Heat Transfer

Short answer type question

1) What are the three modes of heat transfer? Explain their differences.

Ans: Heat can be transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection, and radiation1.
Here’s a brief explanation of each:

1. Conduction: This is the process in which heat is transferred from the hotter part to
the colder part in a body without involving any actual movement of the molecules of
the body1. Heat transfer takes place from one molecule to another molecule as a result
of the vibratory motion of the molecules1. It generally takes place in solids1. For
example, when frying vegetables in a pan, heat transfer takes place from the flame to
the pan and then to the vegetables.
2. Convection: In this process, heat is transferred in liquids and gases from a region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature1. Convection heat transfer
occurs partly due to the actual movement of molecules or due to the mass transfer 1.
For example, heating of milk in a pan.
3. Radiation: It is the process in which heat is transferred from one body to another body
without involving the molecules of the medium1. Radiation heat transfer does not
depend on the medium1. For example, in a microwave, the substances are heated
directly without any heating medium.

Each mode of heat transfer is unique and depends on the nature of the medium that transmits
heat: conduction requires contact, convection requires fluid flow, and radiation does not
require any medium.

2) Determine the critical radius of an insulated sphere with radius r, thermal conductivity k
and heat transfer co-efficient ha.

Ans: The critical radius of insulation depends on the thermal conductivity of the insulation
material and the external convection heat transfer coefficient. The formula for the critical
radius of insulation for a spherical shell is-

where rcr,sphere is the critical radius of insulation, k is the thermal conductivity of the
insulation, and h is the external convection heat transfer coefficient.

we need to substitute the given values into the formula and calculate the result. For example,
if the sphere has a radius of 0.1 m, a thermal conductivity of 0.05 W/mK, and a heat transfer
coefficient of 10 W/m2K, then the critical radius of insulation is:
This means that adding insulation to the sphere up to a thickness of 0.01 m will increase the
heat transfer rate, but adding more insulation will decrease it. Therefore, the optimal
thickness of insulation is 0.01 m.

3) Show that the thermal resistance offered by a spherical surface wall of uniform k is given

by

Ans: First, we need to define the heat transfer rate Q through the spherical wall, which is
given by the Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

Q = -kA(dT/dr)
where A is the surface area of the sphere, dT/dr is the temperature gradient across the wall,
and the negative sign indicates that heat flows from high to low temperature.

Second, we need to find the expression for the surface area A and the temperature gradient
dT/dr in terms of the inner and outer radii of the wall, r_i and r_o, and the inner and outer
temperatures of the wall, T_i and T_o. Assuming steady-state conditions and no heat
generation within the wall, we can use the energy balance equation:

Q = k(4πr^2)(dT/dr)
and integrate it from r_i to r_o, and from T_i to T_o, to obtain:
Q = (4πk/r_o - r_i)(T_o - T_i)

Third, we need to rearrange the equation to isolate the term (T_o - T_i)/Q, which is the
definition of the thermal resistance R of the wall. Therefore, we get:

R=

4) What is natural convective heat transfer? What is Nusselt number in heat transfer?

Ans:

Natural convective heat transfer is the heat transfer due to the movement of fluid molecules
caused by density differences resulting from temperature gradients, without any external
force such as a pump or fan. For example, hot air rises and cold air sinks due to buoyancy
forces.

Nusselt number in heat transfer is a dimensionless number that measures the ratio of
convective to conductive heat transfer across a boundary layer. It is defined as Nu = hcL/k,
where hc is the convective heat transfer coefficient, L is the characteristic length, and k is the
thermal conductivity of the fluid. A higher Nusselt number indicates a higher rate of
convective heat transfer.

5) (i)What is Biot number?

Ans: Biot number: The Biot number (Bi) is the ratio of the thermal resistance for conduction
inside a body to the resistance for convection at the surface of the body. It indicates whether
the temperature inside a body varies significantly in space when the body is heated or cooled
over time by a heat flux at its surface.

(ii) What is the physical significance of Biot number?

Ans:

(1) The Biot number measures the relative importance of internal and external thermal
resistances.

(2) The Biot number determines the temperature distribution inside the body.

(3) The Biot number affects the heat transfer rate from the body.

6) Explain the concept of correlations in forced convection heat transfer. Provide an example
of a forced convection heat transfer correlation and its significance.

Ans: Forced convection is the mode of heat transfer that occurs when a fluid flows over a solid
surface and causes a temperature difference between them.

Correlations are empirical or semi-empirical equations that relate the dimensionless

parameters that govern the forced convection heat transfer, such as the Nusselt number, the
Reynolds number, and the Prandtl number.

An example of a forced convection heat transfer correlation is the Dittus-Boelter equation,

which is applicable for turbulent flow in a circular tube with constant properties and no phase
change. The equation is:

Nu = 0.023 Re^0.8 Pr^n

where Nu is the Nusselt number, Re is the Reynolds number, Pr is the Prandtl number, and n
is 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling.

The significance of this correlation is that it allows us to estimate the heat transfer coefficient
and the rate of heat transfer for a given tube diameter, fluid velocity, fluid temperature, and
fluid properties, by using simple algebraic calculations.

7) Derive Wien’s displacement law from Planck’s equation?

Ans: The maximum values of the emissive power Eb can be obtained by differentiating
Planck’s Eq. with respect to λ and equating it to zero. Therefore,
Here, λmax is the wavelength at which Ebλ is the maximum at a particular temperature. The
value of (Ebλ )max shifts towards the shorter wave lengths with increasing temperature. The
maximum emissive power of a black body can be found from Planck’s law; λ = λmax is
replaced.

8) (i) What is Shape factor?

Ans: The shape factor is a dimensionless quantity that characterizes the geometry of two
surfaces that exchange heat by radiation. It is defined as the fraction of the radiation leaving
one surface that is intercepted by the other surface. The shape factor depends only on the
relative positions, orientations, and areas of the surfaces, and not on their temperatures or
emissivities.

(ii) State and explain the reciprocity theorem.

Ans: The reciprocity theorem states that the product of the shape factor and the area of the
emitting surface is equal to the product of the shape factor and the area of the receiving
surface.

Explanation- In other words, F12A1 = F21A2, where F12 is the shape factor from surface 1 to
surface 2, F21 is the shape factor from surface 2 to surface 1, A1 is the area of surface 1, and
A2 is the area of surface 2. The reciprocity theorem can be derived from the conservation of
energy and the definition of the shape factor. It implies that the net radiation exchange
between two surfaces is independent of the shape and orientation of the surfaces. It also
simplifies the calculation of shape factors for complex geometries by reducing the number of
unknowns.
9) What is space resistance and surface resistance?

Ans- Space resistance: The space resistance is the radiation resistance between two surfaces
that exchange heat by radiation. It is the inverse of the shape factor, which is the fraction of
radiation leaving one surface that directly strikes another surface. The space resistance can be
used to simplify the calculation of the net radiative heat transfer between two surfaces by
using the following formula:

Where,

Qnet-is the net radiative heat transfer’

A1-is the area of surface 1,
σ -is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
T1 and T2- are the absolute temperatures of the surfaces,
R1−2- is the space resistance from surface 1 to surface 2.
Surface resistance: The surface resistance is the radiation resistance at the surface of a body
that emits or absorbs radiation. It is the inverse of the emissivity, which is the ratio of the
actual emission of a surface to the emission of a blackbody at the same temperature. The
surface resistance can be used to simplify the calculation of the radiosity, which is the total
radiation leaving a surface, by using the following formula:

Where’

J- is the radiosity,
Σ- is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
T -is the absolute temperature of the surface,
Rs- is the surface resistance,
G- is the irradiation, which is the total radiation incident on a surface.

10) Proof that Where Eb the emissive power and I is intensity.

Ans: Emissive power: The emissive power of a surface is the total amount of energy emitted
per unit area and time by the surface due to its temperature. It is denoted by E and measured
in W/m2. The emissive power depends on the temperature and the emissivity of the surface,
and can be calculated by the Stefan-Boltzmann law for an ideal surface:

E=ϵσT4

Where,
ϵ -is the emissivity,
σ -is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
T -is the absolute temperature.

Intensity: The intensity of radiation is the amount of energy emitted per unit solid angle and
per unit area by the surface. It is denoted by I and measured in W/m2 sr. The intensity
depends on the direction and the wavelength of the radiation, and can be calculated by the
Planck’s law for an ideal surface:

Where,
h- is the Planck’s constant,
c- is the speed of light,
λ -is the wavelength,
kB- is the Boltzmann’s constant,
θ- is the angle between the normal and the direction of radiation,
ϵ(λ) -is the spectral emissivity.

11) What is Emissivity? How a Black Body does differ from Gray body?

Ans: Emissivity: The emissivity of a surface is the ratio of the actual emission of thermal
radiation by the surface to the emission of a black body at the same temperature. The
emissivity is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 that indicates how well a surface emits
radiation compared to a perfect emitter. The emissivity depends on the temperature,
wavelength, and direction of the radiation, as well as the surface properties and conditions.

* The main difference between black body and grey body is that a black body absorbs all
incident electromagnetic radiation with no reflection or transmission, while a grey body
absorbs and emits radiation but may reflect or transmit some.

A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of frequency or angle of incidence. A grey body, on the other hand, is an object or
substance that partially absorbs and partially reflects or transmits electromagnetic radiation.

12) What are the primary classifications of heat exchangers based on their construction?

Ans: Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat between two or more fluids or between
a fluid and a solid surface. Based on their construction, heat exchangers can be classified into
the following types-

 Shell and tube heat exchangers: These consist of a shell (outer vessel) with multiple
tubes inside. One fluid flows through the tubes while the other fluid flows around the
tubes in the shell. They are versatile, robust, and widely used in industries.
  Plate heat exchangers: These consist of a series of stacked plates with alternating hot
and cold fluid channels. The plates provide a large surface area for heat transfer and
are compact, efficient, and suitable for applications with high heat transfer
requirements.
 Finned tube heat exchangers: These have tubes with extended surfaces called fins.
The fins increase the heat transfer area and enhance heat transfer efficiency.
 Regenerative heat exchangers: These use a heat storage element, such as a matrix or
a wheel, to store and release heat intermittently between the hot and cold fluids. They
are used to recover heat from exhaust gases or other waste heat sources.
 Extended surface heat exchangers: These have surfaces that are enlarged or shaped
to increase the heat transfer rate. They are used to transfer heat between fluids and
gases, such as in air coolers, condensers, and evaporators.

13) (i) What is Heat Exchanger?

Ans: Heat exchanger: A heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat from a hot fluid to a
cold fluid, or from a hot surface to a cold fluid, or vice versa, without mixing the fluids or
allowing direct contact between the surface and the fluid.

(ii) Explain the concept of Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) in heat exchangers?

Ans: Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD): The LMTD is a logarithmic average of the
temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids at each end of the heat exchanger.
The LMTD accounts for the variation of the temperature difference along the heat exchanger
due to the heat transfer between the fluids. The LMTD is used to calculate the rate of heat
transfer and the size of the heat exchanger for a given heat duty and fluid properties.

The LMTD depends on the flow arrangement of the fluids, such as parallel flow, counterflow,
or crossflow, and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the fluids. The LMTD can be calculated
by the following formula for parallel flow and counterflow heat exchangers:

Where,
ΔT1 and ΔT2 are the temperature differences between the hot and cold fluids at the inlet and
outlet of the heat exchanger, respectively. For crossflow heat exchangers, the LMTD is
modified by a correction factor that accounts for the deviation from the ideal counterflow
arrangement.

14) What is the NTU method in heat exchanger analysis, and how is it used?

Ans: NTU method: The NTU (number of transfer units) method is a method to calculate the
rate of heat transfer and the outlet temperatures of fluids in heat exchangers, especially when
the inlet temperatures and the heat capacity rates of the fluids are known, but the heat
transfer area and the overall heat transfer coefficient are unknown or variable.
How it is used: The NTU method involves the following steps:
Calculate the heat capacity rate of each fluid, which is the product of the mass flow rate and
the specific heat of the fluid.
Calculate the heat capacity rate ratio, which is the ratio of the minimum heat capacity rate to
the maximum heat capacity rate of the two fluids.
Calculate the NTU, which is the product of the overall heat transfer coefficient, the heat
transfer area, and the inverse of the minimum heat capacity rate.

15) What do you mean by Fouling factor ?

Ans: Fouling factor: The fouling factor is a measure of the additional thermal resistance caused
by the accumulation of unwanted materials on the heat transfer surfaces of a heat exchanger.
These materials can be dirt, dust, scale, corrosion products, biological growth, etc. Fouling
reduces the heat transfer rate and the efficiency of the heat exchanger, and increases the
pressure drop and the maintenance cost.

(ii) What are the causes of fouling?

Ans: The causes of Fouling in Heat Exchangers are:

 Deposition of mineral scales.

 Accumulation of sediments and corrosion products.
 Formation of biological growth and biofilms.
 Crust formation from processed fluids and cleaning agents.

16) (i) Explain the concept of "parallel flow" in the context of heat exchangers.

Ans: Parallel flow: Parallel flow is a type of flow arrangement in heat exchangers, where the
hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger from the same end and flow in the same
direction. Parallel flow is also known as co-current flow or direct flow.

Applications: Parallel flow is suitable for applications where maintaining a close temperature
approach between the hot and cold fluids is not essential, such as heating or cooling of fluids
with similar inlet temperatures, or preheating or precooling of fluids before entering another
heat exchanger. For example, parallel flow can be used in oil coolers, air heaters, or
condensers.
(ii) What type of heat exchanger is most suitable for applications where maintaining a close
temperature approach between hot and cold fluids is essential?

Ans: A counterflow heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger where the hot and cold fluids
enter the heat exchanger from opposite ends and flow in opposite directions.

17) (i)Why is there a negative sign in the Fourier’s law of heat conduction?

Ans: The negative sign in the Fourier’s law indicates that heat flows from regions of higher
temperature to regions of lower temperature, or from hot to cold. The negative sign also
ensures that the heat transfer rate, q, is positive when the temperature gradient, dT/dx, is
negative, and vice versa.

(ii) Define thermal conductivity and explain its significance in heat transfer.

Ans: Thermal conductivity: The thermal conductivity, k, of a substance is the rate of heat
transfer per unit area and per unit temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow. It is a
measure of how easily heat can pass through a substance due to molecular collisions or
vibrations. The thermal conductivity has the units of W/mK and depends on the temperature,
pressure, structure, and composition of the substance.

Significance in heat transfer: The thermal conductivity is an important parameter in heat

transfer calculations, especially for conduction, which is the mode of heat transfer that occurs
in solids, liquids, or gases due to temperature differences within the substance or between
the substance and its surroundings. The thermal conductivity determines the amount of heat
that can be transferred by conduction for a given temperature difference and surface area.
The higher the thermal conductivity, the higher the heat transfer rate by conduction, and vice
versa. The thermal conductivity also affects the temperature distribution and the heat flux
within the substance or across the boundaries.
18) Derive the expression for heat conduction.

Ans:

19) A wire 0.5 mm in diameter is stretched along the axis of a cylinder 50 mm in dia and 250
mm long. The temperature of the wire is 750 K while the cylinder is at 25 K and the gas in it
has a k = 0.0251 W/mK. To find: The rate of heat transfer through the gas by conduction and
by radiation if the wire is black.

Ans:

20) Deduce the expression rate of heat transfer through conduction mode for the given
physical system shown in Figure, also draw the equivalent electrical circuit

Ans:

21) Explain thermal resistance and contact resistance in heat transfer with proper diagram.

Ans: Thermal contact resistance is the resistance to the conduction heat transfer between
surfaces of two contacting bodies. This resistance arises due to improper contact between
two bodies due to irregularities like scratches, ruptures, or dirt on the surface. It causes less
contact area available for heat conduction.

The thermal contact resistance depends on the following factors:

1] Surface finishing: The surfaces of the mating bodies which look smooth in visual inspection
have irregularities on a microscopic level. The above figure shows the microscopic view of
contacting surfaces.
As shown in the figure, the surface of the bodies has a crest and valley, therefore the two
bodies contact each other at some portions while in the remaining portion, the air gap is
present.This air gap has comparatively low thermal conductivity, therefore it adds extra
resistance to the flow of heat. This resistance per unit area of contacting surface is known as
Thermal contact resistance.

2] Contact pressure: Loosely bound surfaces have very less contact with each other, which
increases the presence of void spaces between contacting surfaces. Thus very less surface is
available for heat transfer by conduction.Increasing contact pressure forces the surfaces to
create more contact with each other and reduces the voids. That helps to boost the
conduction of heat.

3] Surface cleanliness: Unclean surfaces can increase contact resistance in two ways;It acts
as an obstruction and reduces the direct contact between surfaces.Dirt with poor thermal
conductivity resists heat transfer.

(i) What is boundary layer thickness?

Ans: The boundary layer thickness is a concept in fluid dynamics. It refers to the distance from
the solid boundary or surface of an object moving through a fluid, where the effects of
viscosity (fluid friction) are significant. The boundary layer thickness is typically defined as the
distance where the fluid velocity reaches 99% of the free stream velocity.

(ii) What do you mean by laminar and turbulent boundary layers?

Ans:Laminar Boundary Layer: In a laminar boundary layer, the flow takes place in layers,
meaning each layer slides past the adjacent layers¹². This results in a very smooth flow³. The
laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable². Laminar
boundary layers are typically found when the Reynolds numbers are small¹.
Turbulent Boundary Layer: A turbulent boundary layer, on the other hand, contains swirls or
"eddies"². There is an intense agitation and mixing across several layers of the fluid¹. This
results in an exchange of mass, momentum, and energy on a much larger scale compared to
a laminar boundary layer¹. A turbulent boundary layer forms only at larger Reynolds
numbers¹. The scale of mixing cannot be handled by molecular viscosity alone¹. As a
consequence of intense mixing, a turbulent boundary layer has a steep gradient of velocity at
the wall and therefore a large shear stress¹. In addition, heat transfer rates are also high¹.

22) Show that the Reynolds number (Re) for flow in a circular tube of diameter D can be
expressed as Re = 4m´/πDµ.

Ans: The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that helps predict fluid flow
patterns in different situations by measuring the ratio between inertial and viscous forces.
For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number can be expressed as-

This formula is used to predict whether the flow in the tube will be laminar or turbulent. If
the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is typically laminar. If it's greater than 4000,
the flow is typically turbulent. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs around a
Reynolds number of 2300. This is a crucial concept in fluid dynamics and is widely used in
engineering applications such as pipe flow analysis and heat exchanger design.

23) Consider the flow of oil in a tube. How will the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths
compare if the flow is laminar?

Ans: In a laminar flow regime, both the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are
significant. The hydrodynamic entry length is the distance from the tube inlet to the point at
which the boundary layer merges at the centerline. This region is characterized by a non-
uniform flow.

The thermal entry length, on the other hand, is the distance over which the temperature
profile in the fluid develops. For laminar flow, the thermal entrance length is a function of the
pipe diameter and the dimensionless Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
In the case of oil flowing in a tube, the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths would be
comparable if the flow is laminar. However, the exact lengths would depend on the specific
properties of the oil and the flow conditions.

(ii) How would they compare if the flow were turbulent?

Ans: In a turbulent flow regime, both the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths are
significant. However, they are independent of the Reynolds number (Re) or Prandtl number
(Pr), and are comparable in magnitude. The hydrodynamic entry length is the distance from
the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline. This region
is characterized by a non-uniform flow.

The thermal entry length, on the other hand, is the distance over which the temperature
profile in the fluid develops. For turbulent flow, the thermal entrance length is a function of
the pipe diameter and the dimensionless Reynolds number and Prandtl number.

In the case of oil flowing in a tube, the hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths would be
comparable if the flow is turbulent. However, the exact lengths would depend on the specific
properties of the oil and the flow conditions.

24) Show by similarity principle that the three dimensionless parameters relevant to free
convection heat transfer are Nusselt number, Grashof number and Prandtl number.

Ans:

Nusselt Number (Nu): This number is a ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across
a boundary. It is used to characterize convective heat transfer and is defined as the ratio of
the thermal energy convected to the fluid to the thermal energy conducted within the fluid.

-Grashof Number (Gr): This number approximates the ratio of the buoyancy to viscous force
acting on a fluid. It is used in the analysis of free convection heat transfer. The Grashof number
is given by:
Prandtl Number (Pr): This number is a dimensionless quantity approximating the ratio of
momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal diffusivity. It is often used in heat
transfer and free and forced convection calculations. The Prandtl number can be expressed
as:

These three numbers are used together in the analysis of free convection heat transfer
problems to characterize the flow and heat transfer behavior. They help in predicting whether
the flow will be laminar or turbulent, and how effective the convective heat transfer will be.

25) State the scope and application of dimensional analysis in heat transfer processes.

Ans: Dimensional analysis in heat transfer processes is a powerful tool that simplifies the
relationship between various physical quantities involved in the process. It helps in:

- Classifying various convective heat transfer processes.

- Understanding velocity and temperature boundary layers.

- Deriving governing equations such as continuity, momentum, and energy equations.

- Appreciating the importance of the similarity principle and non-dimensional numbers.

- Applying dimensional analysis to find correlations between different variables¹.

The scope of dimensional analysis extends to both free and forced convection heat transfer
processes. It is used to estimate complex phenomena like convective heat transfer rates⁴. It
also helps in predicting whether the flow will be laminar or turbulent, and how effective the
convective heat transfer will be.

Applications of dimensional analysis in heat transfer processes are vast. It is used in designing
unit operations in chemical engineering processes, analyzing transport phenomena involving
heat, mass, and momentum transfer, and interpreting dimensionless groups based on either
the flux-force ratio or the balance between two driving forces.
(ii) What are the two methods of determining dimensionless groups to correlate
experimental data?

Ans: Dimensionless groups are used to correlate experimental data in many fields of
engineering. They simplify the relationship between various parameters of an experiment.
There are two primary methods for determining these dimensionless groups:

1.Buckingham's Theorem: This theorem is a key principle in dimensional analysis. It provides

a method to detect the number of dimensionless groups in a given problem. It helps reduce
these groups to make the results useful, especially when dealing with a large number of
variables.

2. Matrix Methods: These methods are particularly suitable for quick and formally elegant
calculations, especially in cases where the number of quantities involved is particularly high.
Matrix notation may be advisable to reduce the possibility of errors and allow automatic
implementation.

These methods help in interpreting the dimensionless groups based on either the flux-force
ratio or the balance between two driving forces. They enable us to differentiate between the
dominant and the negligible forces in a transport process.

26) Prove that for radiation heat transfer ρ + α + τ = 1 with proper diagram.
Ans:

27) What is Kirchhoff’s law in radiation heat transfer? Prove that α = ε. Where α is
absorptivity and ε is the emissivity?

Ans: This is Kirchhoff ’s law which states that the emissivity of the surface of a body is equal
to its absorptivity when the body is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

28) Derive the expression for Stefan–Boltzmann law. Also find the value of Stefan–
Boltzmann constant.

Ans: The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of
a black body in unit time (also known as radiant exitance or power emitted) is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the black body’s absolute temperature. Mathematically,
it can be expressed as:
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) is a fundamental physical constant. Its value is universally
accepted and given in SI units as:

The derivation of the Stefan-Boltzmann law involves integrating Planck’s radiation formula
over all wavelengths. This integration gives the total power radiated per unit area over all
wavelengths of a black body. The detailed derivation involves advanced concepts of quantum
mechanics and statistical mechanics.

29) Explain radiosity and irradiation. Also prove that

Ans: Radiosity : This is the total radiation heat flux leaving a surface. It includes both emitted
and reflected power, without regard to direction or wavelength. It is often used in
determining the net energy exchange between multiple surfaces.

Irradiance: This is the total radiation heat flux incident to the surface element from the
hemispherical space above it. It is used to calculate the energy absorbed by a surface.

30) Find the shape factor F22 of the given system-

Ans:
31) Explain about various types of recuperative heat exchangers.

Ans: Recuperative heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the transfer of heat from one
fluid to another, without mixing the two fluids. They are widely used in various industries and
applications. Here are some types of recuperative heat exchangers:

- Shell and Tube: These are commonly used in oil refining processes. They are designed for
high-pressure applications.

- Double Pipe: These are used for industrial cooling processes and small heat exchange
applications.

- Plate: These are used in cryogenic, food processing, and chemical processing industries.

- Condensers: These are used in distillation and refinement processes.

- Thermal Wheel or Rotary Heat Exchanger: This includes enthalpy wheel and desiccant wheel.

- Convection Recuperator: This type of heat exchanger transfers heat from the hot gas stream
to the cold gas stream through a separating wall.

- Radiation Recuperator: This type of heat exchanger transfers heat from the hot gas stream
to the cold gas stream through radiation.

Each type of recuperative heat exchanger has its own advantages and is suitable for specific
applications.

32) With proper diagram explain working of a shell-and-tube heat Exchanger.

Ans:
A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger where two working fluids
exchange heat. One of these fluids is called the tube side fluid and the other is known as the
shell side fluid.

The working principle of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger is fairly simple. One fluid flows
inside the tubes and the other through the shell. While flowing, they exchange heat which
means the cold fluid gains heat from the hot fluid.

Here are the main components of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger:

- Shell: The shell is the main body of the heat exchanger and it contains all the components
of the heat exchanger.

- Tubes: The tubes are mounted inside the cylindrical shell. One fluid moves in the tubes while
the other fluid moves inside the shell.

- Tubesheet: The tubesheet is a component that holds the tubes in place.

- Baffles: Baffles are used to direct the flow of fluid in the shell side and increase the heat
transfer efficiency.

- Shell and Shell-Side Nozzles: These are the entry and exit points for the shell-side fluid.

- Tube-Side Channel and Nozzles: These are the entry and exit points for the tube-side fluid.

The shell-and-tube heat exchanger is most commonly used in massive chemical processes
such as oil refineries because it is very well suited for applications that require a high-pressure
environment. This is because of their uncomplicated design, and low maintenance
requirements.

33) Derive the expression for heat transfer for counter-flow heat exchanger with proper
diagram.

Ans: A counter-flow heat exchanger is a type of heat exchanger where two working fluids
exchange heat while flowing in opposite directions. The heat transfer in a counter-flow heat
exchanger can be expressed as:
This equation states that the heat gained by the cold fluid is equal to the heat lost by the hot
fluid. This is a consequence of the conservation of energy.

The actual heat transfer can be less than the maximum possible heat transfer due to
inefficiencies such as thermal resistance. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger, which is
the ratio of the actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer, can be used to
account for these inefficiencies.

34) Compare the working of parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers with
temperature-length/area diagram.

Ans: Parallel-flow and counter-flow heat exchangers are two common types of heat
exchangers, and they differ in the direction of fluid flow.

Parallel-Flow Heat Exchangers: In these exchangers, both the hot and cold fluids enter at the
same end, flow in the same direction, and leave at the same end. The maximum temperature
difference occurs at the inlet, and it decreases to reach the minimum at the outlets. This
design is advantageous when two fluids are required to be brought to nearly the same
temperature.

Counter-Flow Heat Exchangers: In these exchangers, the fluids enter at opposite ends, flow
in opposite directions, and leave at opposite ends. More heat is transferred in a counter-flow
arrangement than in a parallel flow heat exchanger. The more uniform temperature
difference minimizes thermal stresses throughout the exchanger. The outlet temperature of
the cold fluid can approach the highest temperature of the hot fluid (the inlet temperature).
35) Prove that for parallel flow heat exchanger?

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36) A stone slab of thickness 0.6 m has width with normal area 1.5 m2 and is made up of
material of thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK. The temperatures on the two sides are 800 oC.
What is the thermal resistance of the slab?

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39) Consider a slab of thickness L=0.25 m. One Surface is kept at 100 oC and the other
surface at 0 oC. Determine the net flux across the slab if the slab is made from pure copper.
Thermal conductivity of copper is 387.6 W/mK.
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40) Determine the critical radius of insulation of the asbestors with k=0.125 W/mK
surrounding a pipe exposed to room air with ha =2.5 W/m2K.

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41) How does transient heat conduction differ from steady conduction?

Ans: Transient heat conduction and steady-state conduction are two types of heat transfer
that differ in how the temperature changes over time:

Steady-State Conduction: In steady-state conduction, the temperature remains constant

over time. This means that at any given location in the system, the temperature does not
change as time progresses. The rate of heat transfer is also constant at any point in time.
Steady-state conduction can occur in systems where the temperature gradient (the change in
temperature with respect to distance) and the thermal properties of the material are
constant.

Transient (or Unsteady-State) Conduction: In transient conduction, the temperature changes

with time. This means that at a given location in the system, the temperature varies as time
progresses. Transient conduction occurs when a system experiences a change in temperature
due to a change in its thermal environment, such as a change in the boundary conditions or
the initial conditions. The rate of heat transfer in transient conduction is not constant and
changes with time.

In summary, the key difference between steady-state and transient conduction lies in how
the temperature and the rate of heat transfer change with time.

42) What is Biot number?

Ans: The Biot number (Bi) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat transfer calculations. It
gives a simple index of the ratio of the heat transfer resistances inside of a body and at the
surface of a body. This ratio determines whether or not the temperatures inside a body will
vary significantly in space, while the body heats or cools over time, from a thermal gradient
applied to its surface.

43) What is lumped system analysis? When is it applicable?

Ans: Lumped system analysis is a method used for the analysis of transient heat transfer
systems. It is applied when there is no temperature gradient present in the object to be
analyzed for the complete heat transfer process. This means that the temperature of the body
should be uniform throughout the object.

In this case, the thermal conductivity of the object is considered infinite, therefore the
thermal resistance inside of the body is minimum. Lumped system analysis is used in the
smallest bodies whose thermal conductivity is high.

Therefore, the lumped system analysis is applicable for the system only when the Biot number
is less than 0.11. The Biot number is given by-

45) Define intensity of radiation. What is solid angle?

Ans: - Intensity of Radiation: The intensity of radiation is a measure of the power of radiation
that passes through a certain area. It is defined as the amount of energy that flows per unit
time per unit area, and it is usually measured in watts per square meter (W/m²).

Solid Angle: A solid angle is a measure of the amount of the field of view from a particular
point that a given object covers. It is a three-dimensional equivalent of the two-dimensional
angle. It is measured in steradians (sr), and it can be calculated using the formula:

47) (ii) Proof that the emissive power is π times of its intensity?

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48) The filament of a 75 W light bulb may be considered as a black body radiating into a
black enclosure at 700 oC. the filament diameter is 0.10 mm and length is 5 cm. considering
the radiation, determine the filament temperature.

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49) (i)Define effectiveness and NTU of a heat exchanger.

Ans: Effectiveness: The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio between the
actual heat transfer rate and the maximum possible heat transfer rate. Mathematically, it can
be expressed-
Number of Transfer Units (NTU): The NTU is a dimensionless quantity that gives the heat
transfer capacity of the heat exchanger. It is defined as the ratio of the product of the overall
heat transfer coefficient (U), heat transfer area (A), and the minimum heat capacity rate (Cmin
) of the two fluids. Mathematically, it can be expressed as-

50) (i)What is Heat Exchanger

(ii) What are its applications.

Ans: A Heat Exchanger is a device that transfers thermal energy between two fluids at
different temperatures. The fluids may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they
may be in direct contact. The main mode of heat transfer is usually convection.

As for its applications, heat exchangers are central in modern industry, serving as essential
components in various fields:

 Chemical Processing: Heat exchangers are used in chemical plants for heating,
cooling, and controlling the temperature of process fluids.
 Energy Production: They are used in power plants for transferring heat from the hot
flue gas to water to generate steam.
 Automotive Systems: Examples include radiators in cars, where the heat exchanger
transfers heat from the engine’s coolant fluid into the outside air.
 HVAC Applications: In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat
exchangers transfer heat from a building’s environment to a coolant fluid (or vice
versa).
 Domestic Appliances: Examples include refrigerators and air conditioners, where heat
exchangers transfer heat from inside to the outside environment.

51) Explain storage type or Regenerator Heat Exchanger.

Ans: Regenerator Heat Exchanger, also known as a storage type heat exchanger, is a device
where heat from a hot fluid is intermittently stored in a thermal storage medium before it is
transferred to a cold fluid.
The process works as follows:

1. The hot fluid is brought into contact with the heat storage medium, which absorbs the heat.

2. The hot fluid is then displaced with the cold fluid, which absorbs the heat from the medium.

There are two types of regenerators:

Static or Furnace Regenerator: This type consists of two chambers arranged with a thermal
storage medium (like refractory fire bricks) in the form of a matrix. One chamber absorbs heat
while the other chamber transfers the heat.

Dynamic or Rotary Regenerator: In this type, a porous packing material in the shape of a disc
with high heat capacity is arranged between the two ducts in which the cold and hot fluids
flow. As the disc rotates through the hot fluid, it stores heat and this thermal energy is
transferred to the cold fluid.

Regenerator heat exchangers are most suitable for large capacities of heat transfer and are
widely used in steel and glass melting furnaces. They are also used in heating and ventilation
systems.

52) What do you mean by Fouling factor ?

Ans: The Fouling Factor represents the thermal resistance introduced by fouling, which is the
accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces. This accumulation can be due to living
organisms or a non-living substance like minerals or organic compounds.

Fouling can occur in heat exchangers and it reduces their thermal efficiency, decreases heat
flux, increases temperature on the hot side, decreases temperature on the cold side, induces
under-deposit corrosion, and increases the use of cooling water.

53) Water flows at the rate of 65 kg/min through a double pipe counter flow heat
exchanger. Water is heated from 50 oC to75 oC by an oil flowing through the tube. The
specific heat of the oil is 1.780 KJ/Kg.K. The oil enters at 115 oC and leaves at 70 oC. The
overall heat transfer co-efficient is 340 W/m2K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer.

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