MFCA - General Management Plan

Murchison Falls National Park
Karuma Wildlife Reserve

Bugungu Wildlife Reserve
Community-Based Wildlife Crime Prevention

Action Plan
(2017-2023)
Uganda Wildlife Authority
April 2017
The preparation of this Community-Based Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan was
funded via a grant to the International Institute for Environment and Development
(IIED), University of Oxford, Wildlife Conservation Society (Uganda Programme) and
Uganda Wildlife Authority from the UK government‟s Illegal Wildlife Trade Challenge
Fund. The views expressed views do not necessarily reflect those of the UK
government.
Prepared by: Dr Henry Travers (University of Oxford)
Cover Photograph: Uganda kob in Murchison Falls National Park (credit: Tiziana
Zoccheddu)
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Approval
The Uganda Wildlife Authority Management approved this Community-Based Wildlife
Crime Prevention Action Plan for implementation in March 2017.
Dr. Andrew Seguya
Executive Director
Uganda Wildlife Authority
ii
Acknowledgements
The Uganda Wildlife Authority acknowledges the financial support of the Government
of the United Kingdom through the Illegal Wildlife Trade Challenge Fund (IWTCF) for
the preparation of this Community-Based Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan.
Special thanks go to members of the Planning Team who attended the workshop
from which the action plan was prepared:
Tom Okello Obong Conservation Area Manager

Eric Enyel Senior Warden
Julius Obwona Warden Law Enforcement
Gartrude Kirabo Warden Community Conservation
Moses Dhabasadha Warden Oil Monitoring
Babu Bakhit Warden in-charge WangKwar Sector
Godfrey Lubangakene Assistant Warden Community Conservation
Juma Muhamad Head Ranger Law Enforcement
Innocent Waako Head Ranger Community Conservation
Emmanuel Ogik Team Leader Intelligence
Geoffrey Mwedde Projects Manager, Wildlife Conservation Society
Maz Robertson Resource Coordinator, Uganda Conservation Foundation
Henry Travers Research Associate, University of Oxford
Thanks also go to members of the IWT Challenge Fund project who contributed to
research that aided in the development of the action plan:
Aggrey Rwetsiba Senior Research and Monitoring Coordinator, UWA

Dilys Roe International Institute of Environment and Development
Andrew Plumptre Wildlife Conservation Society
Julia Baker Balfour Beatty
Lucy Archer Imperial College London
E.J. Milner-Gulland University of Oxford
The efforts of Mr. Charles Tumwesigye, who provided oversight of the planning
process, are greatly appreciated.
UWA is also grateful to all the members of local communities bordering Murchison
Falls Protected Area who contributed their time to the IWT Challenge Fund project
research.
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Contents
Approval .............................................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................... vi
Foreword........................................................................................................................................... vii
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... viii
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Aim of the Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan .......................................................... 1
1.2. Relevant Laws, Policies and Guidelines ............................................................................... 1
1.3. The Action Planning Process .................................................................................................... 2
1.4. Financing mechanisms for the Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan .................. 2
1.5. Intervention design and project development.................................................................. 3
2. Guiding Principles ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Develop effective, long-term relationships with communities .................................. 4
2.2. Provision of positive incentives .............................................................................................. 5
2.3. Effective and fair law enforcement ........................................................................................ 5
3. Underlying Drivers of Wildlife Crime .............................................................................. 6
3.1. Subsistence ...................................................................................................................................... 6
3.2. Commercial ...................................................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Perceived Injustice........................................................................................................................ 7
3.4. Traditional Use ............................................................................................................................... 8
4. Priority Offences ...................................................................................................................... 9
4.1. Illegal Hunting and Trade of High Value Species ............................................................. 9
4.2. Commercial Hunting and Trading of Bushmeat ............................................................ 10
4.3. Subsistence Hunting of Bushmeat ....................................................................................... 11
5. Current State of Wildlife Crime....................................................................................... 13
5.1. High Offence Occurrence Areas Within the Protected Area ..................................... 13
5.2. Critical Sites Outside the Protected Area ......................................................................... 13
5.3. Drivers of Priority Offences ................................................................................................... 13
5.4. Priority Areas to Combat Illegal Hunting ......................................................................... 15
6. Illegal Hunting and Trade of High Value Species ..................................................... 18
6.1. Target Groups .............................................................................................................................. 18
6.2. Planned Activities....................................................................................................................... 18
6.3. Measures of Success .................................................................................................................. 21
6.4. Conceptual Model of Planned Interventions ................................................................... 22
7. Commercial Bushmeat Hunting...................................................................................... 23
7.1. Target Groups .............................................................................................................................. 23
7.4. Theory of Change/Conceptual Model ................................................................................ 30
8. Subsistence Bushmeat Hunting ...................................................................................... 31
8.1. Target Groups .............................................................................................................................. 31
8.4. Theory of Change/Conceptual Model ................................................................................ 34
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9. Intervention Linkages ........................................................................................................ 36
9.1. Community Conservation Increases Effectiveness of Intelligence Network ..... 36
9.2. Law Enforcement Affects Effectiveness of Community Conservation ................. 36
9.3. Wildlife Friendly Enterprises Linked to Human Wildlife Conflict Mitigation ... 36
9.4. Supply and Demand of Bushmeat and Alternative Protein Sources ..................... 36
10. Enabling Conditions and Implementation Barriers ........................................... 37
10.1. Availability of Funds............................................................................................................. 37
10.2. Cultural Mindsets and Community Engagement ...................................................... 37
10.3. Perverse Incentives .............................................................................................................. 38
10.4. Political Will ............................................................................................................................. 38
11. Partnerships ...................................................................................................................... 39
11.1. District Fisheries Officers ................................................................................................... 39
11.2. Local Authorities .................................................................................................................... 39
11.3. NGOs ........................................................................................................................................... 39
11.4. Local Institutions ................................................................................................................... 39
12. Capacity Gaps .................................................................................................................... 40
12.1. Training ..................................................................................................................................... 40
12.2. Logistical Support.................................................................................................................. 40
12.3. Expertise ................................................................................................................................... 40
13. Review Process ................................................................................................................. 41
13.1. Law Enforcement Monitoring .......................................................................................... 41
13.2. Wildlife Scouts ........................................................................................................................ 41
13.3. Enterprise Accounting ......................................................................................................... 41
13.4. Household Surveys ............................................................................................................... 41
13.5. Market Surveys ....................................................................................................................... 41
References ....................................................................................................................................... 42
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: The three guiding principles on which the WCPAP has been based. ....... 4
Figure 3.1: Primary drivers of wildlife crime in Ugandan protected areas................... 6
Figure 5.1: Occurrence probabilities of illegal activities in MFPA. ............................ 13
Figure 5.2: Proportion of households estimated to be involved in hunting. .............. 14
Figure 5.3: Mean household poverty scores. ........................................................... 14
Figure 5.4: Areas identified as being strongly associated with elephant hunting. ..... 16
Figure 5.5: Parishes identified as being strongly associated with commercial and
subsistence bushmeat hunting. ............................................................................... 16
Figure 6.1: Conceptual model of planned interventions to combat illegal hunting of
high value species. .................................................................................................. 22
Figure 7.1: Conceptual model of planned interventions to combat commercial
bushmeat hunting and trade. ................................................................................... 30
Figure 8.1: Conceptual model of planned interventions to combat subsistence
bushmeat hunting. ................................................................................................... 35
List of Tables
Table 6.1 Summary action table for law enforcement patrols. ................................. 19
Table 6.2 Summary action table for community informants. .................................... 20
Table 6.3 Summary action table for working with the judiciary. ................................ 21
Table 6.4: Performance targets and indicators for interventions identified to combat
illegal hunting and trade in high value wildlife. ......................................................... 21
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Table 7.1: Summary action table for law enforcement activities. ............................. 25
Table 7.2 Summary action table for HWC mitigation activities. ................................ 27
Table 7.3 Summary action table for wildlife friendly enterprises............................... 29
illegal commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat. .................................................. 29
Table 8.1 Summary action table for inland water enforcement patrols. .................... 32
Table 8.2 Summary action table for community outreach. ....................................... 32
Table 8.3 Summary action table for resource access agreements........................... 33
Table 8.4 Summary action table for animal husbandry and wildlife ranching. .......... 34
illegal commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat. .................................................. 34
Acronyms
AOP Annual Operations Plan
AWCC Assistant Warden Community Conservation
AWF African Wildlife Foundation
CAM Conservation Area Manager
CBO Community Based Organisation
DFO District Fisheries Officer
GMP General Management Plan
HWC Human Wildlife Conflict(s)
IIED International Institute for Environment and Development
IWTCF Illegal Wildlife Trade Challenge Fund
LEM Law Enforcement Monitoring
LEW Law Enforcement Warden
MFPA Murchison Falls Protected Area
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
PA Protected Area
QEPA Queen Elizabeth Protected Area
SMART Spatial Monitoring and Reporting Tool
UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics
UCF Uganda Conservation Foundation
UWA Uganda Wildlife Authority
WCPAP Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan
WCC Warden Community Conservation
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
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Foreword
Wildlife crime is a major conservation challenge with increasing threat levels
throughout the region that is slowly driving our wildlife species to extinction if
concerted efforts are not made to combat and contain this crime. Wildlife crime and
particularly wildlife trafficking has been classified by the United Nations as a serious
crime. It is highly organized with strong criminal networks and syndicates requiring
sophisticated means and strong intelligence to deal with.
Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) has had an excellent track record at tackling wildlife
crime, particularly elephant poaching with elephant numbers increasing in the
national parks but this is by no means a matter of celebration as the threats are real
and cannot allow us to rest on our laurels lest all the gains achieved will come to
nothing in a very short time.
Traditional efforts to combat wildlife crime have focussed on law enforcement but
Uganda realised long time ago that law enforcement alone was not enough to stop
wildlife crime. As such Uganda was one of the first countries to recognise the vital
role that community conservation can play in tackling the underlying drivers of wildlife
crime. It is against this background that this plan recognizes the vital role
communities living around the wildlife protected areas play in combating wildlife
crime.
This Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan for the Murchison Falls Protected Area is
a result of a three year collaborative research project titled “Building capacity for Pro-
Poor Responses to Wildlife Crime in Uganda” implemented by Uganda Wildlife
Authority, International Institute of Environment (IIED), University of Oxford and
Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), funded by the UK government’s Ille gal Wildlife
Trade Challenge Fund. It sets out an implementation plan for the next five years for
activities to combat wildlife crime in and around MFPA, with an emphasis on
integrating law enforcement and community conservation interventions into a single
unified approach.
I wish to appeal to all staff in UWA particularly those working in and around MFPA to
work with all stakeholders including the local communities to ensure full
implementation of this Action Plan.
Conserving for Generations
Dr. Andrew G Seguya

Executive Director
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Executive Summary
Background
Wildlife Crime, the illegal use of wild living resources, represents a significant threat
to Uganda‟s wildlife. In Murchison Falls Protected Area (MFPA), the most common
wildlife offence is illegal hunting of wild animals for both subsistence and commercial
purposes. In villages adjacent to the boundaries of MFPA, over 40% of households
are estimated to have hunted for commercial purposes at least once in 2015,
increasing to over 50% in Purongo sub-county and parts of Kiryandongo district.
Although the latest aerial surveys show that large mammals populations in MFPA
continue to recover from lows in the 1970s and 19080s, such a high prevalence of
hunting poses a threat to the long-term health of wildlife populations and wildlife-
based tourism.
It is important to recognise that there are multiple underlying factors that push people
towards becoming engaged in wildlife crime, ranging from basic subsistence needs
to financial benefit, retaliation against perceived injustices or traditional cultural uses
of wildlife. Hence, not all individuals involved in wildlife crime are motivated by the
same set of reasons. This has important implications for the design of interventions
aimed at combatting wildlife crime, as it suggests that different interventions or
combinations of interventions may be required to target individuals with different sets
of motivations. Efforts to combat wildlife crime must therefore seek to address the
underlying drivers of wildlife offences as well as tackling crimes more directly.
Aim
The aim of the Community Based Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan (WCPAP) is
to provide a strategic vision to address wildlife crime within the boundaries of
Murchison Falls Protected Area and surrounding communities. Such a strategic
approach has been taken to set out clear priorities over the five year period of 2017-
2023 with respect to different wildlife offences, key target groups engaged in wildlife
crime and intervention options as part of longer term efforts by the Uganda Wildlife
Authority (UWA) and partners to address wildlife crime.
Several of the activities detailed within the action plan are already being implemented
by UWA and other supporting organisations at multiple sites around MFPA. However,
by considering all of the activities that are being conducted, opportunities for
synergies between activities can be maximised and conflicts minimised. This
approach will not only strengthen UWA‟s ability to combat wildlife crime directly
through improved law enforcement but focuses efforts on tackling the underlying
drivers of wildlife crime. The action plan has been designed to complement the
General Management Plan (GMP) and Annual Operational Plans (AOPs) that follow
from the GMP, which encompass broader goals than the reduction of wildlife crime.
Financial Support for Action Plan Activities
The activities contained in the action plan are primarily expected to be financed by
internally generated revenues and budgets approved by top management. For each
of the activities detailed we provide a summary table that includes a cost estimate –
based on the GMP and AoP for 2016/17 – and a time frame for implementation.
However, additional activities have been identified with the aim of increasing the
impact of those to be financed internally. The identification of these additional
activities is expected to assist UWA in securing supplementary funds from external
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sources, such as donor support or through strategic partnerships with NGOs, private
sector companies, local authorities or national government agencies.
Priority Setting
Three priority offences are identified within the action plan:

1. Illegal hunting and trade of high-value wildlife species
2. Commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat species
3. Subsistence hunting for bushmeat.
Priority areas in which to focus interventions are also identified, as it is recommended

that resources are not spread too thinly, but targeted towards communities where the
need is greatest, and the most difference can be made using this approach
(particularly areas where wildlife crime is at high levels, and there is a will to engage).
For each priority offence, a range of interventions has been identified to be supported
by UWA and partner organisations (Table 1). While some of these activities are
already being implemented, the action plans seek to increase the effectiveness of
UWA‟s efforts to reduce wildlife crime by identifying:
actions to improve the effectiveness of existing interventions
interventions that require greater investment to be effective
new interventions that are not currently being implemented
interventions that require greater coordination to maximise synergies and
avoid conflicts.
Table 1: Key interventions identified to combat the three priority offences described in
the action plan.
Hunting of high- Commercial Subsistence

Key interventions
value species bushmeat hunting bushmeat hunting
Ranger patrols
x x x
Intelligence gathering
x x
Working with the
x
judiciary
Human wildlife conflict
x x
mitigation
Wildlife friendly
x x
enterprises
Community outreach
x
Animal husbandry and
x
wildlife ranching
Coordination and Implementation
In addition to setting out a range of interventions for combatting priority wildlife

offences at MFPA, the action plan also highlights a series of linkages between these
interventions and identified potential implementation barriers that need to be
addressed to ensure successful outcomes are achieved. These include:
ensuring a balanced allocation of funding between law enforcement and
community conservation activities
institutional commitment to engaging with communities
addressing capacity gaps and staff training
avoiding perverse incentives.
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Monitoring and Evaluation
For each intervention identified within the action plan, a series of simple indicators is
identified to allow progress towards intervention outcomes to be monitored without
placing a significant burden on implementing staff.
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1. Introduction
1.1. Aim of the Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan
The aim of the Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan (WCPAP) is to provide a
strategic vision to address wildlife crime within the boundaries of Murchison Falls
Protected Area (MFPA) and surrounding communities. Such a strategic approach
has been taken to set out clear priorities over the next five years with respect to
different wildlife offences, key target groups engaged in wildlife crime and
intervention options, as part of longer term efforts by the Uganda Wildlife Authority
(UWA) and partners to address wildlife crime.
Many of the activities detailed with the WCPAP are already being implemented by
UWA and other supporting organisations at multiple sites around MFPA. However,
by considering all of the activities that are being conducted, opportunities for
synergies between activities can be maximised and conflicts minimised. This
approach will not only strengthen UWA‟s ability to combat wildlife crime directly
through improved law enforcement but focuses efforts on tackling the underlying
drivers of wildlife crime.
1.2. Relevant Laws, Policies and Guidelines

The WCPAP for MFPA provides an implementation strategy for the responsibilities
and objectives set out by a series of laws and policies, the most relevant of which are
summarised below.
1.2.1. East African Community Protocol on Environment and Natural Resources

As a signatory of this protocol, Uganda is obliged to sustainably conserve wildlife
resources in partnership with the local communities. This is reflected in the Mission
of the Uganda Wildlife Authority “to conserve, economically develop and sustainably
manage the wildlife and protected areas of Uganda in partnership with the
neighbouring communities and other stakeholders for the benefit of the people of
Uganda and the global community”.
1.2.2. The Uganda Wildlife Act Cap 200 of the Laws of Uganda 2000
The legislative mandate for the actions identified in the WCPAP for MFPA is
enshrined in the Uganda Wildlife Act of 2000, which delegates UWA with the
responsibility to ensure the sustainable management of wildlife conservation areas,
to establish policies and procedures for the sustainable utilisation of wildlife by and
for the benefit of the communities living in proximity to wildlife, to monitor and control
problem animals and to control internal and external trade in wildlife specimens.
1.2.3. The Uganda Wildlife Policy (2014)

The Uganda Wildlife Policy sets out the policy vision for the wildlife sector in Uganda.
Included in the guiding principles of this vision is the promotion of the interests of
local communities around conservation areas and the need for research guided
decision-making. Policy objectives include the effective mitigation of human wildlife
conflict (HWC) and combatting of wildlife crime.
1.2.4. The Uganda Wildlife Authority Community Conservation Policy (2004)

The Community Conservation Policy harmonises UWA‟s policies and guidelines for
its interactions with local communities, recognising the need to do more than policing.
It sets the main policy goal “to strengthen conservation of wildlife resources through
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sustainable and equitable distribution of conservation benefits and/or costs among all
stakeholders”.
1.2.5. The Uganda Wildlife Authority Strategic Plan (2013 – 2018)

The Strategic Plan sets out the policy vision for the five-year period between 2013
and 2018, with the management of HWC identified as one of four critical issues to be
addressed within the plan. The strategic objectives for the Resource Conservation
and Management Strategic Programme include the objective to contain illegal
activities in all wildlife areas. Objectives under the Community Conservation Strategic
Programme include the objectives to enhance benefits and opportunities arising from
wildlife conservation, minimise HWC and enhance the understanding and
appreciation of wildlife.
1.2.6. The Murchison Falls Protected Area General Management Plan (2012 – 2022)
The General Management Plan (GMP) sets out the management priorities for
Murchison Falls Protected Area over a ten-year period from 2012 to 2022 through
the identification of priority activities and the allocation of resources. The Wildlife
Crime Action Plan is intended to complement the GMP and Annual Operational
Plans (AOPs) that follow from the GMP, which encompass broader goals than the
reduction of wildlife crime, and will be included in the mid-term evaluation of the GMP
in 2017.
1.2.7. The Uganda Wildlife Authority Guidelines for Revenue Sharing Between
Wildlife Protected Areas and Adjacent Local Governments and Communities
(2012)
The Revenue Sharing guidelines outline the procedures through which local
government and communities should benefit from the tourist gate revenues from
protected areas, as prescribed in the Wildlife Act Cap 200. The guidelines describe
the stated objectives of revenue sharing as establishing good relations with local
stakeholders, demonstrating the economic value of local communities and
strengthening the support and acceptance for protected areas and conservation
activities from communities living adjacent to these areas.
1.3. The Action Planning Process

The WCPAP for Murchison Falls Protected Area has been developed following the
process agreed at a workshop held in Kampala on 25th and 26th May 2016 as part of
the collaborative Illegal Wildlife Trade Challenge Fund (IWTCF) supported project
“Building capacity for pro-poor responses to wildlife crime in Uganda” implemented
by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), the Wildlife
Conservation Society (WCS) Uganda Program, the University of Oxford and UWA.
The Planning Team consisted of the Conservation Area Manager, Deputy

Conservation Area Manager, Law Enforcement Warden, Community Conservation
Warden, representatives of WCS and the Uganda Wildlife Foundation (UCF) and
members of the IWT Challenge Fund project team. The strategy to combat wildlife
crime presented in the Wildlife Crime Action Plan was formulated by the Planning
Team. Additional material was provided by the research findings of the IWT
Challenge Fund project.
1.4. Financing mechanisms for the Wildlife Crime Prevention Action Plan
The activities contained in the WCPAP are largely expected to be financed by
internally generated revenues and budgets approved by top management. For each
of the activities detailed (described in Sections 6, 7 and 8) we provide a summary
2
table that includes a cost estimate – based on the GMP and AoP for 2016/17 – and a
time frame for implementation (shaded cells in the boxes indicate when activities
should be implemented).
However, where appropriate, activities that are not currently supported by UWA or
that require greater levels of support than they currently receive have been identified
with the aim of increasing the impact of those to be financed internally. The
implementation of these additional activities will be subject to supplementary funds
being secured from external sources, such as donor support or through strategic
partnerships with NGOs, private sector companies, local authorities or national
government agencies.
It is particularly important for the success of community-based activities that they are
continued over the long term in order to build trust. These types of approaches are
not quick fixes, and mutual learning in the early stages about how they work best in a
particular context will mean that patience is required on both sides. Funding needs to
be continued while this process plays out. For this reason one recommendation from
the action plans is that resources not be spread too thinly, but targeted towards
communities where the need for this approach is greatest, and the most difference
can be made using this approach (particularly areas where wildlife crime is at high
levels, and there is a will to engage).
1.5. Intervention design and project development

Where activities have been identified for expansion beyond their current level of
implementation or that are not currently implemented, it will be necessary to develop
implementation plans at a more detailed level than contained in this strategic
document once funding has been secured. This is particularly the case for activities
in which members of local communities are expected to participate, as it is important
that the beneficiaries of such activities are given the opportunity for meaningful
participation in all stages of intervention design, development and implementation.
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2. Guiding Principles
The results of the research component of the IWT Challenge Fund project show that
a significant number of households living in villages adjacent to MFPA are involved in
some form of wildlife crime, with 42% of households estimated to have hunted for
commercial purposes in 2015. This highlights the need to deliver long-term behaviour
change. The following section details the guiding principles to delivering that
behaviour change on which the WCPAP has been developed (Figure 2.1).
Develop effective
relationships
Provide positive Effective

incentives law enforcement
Figure 2.1: The three guiding principles on which the WCPAP has been based
2.1. Develop effective, long-term relationships with communities

A common lesson from successful conservation programmes that aim to effect
sustainable behaviour change is the need to develop long-term working relationships
with communities. In this way, it is possible to develop mutual trust and an
understanding of shared goals, as well as resolve conflicts when they arise. Failure
to commit to working long-term with target villages can result in ill feeling towards
wildlife and conservation activities, which has been shown to drive further wildlife
crime (see Section 3.3).
Resolving conflicts as part of maintaining and developing relationships with

communities is a critical part of the WCPAP. Conflicts can arise when communities
feel that they are not benefiting from the park or from activities implemented by UWA
or conservation partners, when they experience costs through HWC, when
individuals are sanctioned for wildlife crime or for failure to comply with the
responsibilities associated with certain conservation activities in a way that is
perceived as unfair or disproportionate, or when community members are killed or go
missing in the park. Such conflicts can have a damaging impact on people-park
relationships and where possible should be addressed as and when they arise.
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The need to develop working relationships between communities and PA staff refers
equally to law enforcement and community conservation wardens and to rangers.
2.2. Provision of positive incentives

The reasons why people commit wildlife crimes are varied (see Section 3) but many
individuals involved in wildlife crime justify their involvement because they are driven
by necessity through a lack of viable or realistic alternatives or because they do not
recognise the legitimacy of conservation and the associated restrictions on resource
access. For others, committing wildlife crimes remains the easiest means of earning
money.
As discussed below, law enforcement has a vital role to play in deterring potential
offenders but the risks that law enforcement engenders are often insufficient to
change people‟s decision making, particularly those driven to crime through
necessity. The provision of positive incentives to encourage people to change their
behaviour is therefore a crucial part of the WCPAP. Such incentives work best when
they are directly linked to wildlife conservation (e.g. revenue sharing) and/or tied to
compliance with pro-conservation agreements (e.g. MoUs linked to resource access).
The benefits that people derive through the provision of such incentives may take
different forms (e.g. resource access rights, performance payments, livelihood
training, etc.) but should be set at a level that people collectively feel is appropriate
and should be distributed equitably. If the benefits from such incentives are widely
accepted as appropriate compensation for the costs of conservation, a gradual shift
in social norms is expected, particularly when the provision of positive incentives is
made collectively conditional on changed behaviour.
2.3. Effective and fair law enforcement

Effective law enforcement underpins all efforts to tackle wildlife crime. Although
behavioural and attitudinal change can be promoted through the provision of positive
incentives, certain individuals may be unwilling to stop their involvement in wildlife
crime. For these individuals, effective enforcement of the law may be the only means
to alter behaviour. Ineffective law enforcement can have important knock-on effects
on the behaviour of others, as it is difficult to promote behaviour change if rule
breakers are consistently seen to go undetected or unpunished.
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3. Underlying Drivers of Wildlife Crime
There are multiple underlying factors that push people towards becoming engaged in
wildlife crime, ranging from basic subsistence needs to financial benefit, retaliation
against perceived injustices or traditional cultural uses of wildlife (Figure 3.1). Hence,
not all individuals involved in wildlife crime are motivated by the same set of reasons.
This has important implications for the design of interventions aimed at combatting
wildlife crime, as it suggests that different interventions or combinations of
interventions may be required to target individuals with different sets of motivations.
The following section presents the main underlying drivers of wildlife crime in MFPA
and the motivations of individuals engaged in wildlife crime in order to inform the
activities set out in Sections 6, 7 and 8 to combat each of the priority offences
identified in Section 4. Harrison et al. (2015) provide a detailed review of the
evidence about the drivers and impacts of wildlife crime in Uganda, if more
information is required; this is an output of the IWT CHALLENGE FUND project.
Figure 3.1: Primary drivers of wildlife crime in Ugandan protected areas (adapted from
Harrison et al., 2015)
3.1. Subsistence
One of the commonly identified drivers of wildlife crime is the need to meet basic
household subsistence requirements either as a means of providing the desired
resource (e.g. bushmeat) or as a substitute for unavailable or expensive goods (e.g.
grass thatch as a substitute for zinc roof sheets or medicinal plants as a substitute for
medical care; Harrison et al., 2015). Some households may be dependent on the use
of wildlife products as a means of meeting their subsistence needs throughout the
6
year, whereas for others the use of wildlife may be a coping strategy applied at times
of seasonal need or crisis.
However, the extent to which wildlife offences are driven by subsistence needs
varies between resources. For example, although firewood is illegally harvested for
commercial charcoal production, it is most commonly collected for domestic
subsistence use. Conversely, illegal hunting is predominantly carried out in MFPA by
people wanting to earn money and any meat that is consumed in the home is largely
regarded as a secondary benefit.
Where wildlife offences are driven by subsistence needs, activities to reduce wildlife
crime will be most effective if implemented in conjunction with efforts to increase the
supply of legal substitutes for consumed wildlife products. In the absence of legal
alternatives, households engaged in wildlife crime are likely to feel that they have no
alternative but to offend or fail to meet their basic needs.
3.2. Commercial
The opportunity to earn money is the most common motivation for people to become
involved in wildlife crime in MFPA, yet the reasons behind this range from the need
to earn money in order to meet basic needs, such as school fees, medical bills and
agricultural inputs, through to the desire to enjoy a particular life style or make
significant financial gain. This variation is reflected in the rate at which individuals
offend and the impact that they have on wildlife, with those driven by basic needs
likely to offend less frequently at times of need and have a lower off-take than those
individuals motivated by the desire for financial gain.
The availability of alternative sources of income, at the times when needs are
greatest can therefore have a significant effect on offence rates. The evidence from
the IWT Challenge Fund project suggests that periods of increased wildlife crime
incidence correspond with periods of fewer income earning opportunities. Where
households are driven by the need to earn sufficient income to be able to afford basic
goods or services, failure to increase the supply or improve the profitability of
alternative income generating opportunities is likely to hinder efforts to reduce wildlife
crime and, in conjunction with increased law enforcement, could have a
disproportionate impact on poorer households.
However, the IWT Challenge Fund research has also shown that better off
households are more likely to hunt than poorer households, with the evidence
suggesting that this is likely to be due to hunting households becoming better off
through their involvement in commercial hunting. Earnings from hunting were
reported to be up to 1.5 million shillings per month, which is significantly higher than
average earnings in rural areas (UBOS, 2014). This suggests that, unlike those that
hunt at times of greatest need, households that hunt more regularly have been able
to use hunting as a route out of poverty. It is unlikely that alternative sources of
income can be identified to rival the earnings of hunters belonging to the highest
earning tier.
3.3. Perceived Injustice

People‟s attitudes towards MFPA are closely associated with their likelihood of being
involved in wildlife crime. For example, individuals that feel as though they are not
benefiting from revenue sharing funds or who report suffering losses from wildlife are
more likely to hunt illegally. Retaliation for crop raiding is also commonly cited by
hunters as a reason why they hunt despite knowing that it is illegal to do so.
7
Currently, the general attitude of people living adjacent to MFPA is negative, with the
majority of people reporting that they are disadvantaged as a result of living close to
the conservation area (mostly as a result of crop raiding) and that they do not benefit
from either tourism or revenue sharing. There is also anger at the perceived lack of
response to HWC, particularly in areas affected by elephant crop raiding. This high
level of dissatisfaction with the park is likely to be contributing to the high rate of
wildlife crime found in communities living adjacent to the PA boundary.
Efforts to tackle wildlife crime, particularly those that rely on local goodwill, will need
to overcome the largely negative perception of conservation and wildlife. Activities
that reduce the costs of living close to wildlife and/or increase the benefits people
gain directly from wildlife are best suited to improving people-park relations.
3.4. Traditional Use

Certain wildlife products have significant cultural value and are used in a variety of
traditional rites or practices. Similarly, there are a variety of cultural beliefs
surrounding the practice of hunting itself. While the cultural value placed on certain
wildlife products creates an additional market that individuals involved in wildlife
crime can access, the evidence from the IWT Challenge Fund research suggests
that traditional use is, for the most part, a secondary driver of wildlife crime. As such,
efforts to reduce demand for wildlife products used in traditional practices (e.g.
sensitisation) are likely to have a limited impact in reducing overall offence rates.
8
4. Priority Offences
This section details the wildlife crimes that have been prioritised within the WCPAP
for 2017 to 2022. These offences were selected on the basis that they have the
greatest impact on wildlife within MFPA and the local communities living adjacent to
the park.
4.1. Illegal Hunting and Trade of High Value Species

Over-exploitation through illegal hunting is the primary threat to the long-term survival
of species, such as elephants and pangolins, which are highly valued in international
illegal wildlife trade. As a result, such species are under considerable pressure and
are a priority for conservation throughout the region.
4.1.1. Hunting for Ivory

For the most part, Uganda has escaped the large-scale elephant poaching, carried
out by organised criminal gangs, which is affecting other range states within the
region (Chase et al., 2016). The IWT Challenge Fund research findings suggest that
elephant hunting in MFPA is predominantly carried out by individuals who live in
villages close to the PA boundary but have connections to middlemen involved in
international wildlife trafficking. As such, while it is important to target individuals
higher up the value chain, interventions at the park level are critical to stemming the
killing of elephants in MFPA.
Elephants are highly dangerous animals and killing them is not easy. The dominant
strategy employed for hunting elephants in MFPA is the use of illegally acquired
firearms. Hunters report entering the PA at night when patrol numbers are at a
minimum, shooting an animal at first light and exiting the parks within hours of
entering. Tusks are removed quickly, providing very little risk of encountering ranger
patrols. However, the limited availability of firearms means that few hunters are able
to employ this approach. Poison injected fruit and traditional traps designed to injure
elephants are also used due to their lower barriers to entry but these approaches are
reported to be significantly less effective.
A significant minority of elephant deaths in MFPA (estimated to be in the region of

20-40%; Travers et al., 2016) result from opportunistic killings. In such instances,
elephants were not the original target species but hunters encountered a situation in
which an elephant was vulnerable (e.g. injured through being caught in a snare). This
corresponds to the findings of a study of elephant deaths due to wire snares in
Zambia (Becker et al., 2013) and suggests that, while interventions that specifically
focus on individuals that deliberately target elephants may reduce elephant mortality,
some deaths will continue through opportunistic killings unless snaring and other
hunting methods aimed at catching bushmeat species can also be reduced.
The nature of the relationships between hunters and middlemen is often ad hoc. On
occasion hunters will be contacted in advance and will hunt to order. Alternatively
they will decide to hunt without making a prior agreement with a middleman and then
arrange the sale of any harvested tusks on their return. In either case, sale of the
tucks is arranged quickly, providing little opportunity to arrest an elephant hunter with
evidence of the offence or to recover the ivory. The exception to this comes if an
elephant has been killed opportunistically. In this case there may be a longer window
between the initial killing of the animal and the sale of the tusks while the hunter finds
a buyer, often with a well-known local hunter acting as an intermediary. Specialist
elephant hunters have also been known to avoid hunting for bushmeat, and even to
9
buy bushmeat, in an effort to avoid gaining a reputation for being a hunter and
therefore maintain a low profile.
4.1.2. Pangolins
Pangolins are highly prized by some cultures for their scales, which are used in
traditional medicine in both Asia and Africa (Soewu & Ayodele, 2009; Challender et
al., 2015), and for their meat. However, little is known about their distribution and
population density within MFPA. Hunters report that they are difficult to find and
rarely encountered. As a result, they are not deliberately targeted but are hunted only
when the opportunity arises. Consequently, pangolins can largely be considered to
be „bycatch‟ of the bushmeat trade.
As with ivory, well-known hunters are contacted by middlemen with connections to

international traffickers. Such middlemen place orders for quantities of scales.
Hunters who catch a pangolin will also contact well-known hunters to arrange sales,
meaning that these hunters are particularly important links in the sales chain.
However, the sporadic nature of hunting opportunities for pangolin means that
hunters have often forgotten any prior arrangement they have made and may not
honour their original agreement. In the event that pangolins are caught by hunters
without middlemen contacts, a well-known local hunter will often broker a deal.
4.2. Commercial Hunting and Trading of Bushmeat

Commercial hunting for bushmeat is the most common wildlife crime amongst
households living in villages adjacent to the boundaries of MFPA. Over 40% of
households are estimated to have hunted for commercial purposes at least once in
2015, increasing to over 50% in Purongo sub-county and parts of Kiryandongo
district. The vast majority of hunters are men who became involved at a young age
(15-20 years old), often through friends or family members who hunt. Instances
where individuals become involved in hunting at a later age are largely caused by the
loss of other sources of income, such as the failure of a business. This suggests that
efforts to stop people becoming engaged in hunting in the first place are best
focussed on young men.
There are a variety of strategies used by hunters, including dogs, nets and traps.
However, the most common approach is the use of wire snares and, in areas
populated by the Acholi, wheel traps. These are placed in feeding areas, near
watering points or along game trails. Such traps are cheap and easy to produce
(particularly wire snares) and difficult to detect by rangers, making them appealing to
hunters. However, although effective at killing large numbers of animals, the use of
such traps is highly inefficient and results in significant wastage when traps are not
checked regularly or fatally wounded animals escape capture (Lindsey et al., 2013).
Traps are also often used in combination with fire setting as this promotes regrowth
to lure animals. Firearms are rarely used to hunt bushmeat because access to guns
is difficult and hunters are scared to be caught in possession of one.
There is strong seasonality to hunting effort with peaks during the dry season when
there are few other income generating opportunities and close to seasonal
celebrations, such as Christmas and Easter. Hunting during the dry season allows
hunters to see rangers from further away, leave fewer tracks and concentrate effort
in areas where animals congregate. There is, however, great variety in the times that
hunters choose to enter the PA, the length of time they spend there and the distance
with which they penetrate the park. Focussing hunting effort in areas close to PA
boundaries limits the time spent travelling to check traps and carry back meat and
10
the risk of detection by patrols (Hofer et al., 2000), but carries a greater risk of traps
being found by rangers as boundary areas tend to be more heavily patrolled.
The majority of meat brought back from MFPA is sold locally to satisfy significant
demand for bushmeat in villages adjacent to the PA boundary. Meat is also sold in
trading centres to small chop shops, which serve local and visiting customers and
are largely run by women. Prices vary throughout the year depending on supply, but
bushmeat is often cheaper and of better quality than domestically produced meat. As
such, in many communities, there is a strong preference for bushmeat over meat
from domestic livestock to the extent that people are known to try to disguise
domestic meat as bushmeat. Bushmeat is also sold fresh or smoked to traders from
urban centres, such as Arua, Gulu, Masindi and Kampala, where it yields a higher
price. Evidence from elsewhere suggests that demand in urban areas is driven by a
complex mix of price, availability, culture, ethnicity and status (van Vliet and Mbazza,
2011). This suggests that even if efforts to increase the supply of alternative sources
of animal protein reduce local demand, it may do little to affect demand from urban
centres.
Evidence from elsewhere has shown that bushmeat is substitutable with other forms
of domestic protein, such as beef, goat and chicken, and fish (Rentsch & Damon,
2013). This means that if the price of bushmeat increases, consumption of bushmeat
would be expected to fall and the consumption of other protein sources to increase.
Similarly, if the price of alternative protein sources increases, the consumption of
bushmeat would be expected to increase. A decrease in the price of alternative
protein sources would be expected to increase the consumption of those other
protein sources and decrease the consumption of bushmeat. This suggests that
efforts to reduce the consumption of bushmeat should focus on activities that aim to
increase the price of bushmeat by limiting the supply (e.g. through improved law
enforcement or through the provision of positive incentives) and/or decreasing the
price of alternative sources of protein (e.g. game ranching or animal husbandry).
However, it also suggests that attention should be paid to the availability of fish, an
important source of animal protein in many areas around MFPA. If fish stocks fall in
the River Nile and Lake Albert, for example through over-exploitation, this would be
expected to increase the consumption of bushmeat and further drive illegal bushmeat
hunting.
Another common finding from elsewhere is that bushmeat consumption, and the
consumption of other protein sources, increases with rising household income (Wilkie
et al., 2005; Brashares et al., 2011; Rentsch & Damon, 2013). This has important
implications for activities that aim to reduce hunting through the provision of
alternative livelihoods, as it suggests that, without appropriate controls on behaviour,
bushmeat consumption could actually be increased by such activities, driving further
increases in hunting.
4.3. Subsistence Hunting of Bushmeat

Although hunters often retain some portion of meat from their catch, home
consumption is rarely the sole driver of hunting. Reference is commonly made to
subsistence hunters but the term is confusing as it confounds individuals who hunt
purely for home consumption and those who hunt to generate income to pay for
basic subsistence items and services. In reality, there is little distinction between
these two different types of hunters as both hunt to meet their basic needs.
In terms of the methods used, subsistence hunters do not differ significantly from
those who hunt commercially, except with respect to the frequency they visit the park
11
and the number of snares and traps they set. It is common for subsistence hunters to
join friends or relatives who hunt more often.
From the perspective of law enforcement, it is very difficult to distinguish between

those driven to hunt through need and those who hunt for commercial purposes.
However, poorer households are disproportionately affected by law enforcement
efforts as they are less likely to be involved in collusion with corrupt rangers and are
more likely to serve prison sentences as they may lack the means to pay fines. In
addition, increasing fines and custodial sentences may do little to change the
behaviour of individuals who hunt to meet their basic subsistence needs because
they may feel they have no alternative to hunting. As such, the provision of
alternative livelihood options is more likely to be effective in changing the behaviour
of subsistence rather than commercial hunters.
12
Oc
Oc
0.0 0.0
Plant Plant
c)
5. Current State of Wildlife Crimed) non−commercial
commmercial
In this section, the main areas inside and outside MFPA where wildlife crime rates
are greatest are described. How the main drivers of wildlife crime vary spatially is
also described. From this, priority areas0.7
to focus interventions are identified.
Occurrence probability
0.6 0.8
5.1. High Offence Occurrence Areas Within
0.5 the Protected Area 0.6
0.4
Using data collected by rangers during 0.3
patrols, Critchlow and colleagues 0.4 have
produced estimates for the probability0.2of commercial and non-commercial illegal
0.2
hunting occurring throughout MFPA (Critchlow
0.1 et al., 2016a). These estimates
suggest that non-commercial hunting (defined
0.0 here as illegal hunting for bushmeat
0.0 or
using snares) occurs throughout the park but commercial hunting (defined as illegal
hunting of elephant, buffalo or hippo) is restricted to smaller areas of MFPA (Figure
5.1).
Animal Animal
e)a f)a
commercial non−commercial
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
Low effort areas excluded from analysis
Figure 5.1: Occurrence probabilities of illegal activities in MFPA for commercial animal
hunting and non-commercial animal hunting (from Critchlow et al., 2016a)
Note: Areas in grey were excluded from the analysis due to an absence of data
5.2. Critical Sites Outside the Protected Area

The research undertaken as part of the IWT Challenge Fund project produced
estimates at the sub-county level for the proportion of households involved in hunting
for both subsistence and commercial purposes (Figure 5.2). This suggests that
Purongo sub-county and Kiryandongo district are the two areas in which the greatest
proportion of households are involved in illegal hunting.
5.3. Drivers of Priority Offences

As discussed in Section 3, the drivers of wildlife crime in MFPA are diverse. They
also vary spatially, with the result that actions to address specific drivers may be
more of a priority in some areas than in others.
5.3.1. Household poverty

Although poverty is not the primary driver of wildlife crime in MFPA (see Section 3),
some households are driven to hunting though need, either for food or to earn an
income. Figure 5.3 shows the mean poverty scores of households living in villages
13
within 3km of the park boundary for sub-counties bordering MFPA. This suggests
that Nebbi and Bulissa districts would be priority areas for actions aiming to reduce
poverty in order to reduce the need to hunt for basic subsistence. Households in
Kiryandongo district, in which a higher than average proportion of households are
involved in hunting, are on average better off than in other areas. This suggests that
this district would be a priority area for interventions to tackle commercial hunting.
Figure 5.2: Proportion of households per sub-county estimated to be involved in

commercial hunting (left) and subsistence hunting (right) in villages within 3km of the
park boundaries
Figure 5.3: Mean household poverty scores as found by the IWTCF project in 2015 for
villages within 3km of park boundary for each sub-county bordering MFPA. Lower
scores indicate poorer areas.
5.3.2. Human Wildlife Conflict

Human wildlife conflict (HWC) is frequently cited by local people as a driver of
hunting, particularly in relation to crop raiding by elephants. However, HWC is
unevenly distributed around the boundary of MFPA. The data relating to HWC are
incomplete as most incidences are not reported to UWA, but the majority of reports
relate to elephant crop raiding. However, it is clear that three districts (Kiryandongo,
14
Nwoya and Oyam) receive the bulk of HWC incidences (UCF, 2016). Between 2013
and the end of 2015, 413 incidences were recorded, with 141 incidences in
Kiryandongo (34%), 131 in Nwoya (32%) and 92 in Oyam (22%). As such, efforts to
mitigate HWC are best focussed in these three districts.
5.3.3. Camps for Internally Displaced People

Individuals living in displacement camps have limited means to feed themselves or
earn an income and, consequently, are often reliant on aid. In such situations,
hunting provides both a means to obtain meat, which is rarely included in emergency
food rations, and to generate an income (Jambiya et al., 2007). Although camps for
those internally displaced by the insurgency in northern Uganda have since been
closed, many of the people who lived in these camps became involved in hunting
during their time in the camps. As such, the former locations of these camps along
the northern and eastern borders of MFPA are strongly correlated with areas
associated with high levels of illegal hunting. Given that these are areas that have
been affected by the insurgency, efforts should be made to identify development
partners (e.g. the World Food Programme) or Government departments that may
have funds available to support livelihood activities.
5.4. Priority Areas to Combat Illegal Hunting

As part of the development process for the WCPAP, a planning meeting was held in
July 2016 at which priority areas for combatting wildlife crime were identified by
relevant UWA staff and NGO partners. The objective of this exercise was to identify
the parishes neighbouring the park that have the greatest impact on wildlife
populations within MFPA. The results of this prioritisation exercise were then
combined with the research findings from the IWTCF project to select the priority
areas that will become the focus of interventions planned to combat each of the
priority offences under the WCPAP.
5.4.1. Illegal Hunting of High Value Species

Three main areas were identified that are strongly associated with elephant hunting
in particular (Figure 5.4). These included an area in the northern region of the park in
Nwoya district, an area to the northeast of the park in Oyam district and an area
bordering Karuma Wildlife Reserve in Kiryandongo district. These three areas are
highly correlated with the areas in which elephant crop raiding is most frequently
recorded (see Section 5.3.2) and show good agreement with the findings of the
IWTCF research concerning prevalence of commercial hunting based on a
household survey (Figure 5.2).
15
Figure 5.4: Areas identified as being strongly associated with elephant hunting.
5.4.2. Illegal Bushmeat Hunting

There is a high degree of overlap between subsistence and commercial hunting of
bushmeat. Six parishes were identified as having the greatest impact on wildlife in
MFPA through both commercial and subsistence hunting: Acimii and Juma parishes
in Oyam district, Kakoora and Ngwedo parishes in Buliisa district and Latoro and
Pabit parishes in Nwoya district (Figure 5.5). This shows a strong degree of overlap
between the areas identified as being important for elephant hunting, with Purongo
and Myene sub-counties featuring in both maps.
Figure 5.5: Parishes identified as being strongly associated with commercial and subsistence
bushmeat hunting.
5.4.3. Priority Areas for Interventions to Combat Illegal Hunting

Given the high degree of overlap between the parishes identified as having the
greatest impact on wildlife in MFPA through illegal hunting of both high value and
bushmeat species, interventions implemented in these areas will contribute to
16
combatting all three offences prioritised under the WCPAP. This suggests that efforts
focussed in Purongo and Myene sub-counties will have the greatest impact on
wildlife crime. Interventions implemented in Kiryandongo district should have a
greater focus on the types of activity presented in Section 6 to combat hunting of
high value species and on efforts to mitigate human elephant conflict, while
interventions in Ngwedo and Kakoora parishes of Buliisa district should have a
greater focus on activities identified in Section 7 and 8 as most effective to combat
bushmeat hunting.
17
6. Illegal Hunting and Trade of High Value Species
The following section sets out the priority actions to be implemented under the
WCPAP to combat the illegal hunting and trade of high value species in MFPA. For
each action we provide a summary table that includes a cost estimate – based on the
GMP and AoP for 2016/17 – and a time frame for implementation (shaded cells in
the boxes indicate when activities should be implemented).
6.1. Target Groups
6.1.1. Elephant Hunters

Although a not insignificant proportion of elephants killed in MFPA are bycatch of the
commercial bushmeat trade, individuals that specifically target elephants are distinct
from bushmeat hunters in the methods that they employ and are the main focus of
efforts to combat the illegal hunting of high value species.
6.1.2. Traffickers
Middlemen and traders who travel to villages neighbouring MFPA are key players in
the trade of high value species, such as elephants and pangolins. They largely pose
as bushmeat buyers to make initial contact with hunters. Targeting these individuals
will disrupt the trade and increase the risk of arrest to hunters, as it will take them
longer to find a buyer.
6.1.3. Community Members

While only a very small proportion of individuals are directly involved in the illegal
hunting and trade of high value species in MFPA, community members can be „the
eyes and ears‟ of law enforcement officials through the provision of information on
hunters and traffickers.
6.2. Planned Activities

Law enforcement activities are the primary means by which illegal hunting and trade
of high value species are addressed through the WCPAP, with support provided by
community conservation activities aimed at encouraging the gathering of actionable
intelligence.
6.2.1. Law Enforcement Patrols

Law enforcement patrols are the first line of defence against illegal hunting and the
protection of wildlife in MFPA and serve two main purposes: to deter would-be
hunters from entering MFPA and arrest any individuals that do so (Keane et al.,
2008). Evidence from the Luangwa Valley, Zambia, has shown that increased
resource allocation to law enforcement is associated with declines in elephant killing
(Leader-Williams et al., 1990; Jachmann & Billiouw, 1997). However, in resource
limited contexts, such as MFPA, it is important to balance investment in activities that
focus on tacking wildlife crime directly and those that aim to reduce the incentive for
individuals to offend in the first place (Cooney et al., 2016).
The covert and targeted nature of elephant hunting means that law enforcement
patrols have a very short window in which to catch perpetrators. For patrols to be
effective, information is required on where, how, and by whom elephant killings are
undertaken (Stokes, 2012). Analysis of data collected through law enforcement
monitoring (LEM) can help identify those areas where there is the greatest risk of
offences occurring. This can help increase the level of detection of offenders and,
18
hence, increase both the rate of arrest and the level of deterrence created by patrols.
Piloting of the use of LEM data to improve the effectiveness of patrols in Queen
Elizabeth National Park increased the probability of detection in some cases by over
250% (Critchlow et al., 2016b). Greater use of such methods at MFPA has the
potential to result in similar improvements in patrol effectiveness and is under
development by WCS.
Targeted law enforcement patrols are also key in the control of firearms. Without
access to firearms, elephant hunters are dependent on less effective methods, such
as poisoning. Hunters report that access to firearms is one of the greatest
determinants of their ability to hunt elephants. As such, it is also important to work
with other security agencies to reduce the opportunity for hunter to illegally secure
firearms.
Table 6.1 Summary action table for law enforcement patrols. Costs are given in
Ugandan shillings per year.
Activity Owner Cost Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5

Conduct law enforcement patrols 260m
LEW
Expand use of LEM data to increase LEW /
5m
effectiveness of patrols WCS
Work with other security agencies to control
LEW 5m
firearms in priority areas
6.2.2. Community Informants

The GMP identifies the recruitment of informants within local communities and other
key market hotspots as a priority management action to combat the illegal trade in
ivory and wild meat. Given the covert nature of elephant hunting, the limited time
hunters spend inside MFPA and the short period of time between an elephant being
killed and the sale of its tusks, the gathering of actionable intelligence is critical to
improving the chances of arresting an elephant hunter with the evidence required to
convict them. Not only can intelligence-based enforcement improve detection but it
can also increase deterrence, as hunters know there is a greater chance of being
arrested and successfully prosecuted.
For intelligence-based law enforcement to be an effective tool, it is necessary to have

a network of informants who can provide on-the-ground information about illegal
activities (Stokes, 2012). Verification of intelligence, a key step in the process, may
require information from various sources rather than a single informant, making it
desirable to have multiple informants positioned within each hotspot community.
However, UWA has found the recruitment of informants difficult, particularly in
hotspot areas for hunting. People are less likely to provide information about the
activities of members of their own community (Wilkie & Painter, 2016), especially
when their relationship with the PA is poor. Hence, improving people-park relations is
a key step in developing an effective informant network for MFPA.
The IWT Challenge Fund research project showed that people living adjacent to
MFPA are significantly more likely to provide information on illegal activities if they
are benefiting from conservation interventions or effective actions are being taken to
mitigate HWC (Archer, 2015). Greater investment in such activities is expected to
significantly increase the rate of intelligence provision. Furthermore, individuals
benefiting from communal resource access agreements (see Section 8.2.3) and
wildlife scouts (see Section 7.2.2) are required to provide information on illegal
19
activities as part of their agreements with UWA. As the intelligence provided by these
groups has so far not met expectations, further work is required to ensure that these
groups understand and honour their responsibilities as part of their agreements.
Individuals who act as informers against members of their own community put
themselves at risk of both physical reprisals and ostracism. UWA has a duty of care
to protect those providing information and it is essential that informants‟ identities
remain strictly confidential and that direct interaction with informants is kept to a
minimum. The use of toll-free hotlines can be useful in this regard. In general,
individuals are more likely to become informants if they have developed mutual trust
with law enforcement rangers or there is a facility to provide information
anonymously. It is also important that informants are provided with proper guidance
on how to present themselves. In the past, informants have been keen to associate
themselves with UWA and, in the process, have revealed their role to the wider
community.
The provision of rewards in return for actionable intelligence is a common practice in

law enforcement (Kash, 2002) and is often necessary to develop an effective
informant network. In Thailand, WCS, in collaboration with Global Conservation,
have implemented an anonymous informant rewards system that uses informants‟
mobile phones. Informants‟ phone numbers are scrambled to keep their identity
anonymous and they receive rewards through their phone of $200 for an arrest and
$1000 for a successful prosecution. The implementation of a similar system for
MFPA, albeit with different rewards, has the potential to support intelligence
gathering and improve the effectiveness of law enforcement activities.
Table 6.2 Summary action table for community informants. Costs are given in Ugandan
shillings per year. + indicates activity supported by external funding; * indicates
activity requiring additional funding.

Intelligence unit operation LEW 30m
Training in intelligence gathering UCF/ +

WCS
Support for community conservation initiatives in
See Sections 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 8.2.4
priority areas
Provision of training to informants LEW 4m
Work with resource access groups and wildlife
WCC 4m
scouts to increase provision of intelligence
Feasibility study into introduction of mobile money
CAM *
based anonymous informant reward system
6.2.3. Working with the Judiciary

The sentencing of individuals arrested for wildlife crimes is a key determinant of the
ability of law enforcement activities to deter would-be offenders. As such, it is
important that individuals prosecuted for serious wildlife crimes, such as the illegal
hunting and trade of endangered, high value species, receive appropriate sentences.
In the past, however, this process has been hindered by sentencing magistrates
treating wildlife crimes as minor offences and handing down minimum sentences,
such as community service, that fail to provide a deterrent to those involved.
Logistical constraints have also led to poor record keeping, with the result that repeat
and first time offenders often receive similar sentences. Working with magistrates
and police can help to improve the processing of offenders through the criminal
justice system (Lindsey et al., 2013).
20
As part of the IWT Challenge Fund project, WCS has supported the development of
a wildlife crime database in which the records of each offence and the personal
details of each offender are stored. The use of this database will help to ensure that
successfully prosecuted repeat offenders receive appropriate sentencing. It should,
however, be noted that working to increase the severity of sentences is likely to be
ineffective if the probability that offenders are arrested remains low (Leader-Williams
& Milner-Gulland, 1993).
Table 6.3 Summary action table for working with the judiciary. Costs are given in

Awareness raising of magistrates LEW 10m
Follow up court cases and participate in prosecutions LEW 12m
Maintenance of offenders database LEW -
6.3. Measures of Success

This section identifies a set of key performance targets and indicators against which
the success of the interventions proposed in Section 6.2 will be measured. Targets
have been set for the 5 year period covered by the WCPAP alongside longer term
goals so make clear how the planned interventions fit within a longer term strategy to
combat illegal hunting and trading of high value species (Table 6.4).
In this context, goals are defined as being the ultimate objectives that follow from
planned impacts; impacts are the strategic-level objectives from planned
interventions; performance targets give the desired direction of change of planned
outcomes resulting from specific activities and performance indicators are the
quantities identified to measure progress towards those targets.
illegal hunting and trade in high value wildlife. * indicates performance indicators
dependent on additional funding being secured.
Goal: Increased populations of species targeted in the illegal hunting and trade of high value
wildlife
Impact: Reduced hunting and trade of high value wildlife species
Performance Targets Annual Performance Indicators
1.1 Increased effectiveness 1.1.1 Distance patrolled in priority areas
of law enforcement patrols 1.1.2 Armed hunters arrested per unit effort
1.1.3 Proportion of illegally killed elephants
1.2 Increased effectiveness 1.2.1 # of registered informants in priority villages
of intelligence network 1.2.2 Proportion of arrests/prosecutions resulting from community
intelligence
1.2.3 # of firearms secured resulting from community intelligence
1.2.4 Completed feasibility assessment of anonymous informant reward
system*
1.3 Increased sentencing of 1.3.1 Average sentences for ivory offences
high value wildlife crimes 1.3.2 Average sentences for offences relating to pangolins
1.3.3 Average sentences of repeat offenders
21
6.4. Conceptual Model of Planned Interventions
This section presents a conceptual model (Figure 6.1) that has been developed to
show how the interventions planned to combat illegal hunting and trade in high value
wildlife (Section 6.2) are expected to achieve their performance targets for the 5 year
period covered by the WCPAP and beyond (Section 6.3).
Figure 6.1: Conceptual model showing how planned interventions are expected to
achieve performance targets.
22
7. Commercial Bushmeat Hunting
The following section sets out the priority actions that will be implemented under the
WCPAP to combat commercial bushmeat hunting and trade in MFPA. For each
action we provide a summary table that includes a cost estimate – based on the
GMP and AoP for 2016/17 – and a time frame for implementation (shaded cells in
the boxes indicate when activities should be implemented).
7.1. Target Groups
7.1.1. Commercial Hunters

Commercial hunters represent the biggest threat to wildlife in MFPA, with the
predominant use of indiscriminate methods, such as snaring and trapping, resulting
in significant losses to endangered non-target species (e.g. lions, chimpanzees),
wastage through injuries and spoilage. Commercial hunting is also widespread, with
a high off-take volume to satisfy demand for bushmeat at both a local and national
level. There is, however, a balance to be struck with regards to how commercial
bushmeat hunters are targeted directly through law enforcement or included in
community conservation activities; both activities are required so that the immediate
gains from law enforcement can be consolidated into long-term behavioural change
via community conservation.
7.1.2. Bushmeat Traders

Although the majority of meat harvested from MFPA is sold and consumed locally,
the wider trade in bushmeat to urban centres and the sale of bushmeat in small chop
shops also accounts for a significant volume. The bulk of meat entering the wider
domestic bushmeat market does so in trading centres located along the park
boundary and is sold to bushmeat traders looking to supply demand from markets
and restaurants in urban areas.
7.1.3. Young Men

Commercial bushmeat hunting is almost entirely carried out by men (Lindsey et al.,
2011), the majority of whom become involved in hunting at a young age. Breaking
the cycle of recruitment of the next generation of hunters will be vital for the long-
term success of UWA‟s effort to combat illegal hunting.
7.1.4. Poor Households

Poor households are disproportionately impacted by law enforcement but in many
instances are driven to illegal hunting through need or lack of available alternatives.
Efforts to combat commercial bushmeat hunting and trade must ensure that
vulnerable households are not adversely impacted.

In order to combat commercial bushmeat hunting and trade, a balance is required
between interventions that aim to increase the direct costs experienced by
commercial hunters, such as law enforcement patrols, and those that seek to
address the underlying drivers of hunting, such as efforts to mitigate the impact of
HWC or ensure that communities adjacent to MFPA directly benefit from wildlife. The
approach set out in the WCPAP is to focus law enforcement activities on the
detection and prosecution of offenders coupled with community conservation
23
activities aimed at building effective working relationships with communities in
hotspot areas. The emphasis of community conservation interventions will be to work
with all community members, rather than focussing efforts specifically on households
involved in commercial bushmeat hunting or trade, in order to develop mutual trust
between community members and UWA. In this way, the aim will be to achieve a
broad change in attitudes towards MFPA, further community support for conservation
and reduce dependence on commercial hunting of bushmeat.
7.2.1. Law Enforcement Patrols and Intelligence Gathering

As with efforts to counter commercial trade in high value species, law enforcement
patrols are a vital line of defence against commercial bushmeat hunting. In 2013
alone, nearly 3500 wire snares were collected from inside the park and 245 arrests
were made. However, the scale of the problem represents a major challenge for law
enforcement efforts. The IWT CHALLENGE FUND research shows that 42% of
households living in villages within 3km of the boundary of MFPA had been involved
in hunting for sale at some point in the year preceding the research. This suggests
that only a small proportion of the individuals involved in commercial hunting end up
being arrested. This was backed up by the findings from interviews with known
hunters, which found that approximately only 1 in 500-1000 of incursions into the
park by illegal hunters result in arrest.
These research findings have significant implications for law enforcement activities in
MFPA, as they suggest that the deterrent effect currently created by patrolling is
limited; a conclusion supported by the interviews with illegal hunters who widely
reported that they were not concerned about encountering patrols while hunting. It
also has implications for efforts to increase the sentences handed down to convicted
offenders (e.g. through the new Wildlife Act), as these are only likely to be effective if
the probability of hunters being arrested is increased. There is strong evidence from
a range of different types of crime that people are much more sensitive to increased
probability of capture than they are to increased penalties once caught. It is, however,
likely that law enforcement patrols continue to have some deterrent effect or else a
higher proportion of households would be expected to be involved in commercial
hunting. As with hunting and trade in high value species, the effectiveness of patrols
can be improved through the use of LEM data (Stokes, 2010). This will serve to
increase not only the number of hunters being arrested, but also the number of
snares and wheel traps detected and removed from the park, resulting in lower
mortality of wildlife.
An effective network of community informants is also an important part of efforts to

combat commercial hunting. However, informants are less likely to provide
information about the involvement of other community members in commercial
bushmeat hunting than they are in the hunting and trade of higher value species, as
they are likely to be more sympathetic of their reasons for doing so. Consequently,
emphasis will be placed on the use of informants to identify individuals involved in
the wider distribution of bushmeat to urban centres. This will have the result of
disrupting the trade and limiting the opportunities for hunters to find buyers for the
meat they harvest.
Despite the importance of law enforcement efforts in combatting the commercial

trade in bushmeat, it is also important to recognise the potential for enforcement
activities to undermine the relationships between communities living adjacent to
MFPA and those responsible for its management. Individuals arrested inside the
boundaries of MFPA frequently report excessive use of violence, including beatings
and, in some cases, torture. Similarly, UWA is commonly suspected of involvement
24
in the disappearance of community members inside the park. Such complaints,
whether justified or not, are widely believed and can have serious, long-term effects
on efforts to build trust with communities. It is also felt by local people that when
complaints are raised, they are not taken seriously by MFPA management. It is
therefore essential that such matters are addressed as they arise. Greater
coordination between law enforcement and community conservation units is also
required at the operational level to minimise the potential for conflicts to arise. As
such, quarterly law enforcement meetings will include coordination between law
enforcement and community conservation units.
Table 7.1: Summary action table for law enforcement activities. Costs are given in

Conduct law enforcement patrols in priority areas
See Section 6.2.1
Expand use of LEM data to increase effectiveness
See Section 6.2.1
of patrols
Gather intelligence on commercial bushmeat traders
See Section 6.2.2
Support for community conservation initiatives in
See Sections 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 8.2.4
priority areas
Quarterly coordination meetings between law LEW /
8m
enforcement and community conservation units WCC
Compassionate support to bereaved or injured
WCC 15m
community members
7.2.2. Human Wildlife Conflict Mitigation and Wildlife Scouts

Human wildlife conflict (HWC) is one of the primary drivers of wildlife crime, with the
IWT Challenge Fund research finding that households that suffered from livestock
predation were 26% more likely to hunt than those that did not. HWC is also the most
commonly given reason for local people‟s negative attitude towards MFPA,
particularly in those areas affected by elephant crop raiding. This is compounded by
the commonly held perception that incidences of HWC are not responded to or taken
seriously by MFPA management. As such, any effort to develop stronger working
relationships between UWA and communities living adjacent to MFPA must set out
to reduce the costs that local people experience through HWC and ensure that
incidences of HWC are responded to.
The wildlife scout programme, in which local community volunteers are tasked with
responding to incidences of HWC, was initiated to address some of these concerns.
The aim of this programme is twofold: to reduce the incidences of HWC and to
improve relationships with local communities by ensuring that incidences of HWC are
responded to. To date, the programme has been implemented in 18 parishes
adjacent to MFPA and has recruited 393 wildlife scouts with support from the African
Wildlife Foundation (AWF). Further support will be provided in Purongo sub-county
by the Uganda Conservation Foundation (UCF). All scouts receive training and basic
equipment to assist them in their duties but one of the major challenges facing the
programme is how to maintain the participation of the volunteers. Consequently,
wildlife scouts have been provided with additional support and training in chilli
farming. Participating scouts are linked with buyers from Gulu and given seeds and
training in cultivation methods. This provides the scouts with a source of income and
the raw materials required for chilli based elephant deterrents.
25
As part of the IWT Challenge Fund project, a review of best practice for wildlife
scouts has been undertaken, with lessons learned from other national parks in
Uganda and other countries in the region where wildlife scouts or similar schemes
have been implemented. The review covers all operational aspects of the wildlife
scout programme and makes a series of recommendations for how wildlife scout
programmes in Uganda can be improved. Of chief importance are the issues of
recruitment and maintaining the motivation of wildlife scouts to participate in the
programme (Mwedde et al., in prep). Recommendations are also made for how to
maximise the benefits that the programme can bring to improving the relationship
with communities involved in the scheme.
The recruitment process for the wildlife scouts programme is critical to its success.
One of the recommendations stemming from the best practice review is that
participants should be selected through a transparent process that is independent of
local leaders in order to avoid suspicions of corruption or nepotism. Focussing
recruitment at young men will bring additional benefits as it will provide them with a
way of occupying their time, help them to access new sources of income and reduce
the chances of them becoming involved in hunting.
As wildlife scouts are not employed by UWA and do not receive salaries, it is
important that they benefit from their participation in the scheme through other
means. Without this, it is expected that participation in the programme will quickly
decline after volunteers‟ initial enthusiasm recedes. The chilli enterprise schemes,
and other such schemes discussed further in Section 7.2.3, are seen as a good way
to maintain participation, whilst providing secondary benefits for the programme in
the way of raw materials for deterring wildlife. Similarly, village savings groups, which
enable members to build up capital and invest in enterprises through small loans can
be linked to wildlife scouts as an incentive for participation in the programme. Such
support is proposed for wildlife scout groups working with UCF in Purongo sub-
county.
However, the chief benefit of the wildlife scout programme is not to the wildlife scouts
but to the wider community in terms of fewer incidences of HWC, as well as lower
impact and greater level of response when incidences occur. In the past, one of the
main issues affecting the response to incidences has been the tendency of
individuals to exaggerate their claims of damage caused by wildlife. These claims
may be widely believed by other community members who do not see the scale of
the damage actually caused for themselves. This serves to greatly amplify
communities‟ perception of the impact of HWC and also hampers efforts to
understand the scale of the issue. It is recommended that the duties of wildlife scouts
be extended to include the assessment and documentation of damage caused by
wildlife. The wildlife scouts supported by UCF will be equipped with smartphone
devices to enable them to monitor incidences of HWC. In this way, it will be easier to
track the scale of HWC in affected villages and, although the Wildlife Act does not
currently provide for compensation to be given to affected households, responding to
individual incidences of HWC will serve as an important demonstration that the issue
is being taken seriously by UWA.
In addition to the wildlife scout programme, existing HWC mitigation infrastructure will
be maintained and expanded to cover additional areas.
26
Table 7.2 Summary action table for HWC mitigation activities. Costs are given in
Ugandan shillings per year. + indicates activity supported by external funding; *
indicates activity in need of additional funding.

Maintain support for existing wildlife scouts and
AWCC 20m *
expand to new areas
Implement recommendations of wildlife scout best
AWCC 5m *
practice review
Support for wildlife scouts in Purongo sub-county
UCF +
Support for wildlife friendly enterprise initiatives
See Section 7.2.3
Maintenance and expansion of HWC mitigation
AWCC 50m
infrastructure
Scare shooting and ranger response to HWC
AWCC 11m
7.2.3. Wildlife-Friendly Enterprise Schemes

Wildlife-friendly enterprise schemes aim to provide direct benefits to local
communities from the conservation of wildlife in return for pro-conservation behaviour.
The creation of alternative income streams is intended to reduce reliance on the
income gained through involvement in commercial bushmeat hunting and trade.
When well designed, enterprise schemes can also bring many secondary benefits,
such as promoting the institutional development of communities (Clements et al.,
2010), providing facilities for micro-lending, producing the raw materials for wildlife
deterrence or reducing vulnerability to crop-raiding, improving community attitudes
towards conservation and reducing reliance on bushmeat as a source of protein (see
Section 8.2.4).
Livelihood-based interventions may fail if:

the link between income generating opportunities and conservation is weak
there is no market for the goods produced
the livelihood activities promoted become additional to rather than substitute
for illegal activities as a result of no or weak „conditionality‟ (i.e. compliance
with commitments to pro-conservation behaviour is not monitored or
enforced)
participant households and individuals recruited to the interventions are not
the ones involved in illegal activities
the activities promoted do not substitute the benefits gained through
bushmeat hunting (e.g. quick profits, social status; van Vliet, 2011)
the seasonal labour requirements of promoted activities do not match peak
hunting periods
gender specific roles are not accounted for.
Such failings can be avoided with care but it is important to note that livelihood-based
interventions may require time and substantial levels of on-going external investment
(both of time, capacity and funding) to achieve a positive impact.
Activities will focus on the production of chilli and honey, both of which are already
supported in different areas of MFPA, and UCF support for home gardens, in which
27
participating households produce fresh vegetables to supply the needs of tourist
lodges. In the first instance, the emphasis of these interventions will be on
demonstrating the benefits of participation, developing community acceptance of
activities, creating market linkages and building the capacity of the institutions
necessary for long-term success. In the longer term, increasing emphasis will need
to be placed on demonstrating the sustainability of the enterprises created,
diversification of products (e.g. agro-forestry, non-palatable crops) and building
towards stricter compliance structures as acceptance and capacity increases.
The products identified for initial development (chilli, honey) have the advantage that
they are directly linked to activities that reduce the costs associated with wildlife (e.g.
HWC mitigation). In the future, this linkage can be strengthened by marketing
processed wildlife friendly products (e.g. chilli sauce or honey) for sale in tourist
lodges, urban centres or international markets. In the case of the UCF-supported
home garden project, the produce is already directly linked to wildlife-based tourism.
Initially, recruitment will not explicitly focus on specific groups, with the exception of
wildlife scouts (as a means of sustaining their motivation to participate in the
programme; see Section 7.2.3). The purpose of this is to increase the broader
acceptance and support of the activities, rather than to specifically target those
households engaged in commercial bushmeat hunting. This approach also has the
advantage that it avoids creating perverse incentives, whereby households not
engaged in commercial hunting or trade may be encouraged to start doing so in
order to meet participation criteria. However, the knowledge generated by the IWT
Challenge Fund project about hotspots for commercial hunting (Section 5.2) and
about the demographic profiles of commercial hunters can help in targeting particular
areas and groups for initial support. The UCF supported home gardens intervention
aims to recruit at least 60% women.
It is important to note that the aim of the wildlife friendly enterprise interventions is to
develop alternative income streams to reduce reliance on commercial hunting or
trade of bushmeat and, alongside other activities, to raise overall household well-
being. In addition, as a major driver of hunting is the need to obtain money to meet
particular costs (e.g. medical bills), micro-lending facilities can be offered by
community enterprise groups to enable members to cope with unexpected costs
without depending on hunting. Similarly, as community enterprise groups will be
registered as community based organisations (CBOs), they will be able to submit
proposals for projects to be funded by revenue sharing. An additional benefit will be
to increase the incomes of participating households. While this result is to be
welcomed, in the absence of efforts to increase the supply of alternative sources of
protein (see Section 8.2.4), it may also be associated with rising bushmeat
consumption as households can afford to buy more meat. Hence, efforts to tackle
consumption will be essential for ensuring the long-term success of interventions
targeting a reduction in commercial bushmeat hunting and trade. Participation in
these schemes should be conditional on giving up bushmeat hunting and
consumption, and this conditionality should be monitored and enforced (see Section
10.1.2).
28
Table 7.3 Summary action table for wildlife friendly enterprises. Costs are given in
Ugandan shillings per year. + indicates activity supported by external funding; *
indicates activity in need of additional funding.
Implement chilli and honey based wildlife friendly WCC /

+
enterprise initiatives in Nwoya district AWF
Support development of community food gardens at
UCF +
pilot site in Ngwedo sub-county
Capacity building for community enterprise groups
WCC 10m *
Identify opportunities for diversifying products
WCC *
Implement stricter monitoring and compliance
WCC 5m *
structures

illegal commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat.
Goal: Increased populations of species targeted in the commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat
Impact: Reduced hunting and trade of bushmeat species
Performance Targets Annual Performance Indicators
2.1 Increased effectiveness 2.1.1 Distance patrolled in priority areas
of law enforcement activities 2.1.2 # of snares removed from MFPA per unit effort
2.1.3 Proportion of traders arrested/prosecuted as a result of intelligence
provided by community informants
2.2 Reduced impact of HWC 2.2.1 # of HWC incidences measured by wildlife scouts
on local livelihoods and well- 2.2.2 Estimated damage caused due to HWC incidences measured by
being wildlife scouts
2.2.3 Perception of impact of living adjacent to MFPA in priority areas
2.2.4 Chilli yield used in wildlife deterrence
2.2.5 Length of boundary covered by bee hives
2.3 Reduced dependence 2.3.1 # of households engaged in wildlife friendly enterprises
on income from commercial 2.3.2 Household income from wildlife friendly enterprises
bushmeat hunting 2.3.3 Income and yields from farming in areas of high HWC
29
7.4. Theory of Change/Conceptual Model
This section presents a conceptual model (Figure 7.1) that has been developed to
show how the interventions planned to combat illegal hunting and trade in high value
wildlife (Section 7.2) are expected to achieve their performance targets for the 5 year
period covered by the WCPAP and beyond (Section 7.3).
Figure 7.1: Conceptual model showing how planned interventions to combat

commercial bushmeat hunting and trade are expected to achieve performance targets.
30
8. Subsistence Bushmeat Hunting
The following section sets out the priority actions that will be implemented under the
WCPAP to combat subsistence bushmeat hunting in MFPA. For each action we
provide a summary table that includes a cost estimate – based on the GMP and AoP
for 2016/17 – and a time frame for implementation (shaded cells in the boxes
indicate when activities should be implemented).
8.1. Target Groups
8.1.1. Food Insecure, Poor and Otherwise Vulnerable Households

Households that are food insecure, poor or otherwise vulnerable, particularly those
that have little access to alternative sources of protein, are most likely to engage in
the hunting of bushmeat purely for consumption in the home. They are also the most
vulnerable to reductions in the supply of bushmeat.
8.1.2. Children
Although children play little part in hunting, except in times of extreme need, many
will grow up to become the next generation of hunters or bushmeat consumers. As
such, the attitudes of children to wildlife are an important determinant of conservation
outcomes in the future.

Subsistence hunting is predominantly driven by need. Consequently, efforts to tackle
subsistence hunting will be most effective if directed at reducing household
consumption of bushmeat, rather than punishing individuals involved in hunting.
Attempting to address subsistence hunting through law enforcement measures is
likely to disproportionately impact poor and otherwise vulnerable households and
undermine efforts to improve relationships with local communities. Where
households are driven by need, reduced access to bushmeat without increased
availability of alternative sources of protein will impact household food security and
nutrition, which can result in stunting of children and have serious impacts on long-
term productivity. As such, activities identified in this section focus on reducing
household consumption of bushmeat and ensuring the supply of alternative sources
of protein.
8.2.1. Inland Water Law Enforcement Patrols

One of the primary sources of animal protein in communities adjacent to MFPA is
fish harvested from the River Nile (both Victoria and Albert Nile) and Lake Albert.
Evidence from several studies show that fish is strongly substitutable with bushmeat
(Rentsch & Damon, 2013), suggesting that a decline in fish stocks is likely to result in
a significant increase in demand for bushmeat. Given that fish productivity in Lake
Albert is declining as a result of over-fishing (von Sarnowski, 2004), use of illegal
gear and illegal fishing in park waters and breeding grounds, it is to be expected that
the demand for bushmeat will increase in response. As such, it is important to work
with district fisheries officers to protect inland fish resources.
31
Table 8.1 Summary action table for inland water enforcement patrols. Costs are given
in Ugandan shillings per year.

Work with district fisheries officers to protect fish
LEW/DFO 50m
stocks
8.2.2. Community Outreach

In part, the consumption of bushmeat is driven by preference and attitudes towards
wildlife. Wild animals are primarily perceived as a source of meat or as a threat to
people or livelihoods. MFPA is similarly perceived negatively. As such, UWA
undertakes a series of community outreach activities, including awareness raising
meetings, radio talk shows and a school conservation education programme, in
which local schools run wildlife clubs associated with the Wildlife Club of Uganda.
The aim of these activities is to increase community awareness of the value of
conservation and wildlife and to complement the activities described in Section 7 to
improve community perceptions of MFPA.
Table 8.2 Summary action table for community outreach. Costs are given in Ugandan
shillings per year.

Community awareness raising meetings 7m
WCC
Radio talk shows 6m
WCC
School conservation education programme 5m
WCC
8.2.3. Resource Access Agreements

Resource access agreements are made with local communities under the 2000
Uganda Wildlife Act regulations governing the granting of wildlife use rights. The
purpose of these agreements is to allow local communities to access resources,
such as fish, grasses and firewood, from within the park and to permit the use of
MFPA land to house beehives. This allows local communities that sign
memorandums of understanding (MoUs) with UWA to benefit directly from the park
and to help meet their basic needs for building materials, fuel, protein and income.
As discussed in Section 6.2.2, members of resource user groups benefiting from
resource access MoUs are required to provide information on illegal activities and
self-monitor compliance with the terms of the MoU, leaving the system open to abuse.
Currently, only one MoU has been signed allowing a resource user group to fish
inside the park. Such agreements, provided that fish stocks can be harvested
sustainably, can reduce reliance on bushmeat through the provision of a
substitutable alternative source of protein.
32
Table 8.3 Summary action table for resource access agreements. Costs are given in

Work with resource access groups to increase
See Section 6.2.2
provision of intelligence
Prioritise expansion of resource access
WCC 5m
agreements to include fishing
8.2.4. Animal Husbandry and Wildlife Ranching

The production of alternative sources of animal protein will be important to avoid
threatening the food security of local communities, particularly as efforts to reduce
commercial bushmeat hunting and trade will reduce the supply of bushmeat in
villages adjacent to MFPA. This reduction in the availability of bushmeat is expected
to result in an increase in price, making the production of alternative sources of
protein, such as poultry, goat and beef, more profitable by increasing the demand for
domestic meat. This in turn may serve to provide additional incentives for livestock
husbandry. It may also increase the viability of wildlife ranching outside MFPA to
partially compensate for the reduced supply of bushmeat from inside the park.
In the event of increasing bushmeat prices, support for livestock raising for the
production of meat (as opposed to storing capital), including training on husbandry
techniques, intensification of production, disease management and book keeping,
can provide the impetus for the creation of new small businesses in communities
adjacent to MFPA. Increasing the supply of domestic meat, which is substitutable for
bushmeat on price, is expected to reduce demand for bushmeat among poorer
households, who largely select animal protein on the basis of price rather than
preference.
Under the 2000 Uganda Wildlife Act, individuals, communities or lead agencies may
apply for wildlife user rights. Class A wildlife user rights allow for sport hunting on
private or community land, Class C rights allow for wildlife ranching and Class D
rights allow for trade in wildlife and wildlife products. In priority areas, where
bushmeat hunting is currently high, wildlife ranching offers the potential to replace
some of the meat harvested from inside MFPA, while sport hunting and the sale of
wildlife products have the potential to create additional revenue streams. This may
be particularly relevant for community land in Nwoya district, where livestock
numbers remain depressed after losses during the northern rebellion and legal
household incomes are low. Where demand for bushmeat is partly driven by the
preference for bushmeat of higher-income households, the production of legal game
meat can serve to reduce illegal hunting. There are, however, many practical barriers
to wildlife ranching, especially at the community level, including high initial costs, elite
capture, restrictions on the trade of meat and other animal products, variable supply
of meat, laundering of illegally caught bushmeat and financial viability concerns
(Lyndsey et al., 2013). As such, it will be necessary to undertake a thorough
feasibility assessment – potentially in partnership with an NGO with experience of
facilitating community based natural resource management start up projects.
Although reductions in bushmeat hunting are not guaranteed by increasing the

supply of alternative protein sources, the primary purpose of this intervention is to
complement the activities set out in Section 7 by reducing demand and providing a
safety net for those adversely affected by efforts to reduce the supply of bushmeat
through other means as they transition towards reduced consumption of wild meat.
33
Table 8.4 Summary action table for animal husbandry and wildlife ranching. Costs are
given in Ugandan shillings per year. * indicates activities requiring support from
external funding.

Support for small livestock enterprises *
WCC
Feasibility study into the creation of community *
WCC
wildlife ranching and sport hunting

illegal commercial hunting and trade of bushmeat. * indicates performance indicators
dependent on additional funding being secured.
Goal: Increased populations of species targetted by subsistence bushmeat hunting

Impact: Reduced subsistence hunting of bushmeat species
Performance Targets Performance Indicators
3.1 Increased awareness of 3.1.1 Perceptions of benefits of conservation among children in priority
benefits of conservation areas
3.1.2 Perceptions of benefits of conservation among adults in priority
areas
3.2 Reduced dependence 3.2.1 # of resource users permitted to fish within MFPA
on bushmeat in priority 3.2.2 Price of key bushmeat species per kilo
areas 3.2.3 Price of domestic meat per kilo
3.3 Increased food security 3.3.1 # of arrests/prosecutions for illegal fishing
in priority areas 3.3.2 # of individuals trained in livestock rearing*
3.3.3 Yield of domestic meat produced by trained farmers*
3.3.4 Feasibility study of wildlife ranching completed*
8.4. Theory of Change/Conceptual Model

Figure 8.1 presents a conceptual model that has been developed to show how the
interventions planned to combat subsistence bushmeat hunting (Section 8.2) are
expected to achieve their performance targets for the 5 year period covered by the
WCPAP and beyond (Section 8.3).
34
Figure 8.1: Conceptual model showing how planned interventions to combat
subsistence bushmeat hunting are expected to achieve performance targets.
35
9. Intervention Linkages
The following section presents some of main the linkages between the interventions
planned for different priority offences, highlighting opportunities for synergies
between activities.
9.1. Community Conservation Increases Effectiveness of Intelligence Network

Community conservation and law enforcement efforts are often treated separately,
yet both can work synergistically to tackle wildlife crime in MFPA. An example of one
of the ways this can work is the role that community conservation activities can play
in increasing the provision of actionable intelligence, which can lead to the arrest and
prosecution of individuals involved in illegal hunting and trade of wildlife (see
Sections 6.2.2 and 6.4). In this way community conservation activities strengthen law
enforcement efforts, making them more effective and helping them to create a
stronger deterrent for illegal activities.
9.2. Law Enforcement Affects Effectiveness of Community Conservation

Just as community conservation can strengthen law enforcement within MFPA, law
enforcement efforts also form an important component of community conservation
activities. While some degree of self-monitoring of compliance with community rules
governing participation in activities such as wildlife friendly enterprises is desirable,
the deterrent effect produced by the presence of possible legal sanctions will
influence decision-making, creating both a push and pull effect for avoiding
involvement in wildlife crime.
However, although law enforcement activities can work with community conservation
to help drive pro-conservation behaviour, they can also work against it. The
perceptions of local people towards the park are strongly affected by incidents
connected with law enforcement. This is particularly true if members of a community
are believed to have been injured or killed by rangers, but may also be caused by the
attitude displayed by rangers to local people more generally. The use of appropriate
force in performance of duties is expected of law enforcement rangers but it is
important that rangers are aware of the implications of their actions and that they
treat local people fairly and respectfully.
9.3. Wildlife Friendly Enterprises Linked to Human Wildlife Conflict Mitigation

While both wildlife friendly enterprises and human wildlife conflict mitigation help to
reduce household dependence on income derived from wildlife crime, the direct
outcomes of the two activities are also linked. By including wildlife scouts, or
members of their household, in wildlife friendly enterprises, scouts are provided with
both support and raw materials for their actions. Similarly, enterprises linked to
beekeeping, or the production of non-palatable crops, reduce the risk of crop raiding.
9.4. Supply and Demand of Bushmeat and Alternative Protein Sources

The supply and demand of bushmeat and alternative sources of protein are
intricately linked, with bushmeat and other forms of protein substitutable for each
other. This means that as the supply of bushmeat is reduced through interventions
planned within the WCPAP, demand for alternative sources of protein is expected to
increase. This is turn is expected to make the production of livestock, game and
sustainably managed fish more profitable, further reducing dependence on bushmeat.
36
10. Enabling Conditions and Implementation Barriers
In this section, the primary enabling conditions and barriers to the successful
implementation of the interventions presented in Section 6, 7 and 8 are described
and appropriate measures to mitigate implementation barriers identified.
10.1. Availability of Funds

The availability of funds remains one of the biggest constraints on UWA‟s operational
capacity for the management of MFPA, particularly with regards to community
conservation activities. In the past, this lack of funds has meant the discontinuation of
activities aimed at reducing wildlife crime, such as reformed poacher associations,
that were either seen as cost ineffective or did not have the available funds to
support them. This is particularly so when tourist revenues in any individual year are
lower than expected and annual budgets have to be revised down. Such budgetary
adjustments typically fall hardest on community conservation activities, which can
have long-term consequences in terms of undermining community trust and reducing
the effectiveness of activities. In addition, while UWA recognises the contribution of
external donor support and collaboration with NGOs to its efforts to combat wildlife
crime, such support is not always targeted at the areas of greatest need.
One of the primary objectives of the WCPAP is to set out priority activities for
reducing wildlife crime, so that resources can be focussed where they will have the
greatest effect, and identify opportunities for greater synergies between activities in
order to maximise their effectiveness. As such, although budgetary adjustments may
still be necessary, the role and relative importance of different activities in combatting
wildlife crime at MFPA is clear.
The WCPAP has also identified areas that, while not currently funded internally,
would increase UWA‟s capacity to combat wildlife crime at MFPA, either through
support of existing activities or the creation of new initiatives, and may be suitable for
external support or greater internal support should funds be made available. The
intention here is to demonstrate how individual activities fit within a wider plan to
tackle wildlife crime and to clearly identify priority areas suitable for collaboration with
NGOs seeking to partner with UWA. It is strongly recommended that such
collaborations are actively pursued to support the activities identified in the WCPAP.
10.2. Cultural Mindsets and Community Engagement

One of the greatest challenges to the success of the interventions planned under the
WCPAP is the current relationship between MFPA management and communities,
particularly in priority areas. The state of this relationship stems mostly from the poor
perception of MFPA held by local people but is also caused by the suspicion with
which local people are viewed by some members of UWA staff. For the planned
interventions to have the greatest impact, it will be important to bridge the current
gap between local communities and the park. Many of the interventions included in
the WCPAP are directly aimed at doing this and present a roadmap for how this
relationship can be improved but it will also require a change in mindset to believe
that conservation partners and local people can work together towards common
goals.
How compliance is handled is particularly important. The long-term effectiveness of

the community conservation interventions planned within the WCPAP relies on
developing compliance structures, including self-monitoring, community agreed and
enforced sanctions and rewards, transparent reporting and conflict resolution
procedures. Yet such structures take time to be developed and, perhaps more
37
importantly, accepted. Over-zealous enforcement of compliance at an early stage
may jeopardise acceptance, particularly if the benefits of participation are not felt
immediately.
10.3. Perverse Incentives

The provision of positive incentives to change behaviour is one of the three guiding
principles on which the WCPAP is based. However, it is important to avoid the
creation of perverse incentives that may encourage behaviour that threatens the
long-term success of the WCPAP. The primary challenge in this regard is ensuring
that households not currently engaged in wildlife crime are not incentivised to
become involved in crime on the basis that this will increase their chances of
participation in one of the planned community conservation interventions, an effect
that can emerge both within communities and between communities.
At the local level, if incentives are directed at households engaged in wildlife crime
there is a risk that this may encourage law-abiding households to become involved in
wildlife crime specifically to become eligible for external support, or cause
resentment at the perceived unfairness. Such an effect would threaten to undermine
the objectives of the WCPAP by encouraging more households to engage in wildlife
crime rather than fewer. Consequently, the initial approach taken under the WCPAP
will be to allow all community members to participate in each of the interventions
planned. Where participation is constrained either through limited resources or for
practical reasons (e.g. wildlife scouts), recruitment will be targeted at priority groups
but not whether or not a household is engaged in wildlife crime. As such, the focus of
this approach will be in increasing the wider acceptance and support for MFPA within
each community and addressing the underlying drivers of wildlife crime on the basis
that this will reduce support for wildlife crime over time.
Beyond the priority communities identified in the WCPAP, there is a risk that
households from neighbouring communities or further afield may be incentivised to
migrate to villages receiving support. Such a honeypot effect has been found to exist
for PAs around the world (Wittemyer et al., 2008) and can be a problem for
interventions that seek to provide incentives for pro-conservation behaviour (Ferraro
& Kramer, 1997). In these cases it is important to set clear eligibility rules for
participation in an activity (Balmford & Whitten, 2003). There is also a low risk that
members of neighbouring communities decide to increase their involvement in
wildlife crime such that their village is included in an intervention. Although the risk
that this occurs is considered low, it will be necessary to qualitatively monitor
behaviour in neighbouring villages and to expand support where appropriate (e.g.
successful wildlife friendly enterprises may be suitable for expansion to other villages
given sufficient demand).
10.4. Political Will

Political will represents a potentially critical obstacle for the long-term successful
implementation of the WCPAP. In the past, local politicians have undermined public
opinion of MFPA and promised to allow access to park resources as a means of
securing votes. The effects of such interference can be difficult to undo.
Consequently, the support of local leaders for the interventions planned under the
WCPAP is essential. As such, coordination meetings will be held at all levels of local
administration in priority areas to ensure that local leaders understand the proposed
interventions and the benefits that they will bring to communities. It is also expected
that once these benefits have been demonstrated to local communities, there will be
less backing for politicians that threaten the continuation of support.
38
11. Partnerships
Many of the drivers identified in Section 3 are consequences of wider societal issues
that may require a broad coalition of stakeholders to address. In such cases it will be
necessary to form partnerships with other organisations or stakeholders. This section
details the partnerships that will be vital for the long-term success of the WCPAP.
11.1. District Fisheries Officers

Under the WCPAP, UWA will work with district fisheries officers to protect fish stocks
in the River Nile and Lake Albert from over-fishing and illegal fishing practices.
11.2. Local Authorities

Efforts to combat wildlife crime under the WCPAP will be coordinated with local
authorities through annual workshops (see Section 10.1.4).
11.3. NGOs
The Wildlife Conservation Society is a long-term supporting partner of UWA,
providing technical and financial assistance to wildlife monitoring and law
enforcement in MFPA. Under the WCPAP, WCS will support the maintenance of the
wildlife crime offenders database and the development of new approaches to
improving patrol effectiveness through the analysis of LEM data.
The Uganda Conservation Foundation is national NGO working to support

conservation in Uganda. Through an IWT CHALLENGE FUND funded project, UCF
are working with UWA to develop community enterprises in Ngwedo sub-county,
support 50 wildlife scouts in Punongo sub-county and provide training in intelligence
gathering and investigation skills.
The African Wildlife Foundation is currently working with UWA to support 106 wildlife
scouts in all parishes in Nwoya district that border the park, plus Diima and Juma
parishes. They provide scouts with basic training in problem elephant handling and
are supporting chili based household enterprises. All support is implemented through
UWA.
11.4. Local Institutions

The involvement of local religious leaders, cultural institutions and women and youth
groups in activities proposed under the WCPAP may be advantageous in ensuring
the local acceptance of activities and providing access to key target groups, such as
young men.
Support from local Wildlife Committees, which are provided for in the Wildlife Act,
may also serve to strengthen relationships with local communities.
39
12. Capacity Gaps
This section identifies some of the principal capacity gaps that may hinder the
successful implementation of the WCPAP and provides measures to address them.
12.1. Training
One of areas currently impeding UWA‟s capacity to address wildlife crime is the
challenge of ensuring that the training needs of staff responsible for implementing
interventions, particularly community conservation wardens and rangers, are met.
The development of a training programme for community conservation staff has been
identified as a priority activity by the Community Conservation Directorate. Such a
training programme would seek to address key skills gaps – particularly intervention
planning, coordination with law enforcement, conflict resolution, gender sensitisation,
monitoring and reporting. It is also important that law enforcement staff receive
training in how to respectfully interact with local communities. All staff responsible for
implementing the WCPAP will receive appropriate training as identified by the
wardens in charge of law enforcement and community conservation.
12.2. Logistical Support

In addition to ensuring that staff with responsibilities for implementing the WCPAP
have received the appropriate training, it will also be necessary to ensure that they
have adequate logistical support. Wardens in charge of law enforcement and
community conservation will conduct a review of logistical support needs to ensure
that the interventions planned under the WCPAP can be conducted.
12.3. Expertise
Regardless of training, there will be some expertise required for the successful
implementation of some of the proposed interventions that is not be contained within
UWA or partner organisations. All plans for specific interventions identified under the
WCPAP will include a skills assessment to identify any external expertise
requirements.
40
13. Review Process
Progress towards the performance targets identified in Sections 6.3, 7.3 and 8.3 will
be assessed using the stated performance indicators on an annual basis. In most
instances, these indicators have been selected so that they provide information
regarding progress towards intervention outcomes or threats and are simple to
monitor without placing a significant burden on implementing staff. Where baseline
datasets do not currently exist, indicators will need to be measured before
interventions are initiated. A number of different monitoring approaches will be
required to measure progress towards performance targets. These are described
below.
After performance of the WCPAP has been assessed at the end of the five year
cycle, the WCPAP will be revised to cover the period 2021-2026. This process will
include the re-evaluation of priorities and the redesign of interventions where
required.
13.1. Law Enforcement Monitoring

As described in Sections 6.2.1 and 7.2.1 monitoring of law enforcement patrols using
SMART enables more effective patrol routes to be determined and will provide
information relating to performance indicators 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, 2.1.1,
2.1.2, 2.1.3 and 3.3.1.
In addition to SMART, the tracking of offenders through the justice system will be
continued using the wildlife crime offenders database and will provide information
relating to performance indicators 1.2.2, 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 2.1.3 and 3.3.1.
13.2. Wildlife Scouts

In the course of their duties, wildlife scouts will record information relating to the
number of human wildlife conflict incidences reported to them, as well as the severity
of these events. This will provide information relating to performance indicators 2.2.1
and 2.2.2.
13.3. Enterprise Accounting

Accounting processes of the community resource groups responsible for managing
wildlife friendly enterprises and resource assess agreements will provide information
on the scope and profitability of each enterprise and will cover performance
indicators 2.2.4, 2.2.5, 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 3.3.1, 3.3.2 and 3.3.3.
13.4. Household Surveys

Household surveys in villages in priority areas will provide information on community
perceptions of MFPA and basic socio-economic data. This will cover performance
indicators 2.2.3, 2.3.3, 3.1.1 and 3.1.2.
13.5. Market Surveys

Monthly market surveys of animal protein sources will allow UWA to track the effect
of interventions aimed at reducing the supply of bushmeat and increasing the supply
of alternative sources of animal protein. As the collection of this data will be difficult
for rangers, these surveys will be undertaken by wildlife scouts to ensure that the
data collected is an accurate reflection of market prices. Market surveys will provide
information on performance indicators 3.2.2 and 3.2.3.
41
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MFCA - General Management Plan

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Murchison Falls National Park

Karuma Wildlife Reserve

Community-Based Wildlife Crime Prevention

Uganda Wildlife Authority

Prepared by: Dr Henry Travers (University of Oxford)

Dr. Andrew Seguya

Tom Okello Obong Conservation Area Manager

Aggrey Rwetsiba Senior Research and Monitoring Coordinator, UWA

Conserving for Generations

Dr. Andrew G Seguya

Financial Support for Action Plan Activities

Three priority offences are identified within the action plan:

Priority areas in which to focus interventions are also identified, as it is recommended

Hunting of high- Commercial Subsistence

Coordination and Implementation

In addition to setting out a range of interventions for combatting priority wildlife

1.2. Relevant Laws, Policies and Guidelines

1.2.1. East African Community Protocol on Environment and Natural Resources

1.2.3. The Uganda Wildlife Policy (2014)

1.2.4. The Uganda Wildlife Authority Community Conservation Policy (2004)

1.2.5. The Uganda Wildlife Authority Strategic Plan (2013 – 2018)

1.3. The Action Planning Process

The Planning Team consisted of the Conservation Area Manager, Deputy

1.5. Intervention design and project development

Provide positive Effective

2.1. Develop effective, long-term relationships with communities

Resolving conflicts as part of maintaining and developing relationships with

2.2. Provision of positive incentives

2.3. Effective and fair law enforcement

3.3. Perceived Injustice

3.4. Traditional Use

4.1. Illegal Hunting and Trade of High Value Species

4.1.1. Hunting for Ivory

A significant minority of elephant deaths in MFPA (estimated to be in the region of

As with ivory, well-known hunters are contacted by middlemen with connections to

4.2. Commercial Hunting and Trading of Bushmeat

4.3. Subsistence Hunting of Bushmeat

From the perspective of law enforcement, it is very difficult to distinguish between

Low effort areas excluded from analysis

5.2. Critical Sites Outside the Protected Area

5.3. Drivers of Priority Offences

5.3.1. Household poverty

Figure 5.2: Proportion of households per sub-county estimated to be involved in

5.3.2. Human Wildlife Conflict

5.3.3. Camps for Internally Displaced People

5.4. Priority Areas to Combat Illegal Hunting

5.4.1. Illegal Hunting of High Value Species

5.4.2. Illegal Bushmeat Hunting

5.4.3. Priority Areas for Interventions to Combat Illegal Hunting

6.1. Target Groups

6.1.1. Elephant Hunters

6.1.3. Community Members

6.2. Planned Activities

6.2.1. Law Enforcement Patrols

Activity Owner Cost Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5

6.2.2. Community Informants

For intelligence-based law enforcement to be an effective tool, it is necessary to have

The provision of rewards in return for actionable intelligence is a common practice in

Activity Owner Cost Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5