernel architecture, device drivers and non-
essential services run in the user space as separate processes. If a device
driver or service crashes or encounters an error, it does not affect the
stability or availability of the entire system. The fault is isolated to that
specific process, and other processes and services can continue to function
normally.
o Portability: The microkernel architecture promotes portability by
abstracting hardware-specific functionality from the kernel. Most device
drivers and hardware-related services run in user space, making it easier to
port the operating system to different hardware platforms with minimal
modifications to the kernel. This enables greater hardware compatibility
and flexibility.
o Extensibility: Adding new services or features to the operating system is
easier in a microkernel architecture. Since non-essential services run in
user space, new services can be developed and added without modifying
the kernel. This facilitates the development of specialized or custom
services tailored to specific requirements.
 o Security: Due to its minimized kernel and modular design, the microkernel
architecture enhances security. By reducing the trusted code running in the
kernel, the attack surface for potential security vulnerabilities is
minimized. Additionally, the isolation between kernel and user space
processes adds an extra layer of protection, preventing unauthorized access
or malicious actions from affecting critical system components.
o Reliability and Maintainability: The separation of services into user space
processes makes it easier to isolate and debug issues. By decoupling
services from the kernel, the impact of changes or updates to a particular
service is limited, improving system reliability and ease of maintenance.
o Performance: While the microkernel architecture may introduce some
overhead due to inter-process communication and context switches,
advancements in hardware and optimization techniques have significantly
reduced these performance impacts. Additionally, the modular design
allows for efficient resource allocation and optimization for specific
workloads.
- Microkernel architecture has been successfully employed in various operating
systems, such as GNU Hurd, MINIX, and QNX. It offers flexibility, security, fault
tolerance, and ease of extensibility, making it suitable for various computing
environments and applications.

G. List of other features

- Here is a list of additional features that modern operating systems may require to
meet future needs:
o Virtualization: Operating systems with virtualization capabilities allow the
creation and management of virtual machines, enabling multiple operating
systems or environments to run concurrently on the same physical
hardware.
o Containerization: Containerization technology, such as Docker, provides
lightweight and isolated environments for applications to run consistently
across different systems. It allows for efficient resource utilization and
easy deployment and scalability of applications.
o Energy Efficiency: Modern operating systems may incorporate features
and algorithms to optimize power consumption and improve energy
 efficiency. Power management techniques, such as CPU frequency scaling
and dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS), help reduce energy
consumption without sacrificing performance.
o Security Enhancements: With the increasing threats and risks in the digital
landscape, operating systems need to prioritize security. This includes
features like secure boot, secure execution environments (e.g., TrustZone),
sandboxing, access control mechanisms, encryption, and advanced threat
detection and mitigation.
o Cloud Integration: Operating systems may include native integration with
cloud computing platforms, enabling seamless interaction and resource
provisioning in cloud environments. This allows for easy deployment,
scaling, and management of applications in the cloud.
o Real-time Capabilities: Some operating systems require real-time
capabilities to handle time-sensitive tasks with strict deadlines. Real-time
operating systems (RTOS) provide deterministic behavior and guarantee
timely response to events, making them suitable for critical applications
like industrial control systems and embedded devices.
o Advanced File Systems: Operating systems may incorporate advanced file
systems that offer features like journaling, snapshotting, encryption,
compression, deduplication, and distributed file systems for improved data
integrity, performance, and scalability.
o Enhanced User Interfaces: Modern operating systems focus on providing
intuitive and user-friendly graphical user interfaces (GUIs) with support
for touchscreens, gestures, voice recognition, and other interactive input
methods. They also offer customization options and accessibility features
for users with diverse needs.
o Internet of Things (IoT) Support: Operating systems targeting IoT devices
require lightweight and resource-efficient designs. They should provide
support for IoT protocols, connectivity options, and security features
suitable for embedded and low-power devices.
o Machine Learning and AI Integration: As machine learning and artificial
intelligence applications become more prevalent, operating systems may
include native support for machine learning frameworks, libraries, and
 acceleration technologies to enable efficient execution and deployment of
AI workloads.
o System Monitoring and Analytics: Operating systems may incorporate
built-in monitoring and analytics capabilities to track system performance,
resource utilization, and detect anomalies or performance bottlenecks. This
helps administrators optimize system operation and troubleshoot issues.
o Interoperability and Standards Compliance: Modern operating systems
should adhere to industry standards, protocols, and interoperability
frameworks to ensure seamless integration with other systems and devices.
- It's important to note that the specific features required in an operating system can
vary depending on the target environment, use cases, and technological
advancements. Operating system designers continually evaluate emerging needs
and technologies to incorporate relevant features and improvements into their
systems.

VI. Pagination technique: paging

- The address space of a process is divided into blocks of the same size called
pages. Paging allows the physical address space of a process to not be contiguous.
- Real memory is divided into fixed and equal sized blocks called frames
(corresponding to pages).
- Typically the size of the frame is a power of 2, from about 512 bytes to 16 MB.
- Logical memory or logical address space is the set of all logical addresses of a
process. Logical addresses can be generated using indexing, base registers,
segment registers, etc.
- Frame and page are of equal size.
- The operating system must establish a page table to map logical (logical)
addresses to physical addresses.
o Each process has a paging table, which is managed via a pointer stored in
the PCB.
o Setting up the pagination table for the process is part of context switching
- The paging technique causes internal fragmentation of memory, but overcomes
external fragmentation.
- Example: Paging
A. Address conversion in paging
- Logical addresses include:
o Page number , p , is used as the index into the pagination table. Each entry
in the paging table contains the frame number (also called the frame
number for short) of the corresponding page in real memory.
o The page offset , d , is combined with the base address of the frame to
locate the actual address.
- If the size of the virtual address space is 2m , and the size of the page is 2n (bytes
or words depending on the machine architecture)
B. Implement pagination table
- The paging table is usually kept in main memory
o Each process is allocated a paging table by the operating system
o The page-table base register (PTBR) points to the paging table
o The page-table length register (PTLR) represents the size of the page table
(can be used in memory protection mechanisms)
- Each data/instruction access requires two memory access operations
o Use page number p as index to access the entry in the paging table to get
the frame number, and then use page offset d to retrieve the data/command
in the frame.
- Usually a hardware cache with high search and access speed is used, called
associative registers or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs).
- TLB, is a register that supports searching and accessing data with extremely fast
speed. Simply understood is a cache for fast access using the mapping from Page
number to quickly convert to Frame
- LRU (least recently used) cache : algorithm that removes the least recently used
parts, is a popular algorithm used in the cache

- Mapping page#
o If the page number is in the TLB (: hit, hit) => get the frame number
immediately => save the main memory access time to get the frame
number in the paging table.
o Otherwise (: miss, miss), must get the frame number from the paging table
as usual.
VII. REFERENCE
- https://www.digitalocean.com/community/tutorials/linux-commands
- https://quantrimang.com/cong-nghe/huong-dan-su-dung-command-prompt-85301
- https://www.computerworld.com/article/2580106/future-of-operating-systems--
simplicity.html
- https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/
os_process_scheduling_algorithms.htm