fire

Article
Optimization of Smoke-Detector Installation Location Based on
Effect of Fan Equipment inside Distribution Panel on Fire
Detection Performance
In-Mo Gu 1 , Yeong-Mo Yeon 1 , Dong-Seok Ryu 1 and Seung-Hee Kim 2, *

1 METIS 84, Pungsesandan-ro, Pungse-myeon, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si 330912, Chungcheongnam-do,

Republic of Korea
2 Department of IT Convergence Software Engineering for Highly-Skilled Professionals, Korea University of
Technology & Education (KOREATECH) 503, Damheon Hall of Practical Education, 1600 Chungjeol-ro,
Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si 31253, Chungcheongnam-do, Republic of Korea
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Inhalation and exhaust fans are installed inside a distribution panel for cooling. However,
in the event of fire inside the panel, these fans change the flow of smoke, which interferes with quick
detection by fire sensors installed on the panel ceiling, thereby increasing fire damage. The purpose
of this study is to develop a smoke detector that can be installed inside distribution panels and
to propose an optimal smoke detector position based on the influence of the position on detection
performance. To this end, an experimental distribution panel was fabricated and four smoke detector
samples were installed near the fans. The smoke detection performance experiment was repeated
on ignition source positions corresponding to widths of 15, 30, 45, and 50 cm, a depth of 55 cm, and
heights of 0, 30, and 60 cm. The results indicated that the smoke detection performance and CO
absorption concentration were higher when the smoke detector was positioned closer to the left or
right side of the exhaust fan. In particular, compared with current designs in which smoke detectors
are installed on distribution panel ceilings, the elapsed time until smoke detection decreased by
75%, whereas the CO absorption concentration increased by more than 100%. This study presents a
theoretical ground for the installation of built-in smoke detectors near exhaust fans for closed power
Citation: Gu, I.-M.; Yeon, Y.-M.; Ryu, industry equipment that includes airflow-changing devices. Additionally, this study raises awareness
D.-S.; Kim, S.-H. Optimization of on the importance of fire sensors and the need to improve policies and standards for fire prevention.
Smoke-Detector Installation Location
Based on Effect of Fan Equipment
Keywords: smoke analysis; fire sensor; smoke detector; CO detector; fire detection
inside Distribution Panel on Fire
Detection Performance. Fire 2023, 6,
49. https://doi.org/10.3390/
fire6020049
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Grant Williamson
In general, a fire that occurs in a building forms an airflow that reaches the ceiling and
Received: 14 November 2022 spreads in all directions because of the buoyancy caused by the heat of the smoke generated
Revised: 4 January 2023 from the ignition source, resulting in a thick layer and a room filled with smoke [1].
Accepted: 27 January 2023 However, in the event of an electrical fire in a distribution panel, the smoke is discharged by
Published: 28 January 2023 the buoyancy due to heat through the inhalation and exhaust fans installed in the panel [2]
or the time by which the smoke reaches the ceiling of the panel is delayed [3]. This is the
main cause of an increase in burning damage at the beginning of a fire.
For industrial equipment designed with closed structures, inhalation and exhaust fans
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. are installed to reduce the temperature of the heat generated inside. The hot air is guided
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
toward the top by buoyancy, cooled slowly, and discharged through the exhaust fans [2].
This article is an open access article
Inside the distribution panel, which controls the supply and distribution of electricity for
distributed under the terms and
automation equipment [4,5], various thermometers [6,7] and fire sensors [8] are installed
conditions of the Creative Commons
and operated for electric fire prevention and early detection. Smoke detectors, which are
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
a type of fire sensor, are divided into ionization and photoelectric smoke detectors. An
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
ionization smoke detector detects changes in the ion current from the smoke concentration

Fire 2023, 6, 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6020049 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fire

Fire 2023, 6, 49 2 of 23

of combustion products generated from fire, such as heat, smoke, and flame [9–12]. A
photoelectric smoke detector detects changes due to smoke in the amount of light that
contacts its photovoltaic device when a certain concentration of smoke is contained in the
chamber [13] and includes a transmitter and a receiver [14,15]. For type-1 photoelectric
smoke detectors (light sensitivity of 7.5%) [16] and type-2 photoelectric smoke detectors
(light sensitivity of 15%) [15], the attachment height is determined according to the detector
type and light sensitivity, as stipulated in Article 7 of the “fire safety standards for automatic
fire detection equipment and visual information devices (NFSC 203)”; Article 7(3) No. 2
stipulates that smoke detectors must be attached to the ceiling or a concealed space inside
the ceiling for installation [11,17,18].
Accordingly, in this study, certain positions inside a distribution panel were selected
and the detection time and carbon monoxide (CO) concentration of a smoke detector
installed on the ceiling were measured via a fire simulation. The simulation results were
then compared with those of an experiment in which the detection time at each position
was measured to propose an optimal fire sensor position for closed electrical equipment
that includes airflow-changing devices.
This study provides a new social awareness that fire detection equipment, such as
smoke detectors having embedded gas-sensor functions, that are installed inside electrical
panel structures, such as distribution boards, and fire detectors installed on a ceiling should
be positioned as close to the exhaust fans as possible. It also provides a theoretical basis for
selecting fire sensor positions inside a distribution panel. Specifically, this study presents
a theoretical basis for the installation of built-in smoke detectors near exhaust fans for
closed power industry equipment. Additionally, the results of this study are expected to
significantly contribute to the prevention of large fires caused by the more widespread
usage of automation equipment, increase recognition of the importance of fire sensors, and
lead to improvements in fire prevention policies.

2. Literature Review
Hong et al. [9] proposed a combined smoke detector based on multiple sensors for
early fire detection in rack-type warehouses. They performed an experiment to verify the
smoke detection performance of their smoke detector, which was composed of a thermistor
temperature sensor, photoelectric smoke sensor, and electrochemical CO sensor. Their
study was similar to the present study in that the fire detection speed was measured as
an indicator of performance. However, there is a difference in that the main topic of the
present study is the relationship between the smoke detection speed and the influence of
airflow change caused by inhalation/exhaust fans installed in a confined space.
Zhong et al. [15] placed ten fire sensors in the center of a 3 m-high ceiling in a 10 m (W)
× 8 m (L) × 4 m (H) chamber to test their fire detection performance. Smoke combustion
data were extracted for firewood, raw cotton, polyurethane, and flame liquid (n-heptane) as
ignition sources and butter oil and incense as interfering ignition sources. They presented a
method for increasing the reliability of fire sensors based on a comparison of the smoke
combustion intensities of two experiments. However, whereas they performed experiments
to increase the reliability of fire sensors by analyzing general butter smoke and incense
smoke from various ignition sources, the present study is different in that the reliability of
fire sensors is increased using suggestions for detector installation positions based on an
analysis of the flow of smoke under the influence of exhaust fans.
Choi and Lee [17] analyzed the influence of airflow from a ceiling-type air conditioner
on a fire detector operation. They performed an experiment to analyze the smoke detector
response time by airflow in the same manner as in the present study; however, their
target was an office space rather than specific equipment such as a distribution panel.
Additionally, in their study, the experiment was on smoke and heat from ignition caused
by cotton, whereas in the present study the investigation was on smoke generated from
electric cables. Finally, based on their findings, they proposed the installation of additional
detectors based on changes in detection performance.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 3 of 23

As described, there is a significant difference between [17] and the present study in
that, in the latter, an experiment on fire detection performance was performed based on
the structure of a distribution panel rather than external environmental factors, such as
air conditioners, even though both studies deal with the relationship between airflow and
fire detection. The present study is also significantly different in that an experiment was
performed to optimize the detector position rather than the number of detectors as an
approach to increasing fire sensitivity.
Because there are limitations in purifying air using conventional fans when smoke is
being generated in an indoor and closed space, Munir and Erfianto [2] performed a study in
which they installed three fans and a sensor controller in an 8 m (W) × 2.4 m (L) space and
developed a controller that uses a distributed fuzzy execution system, which, when smoke
is generated, increases air circulation by controlling the speed of the exhaust fan next to
the sensor with the highest smoke concentration among the three sensors. By comparison,
the present study was also based on the fact that the smoke concentration near an exhaust
fan is typically high; however, the two studies differ in that the earlier study performed air
purification by controlling exhaust fans based on the concentration.
Choi et al. [19] analyzed the flow of heat and smoke generated in the event of a fire in
a rack-type warehouse using fire dynamic simulator (FDS) numerical analysis software.
They modeled the simulation space, four-layer rack structure, and ceiling and analyzed the
flow of smoke and heat generated by the flame fire based on the sensitivity of n-heptane
and cotton wick. Based on this investigation, they determined optimal smoke detector
installation conditions for early smoke detection in the event of a fire in a four-layer
rack-type structure. Subsequently, they prepared standards for the fire sensor installation
position in a rack and the installation of combined fire sensors for early fire detection in
rack-type warehouses. As in the present study, they examined the optimal smoke detector
installation conditions; however, the material of the smoke and the ignition sources, which
were used as simulation input conditions, were different. There is also a difference in that
the diffusion characteristics caused by the heat flow rather than the airflow change caused
by the fans were analyzed.
Roh and Yoon [20] conducted research to select fire sensors suitable for wooden
cultural assets, which have different structural and fire characteristics from those of typical
buildings. They conducted an experiment to identify the fire sensor type and installation
location suitable for wooden cultural asset structures.
With regard to smoke detector installation location, smoke detectors are recommended
for indoor fire monitoring in closed and open spaces, whereas flame and fixed-temperature
linear detectors are recommended for outdoor fire monitoring. For indoor fire monitoring in
a closed space, such as the experimental environment in the present study, a smoke detector
is considered appropriate. However, the experimental site for the present study is different
from that used for the aforementioned recommendations because the present study deals
with a distribution panel rather than buildings and there is a significant difference in that
the smoke detector installation location and response speed were analyzed under the
influence of fan airflow in a fireplace.
Son and So [21] fabricated a combined smoke detector and evaluated its performance
using a 1 m (W) × 1 m (L) × 1 m (H) closed chamber. Their study was similar to the
present study in that a chamber environment was used. However, the influence of the
airflow generated by inhalation/exhaust fans was not examined in their study because
their experiment focused on the performance of their combined Internet of Things (IoT)
multi-fire detector.
He et al. [22] analyzed the entrainment of a mechanical smoke exhaust port installed
inside a tunnel and suggested a method for designing a smoke control system for safety
inside the tunnel. Based on the simulation result that the smoke concentration was high near
the exhaust port, as determined by the entrainment analysis, the experimental environment
of their study was similar to that of the present study where fire sensor samples were
installed near the exhaust fans.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 4 of 23

Xavier and Visakha [23] proposed a video fire detection technology to solve problems
associated with conventional fire sensors that are limited in their fire detection capabilities.
However, as indicated by the authors, the cost of the solution was high and the installation
location in accordance with the camera angle was also important. Specifically, it was difficult
to install cameras and secure the camera angle because of internal equipment inside the
distribution panel, as was the case for the experimental environment of the present study.
Additionally, installing cameras inside multiple distribution panels is considerably costly.
Xie et al. [24] reported that sensor-based fire detectors are not suitable for enclosed
indoor fires in the early stage because of their slow speed, the slow flow of smoke in an
enclosed environment, and the difficulty for video-based fire detectors to detect enclosed-
space fires. Therefore, they proposed early indoor occluded fire detection based on light
reflection characteristics as an alternative to conventional sensor- and video-based fire
detectors. However, it was not easy to secure the camera angle inside the distribution panel,
as in the experimental environment of the present study, because of the internal equipment.
In addition, the cost of installing cameras inside the distribution panel was high.
Birajdar et al. [25] proposed real-time vision-based fire detection based on a Raspberry
Pi-based vision system that detects smoke flow and tracks people using a deep neural
network (DNN). In this study, if additional experiments are conducted in which a smoke
flow detection device is added and the smoke density at each position is analyzed, it is
expected that more complete research data will be obtained.
Baek et al. [26] developed a fire detection algorithm based on using multiple sensors
at different locations and reported that the system reliability was improved compared with
that of a single sensor. For comparison, in this study, the smoke detector was developed as
a combination of a smoke detection sensor and a CO sensor. Thus, these [21,26] two studies
were similar in that both employed experimental methods that utilized multiple sensors;
however, the earlier study differed in that the sensors were installed at several locations
over a wide space.
Table 1 summarizes the previous studies examined thus far for each research topic.

Table 1. Preliminary study summary.

Category Reference Main Contents

Reason for using exhaust fans is described. Exhaust fan controller is developed
Munir and Erfianto [2]
using “system executes distributed fuzz” technology.
Fire sensors suitable for rack-type warehouses are proposed based on experiment
Hong et al. [9]
in rack-type warehouse on response characteristics according to fire sensor type.
Reference data to improve smoke detector performance are presented based on
Jee [10] analysis of reaction times of photoelectric smoke detectors according to ignition
source (paper, wood, and oil).
Tu et al. [12] Principles of ionization detectors are described.
Method for designing an optical chamber interior structure effective for
Kim WH et al. [13]
performance improvement of photoelectric smoke detectors is proposed.
Fire sensor
performance Method for verifying performance and reliability of photoelectric smoke detectors
Hong et al. [14]
is proposed.
Principles of photoelectric smoke detectors are described and method for
Zhong et al. [15]
reliability improvement is proposed.
Changes in sensitivity of fire sensors are analyzed based on experiment involving
Choi and Lee [17]
various conditions of airflow formed by cooling/heating equipment.
Kim TH et al. [3] Influence of air purifiers on smoke detector operation is analyzed.
Optimal fire sensor installation conditions that account for flow of heat and smoke
Choi et al. [19]
in rack-type warehouse are presented using fire dynamic simulator (FDS).
Safe design method is proposed based on analysis of smoke flow according to
He et al. [22]
entrainment phenomenon around exhaust fan in event of fire.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 5 of 23

Table 1. Cont.

Category Reference Main Contents

Characteristics of electric fire are analyzed through simulation and fire detection
Shin et al. [5] device, equipped with communication function that reflected analysis results,
inside distribution panel is developed.
Photoelectric alarm-type detector with low power consumption is developed to
Park and Choi [8]
prevent house fires.
IoT multi-fire detector is developed by combining three sensors (smoke, CO, and
Fire sensor Son and So [21]
heat) and its fire detection performance is verified.
development and
function Park [27] Intelligent combined fire sensor specialized for railway vehicles is developed.
improvement Xavier and Visakha Video fire detection technology that uses HC-SR501 PIR motion sensor
[23] is proposed.
Early indoor occluded fire detection technology based on light reflection
Xie et al. [24]
characteristics is proposed.
Vision-based fire detection technology that uses population density inside
Birajdar et al. [25]
building and smoke detection system in event of fire is proposed.
Method for selecting detectors that accounts for space types of closed and opened
Roh and Yoon [20]
Fire sensor wooden structures is presented.
selection method Effect of multiple sensors, compared to a single sensor, on improving system
Baek et al. [26]
reliability for fire detection was reported.

The present study differs from these past research endeavors in the following aspects.
First, in the present study, an experiment on smoke detection was performed in a closed
space inside a distribution panel rather than in typical buildings, warehouses, or wooden
buildings. Second, the present study analyzed the response time at each installation
position due to the airflow of exhaust fans instead of performing an experiment on the
airflow formed by cooling/heating equipment, such as ceiling-type air conditioners. Third,
the present study aimed to more accurately measure the influence of inhalation and exhaust
fans on airflow. To this end, a combined [22] fire sensor was directly fabricated and
the smoke detector response speed in the distribution panel was measured in real time
through RS-485 [28] communication while the inhalation and exhaust fans were operating.
Fourth, a sample dedicated to the experiment performed in the present study was directly
fabricated to obtain product approval from an authorized certification agency. Although
the characteristics of the present study are based on past research, the results of this study
are significantly distinct in that it is an empirical experimental study that specifically deals
with differences owing to the internal design structures of closed facilities for the purpose
of rapid fire detection.

3. Research Procedure and Experimental Prototype Fabrication

3.1. Research Procedure
For the experiment, a scenario-based performance test using a smoke detector was per-
formed. To this end, the locations of the ignition source and smoke detector were changed
for each scenario centering on the exhaust fan and the time until smoke detection and the
concentration of carbon monoxide were measured. The smoke detector performance was
assessed to be superior because the fire detection time was faster and the carbon monoxide
concentration measurement was improved.
Figure 1 shows the research procedure used in this study. In preparation for the
experiment, an experimental smoke detector prototype was developed and its product
certification was obtained. To this end, a smoke detector was directly designed and
fabricated and its performance certification was achieved. Additionally, the performance of
the CO sensor inside the smoke detector was calibrated. Subsequently, an experimental
environment for this study was constructed and specific experimental scenarios were
Fire 2023, 6, 49 6 of 23

designed. Finally, a smoke detection performance test was conducted on the performance-
certified smoke detector according to the designed scenarios and the detection times were
measured and compared to derive implications.

Figure 1. Research process.

3.2. Experimental Smoke Detector Prototype Fabrication

3.2.1. Smoke Detector Design and Fabrication
A smoke detector was designed and fabricated for an experiment on smoke detector
performance according to airflow. The panel material and specifications selected for the
smoke detector were those commonly used in the field. Consequently, a combined smoke
detector that included smoke sensor and CO sensor functions, as shown in Figure 2,
was fabricated.
The main microcontroller unit (MCU) of the smoke detector was developed using
an STM32F051 IC in accordance with the circuit-diagram design shown in Figure 3a. The
smoke detection sensor, CO sensor, temperature/humidity sensor, and RS485 commu-
nication circuit were fabricated in accordance with the designs shown in Figure 3b–e,
respectively. Smoke sensitivity was measured using the smoke detection circuit shown in
(b) and based on (a).
Fire 2023, 6, 49 7 of 23

Figure 2. Smoke detector prototype for experiment: (a) case of combined detector; (b) PCB of
combined detector.

Figure 3. Cont.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 8 of 23

Figure 3. Smoke detector circuit diagram. (a) MCU STM32F051; (b) smoke detector; (c) CO sensors;
(d) temp. sensors; (e) RS485.

Because the system reliability for fire detection compared with that for a single sensor
has been demonstrated to improve with the use of multiple sensors [26], the smoke detector
was developed such that it was composed of both smoke detection and CO sensors.
The data collected using the CO and temperature/humidity sensors were transmitted
through RS485 communication. Table 2 shows detailed information on the parts.

Table 2. List of parts used for prototyping.

Part Purpose Manufacturer Specification

Photoelectric smoke
Chamber Metis -
chamber
Receiver HPI-6FFR4
Sensor Kodenshi AUK
Transmitter SI5312H
Catalytic gas sensor CO detection Winsen MQ-7B
Temperature/humidity
Sensor Sensirion SHT-31
detection
Protocol Status monitoring and
Texas Instruments SN75176B
(RS-485) notification

3.2.2. Smoke Detector Product Certification

To guarantee the quality and reliability of the smoke detector fabricated for the ex-
periments, the detector was tested by the Korea Fire Institute (KFI), a Korean certification
agency for firefighting equipment and products. For product testing and certification,
Article 19 (sensitivity test for photoelectric detectors) of the “fire safety standards for auto-
matic fire detection equipment and visual alarm systems” [14] was applied using the fire
detection chamber at KFI, as shown in Figure 4. Accordingly, a smoke-detection sensor cali-
bration experiment was performed. Product performance certification was accomplished
through operation and non-operation tests, as shown in Table 3, that measure the sensitivity
performance of the detector to smoke concentrations for types 1 (7.5%) and 2 (15%).

3.2.3. CO Sensor Calibration

To ensure the quality and reliability of the CO sensor, calibration was performed using
50, 100, and 250 ppm CO gases from CALGAZ, as shown in Figure 5. After the gases were
injected into the CO sensor of the smoke detector, an experiment to calibrate the difference
in the CO sensor value was conducted and repeated several times and the results were
Fire 2023, 6, 49 9 of 23

compared with the smoke circuit and time chart provided by the manufacturer. In this
way, it was confirmed that the CO sensor data of the smoke detector exactly matched the
information provided by the manufacturer.

Figure 4. Chamber for the KFI experiment.

Table 3. Photoelectric sensor sensitivity test regulations.

Test Item Test Criteria

When flowing wind containing smoke with light sensitivity of 15% per 1 m
Operation test is introduced into an airflow of 20 to 40 cm/s, non-accumulating type
operates within 30 s.
When flowing wind containing smoke with light sensitivity of 15% per 1 m
Non-operation test is introduced into an airflow of 20 to 40 cm/s, operation must not occur
within five minutes.

Figure 5. Verification experiment for quality accuracy of the CO sensor.

3.3. Experimental Environment Construction

3.3.1. Distribution Panel Equipped with Inhalation and Exhaust Fans
For the subsequent experiment to study the influence of airflow change in a distribu-
tion panel due to inhalation and exhaust fans on the smoke sensitivity of the smoke detector,
Fire 2023, 6, 49 10 of 23

a distribution panel with a width of 1000 mm, depth of 1000 mm, and height of 1550 mm
was constructed and exhaust and inhalation fans were installed at the top and bottom of
the panel, respectively, as shown in Figure 6. The fans used were the WYA1V12C25TBT
and WYA2V12C25TBT-2 models from Woon Young, Korea.

Figure 6. Distribution panel manufactured for experiment with installed exhaust and inhalation fans.

The exhaust fans were installed at a depth of 550 mm [29] and a distance of 200 mm
from the ceiling, whereas the inhalation fans were installed at a depth of 550 mm and
a distance of 300 mm from the floor. When the fans were in operation, the airflow was
measured to be 1.72 m/s on the side of the surface in direct contact with the fans, 1.0 m/s
at a distance of 5 cm, 0.6 m/s at a distance of 10 cm, and 0.4 m/s at a distance of 15 cm.

3.3.2. Fire Reproduction Simulation Materials

The hot plate that was used to reproduce a fire situation was the PC420D model from
CORNING, as shown in Figure 7a. The temperature of the hot plate was set to 550 ◦ C to
simulate an arc fire accident [30], which is similar to an electric fire accident in a distribution
panel. Figure 7b shows the electric cable used as the ignition source for the fire (UL 2464
AMS). An experiment was conducted on a panel in use at the site and a cable in use for
that panel was used as a sample for more accurate experiments reflecting field conditions.

Figure 7. Experiment environment. (a) Hot plate, (b) UL 2464 AMS.

Fire 2023, 6, 49 11 of 23

4. Detection Performance Test by Smoke Detector Position

4.1. Experimental Scenario Design
After the smoke detectors were installed inside the distribution panel, as shown in
Figure 8, the time required for smoke detectors to detect fire inside the distribution panel
was measured. To this end, five type-2 photoelectric smoke detector samples with a light
sensitivity of 15% were installed inside the distribution panel and the smoke detection
time and CO concentration were measured while the ignition height was varied between
experiments. Figure 8a shows a 3D image of the inside of the distribution panel. Figure 8b
shows a fire origin and sample location inside the distribution panel. Two 10 cm cables
were burned in each fire simulation. On both panels of the distribution panel, the top
green part is the exhaust fan, whereas the bottom green part is the inhalation fan. One
smoke detector was installed on the ceiling and four smoke detectors were installed near
the exhaust fan. The height of the ignition source was set to 0, 30, and 60 cm from the floor.
For each height, ignition was induced at four different positions (15, 30, 45, and 50 cm
away from the inhalation fan), after which the smoke detection time and CO concentration
were measured.

Figure 8. Distribution board drawing. (a) The 3D drawing; (b) fire origin and sample location.

4.1.1. Performance Experiment Scenario for Detector Installed on Ceiling

After the smoke detector was installed on the ceiling inside the distribution panel, the
time required for the detector to detect the fire was measured. Figure 9 shows the sample
position inside the panel and the separation distance of the ignition source. In the diagram,
#5 indicates a smoke detector sample installed at the center of the ceiling. Considering the
possibility of ignition at multiple points of the electrical wiring under the assumption of an
electric fire inside the distribution panel, the height of the ignition source, positioned at a
width of 50 cm and depth of 55 cm, was set to 0, 30, and 60 cm, as shown in Figure 8b.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 12 of 23

Figure 9. Sample installation on ceiling.

The experimental sequence can be summarized in seven steps. The position of the
ignition source is expressed as a vector (û) of the width, depth, and height, respectively.
1 smoke detector was installed at the center of the ceiling of the distribution panel
(indicated by #5 in Figure 9).
2 The ignition source hot plate was installed at the û (50, 55, 0) position of the panel
floor, indicated by D in Figure 9.
3 The ignition source sample was installed at position D.
4 The inhalation and exhaust fans were operated.
5 The power line was connected to the smoke detector and the RS485 line was connected
to the PC to enable the smoke detection status and CO concentration to be monitored
in real time
6 The smoke detection alarm time and CO concentration were measured.
7 Upon completion of the measurement, the ignition source sample was moved to
positions C (û(45, 55, 0)), B (û(30, 55, 0)), and A (û(15, 55, 0)) and process steps 4 to
6 were repeated.
8 The height was then changed to 30 and 60 cm and process steps 2 to 7 were repeated.

4.1.2. Detector Performance Experiment Scenarios for Each Separation Distance of Ignition
Source from Fan
Smoke Detector Position Setting
To compare the detection performance of the combined smoke detector samples by
position, the smoke detector was installed at distances of 0, 15, 30, and 45 cm from the
exhaust fan, as shown in Figure 10. The smoke detector at a distance of 0 cm from the
exhaust fan was defined as sample 1 (#1), that at 15 cm as sample 2 (#2), that at 30 cm as
sample 3 (#3), and that at 45 cm as sample 4 (#4).
Fire 2023, 6, 49 13 of 23

Figure 10. Location of a smoke detector which has been positioned around the exhaust fan for an
experiment.

Experimental Scenarios by Ignition Source Height

In a previous study, the system reliability for fire detection was reported to improve
through the use of multiple sensors compared with that of a single sensor [26]. Therefore,
to compare and analyze the smoke and CO detection performance based on the ignition
source height, the smoke detection time was measured at the height of the ignition source,
positioned at a width of 50 cm and depth of 55 cm, was changed to 0, 30, and 60 cm between
experiments.
Scenario 1: The ignition source was positioned on the floor (height: 0 cm) and the
smoke detector alarm time and CO concentration were measured while the distance from
the inhalation fan installation surface to the ignition source was changed to 15, 30, 45, and
50 cm. The experiment was performed in seven steps as follows:
1 The ignition source hot plate was safely installed at the û(15, 55, 0) position, as
indicated by A in Figure 11.
2 The ignition source was installed at position A.
3 The inhalation and exhaust fans were operated.
4 The power line was connected to the smoke detectors and the RS485 line was con-
nected to the PC to enable the smoke detection status and CO concentration to be
monitored for all four smoke detectors in real time.
5 The smoke detection alarm time and CO concentration were measured.
6 Upon completion of the measurement, the ignition source sample was moved to
position B (û(30, 55, 0)) and process steps 4 to 5 were repeated.
7 When measurement at position B was completed, the ignition source sample was
moved to positions C (û(45, 55, 0)) and D (û(50, 55, 0)) and process steps 4 to 5 were
repeated.
Scenario 2: The ignition source was positioned at a height of 30 cm and the smoke
detector alarm time and CO concentration were measured. The experiment was performed
in the same sequence as that of the previous experiment (i.e., with an ignition source height
of 0 cm). However, in this scenario, the ignition source hot plate and ignition source were
safely installed at the û(15, 55, 30) position, as shown in Figure 11.
Upon completion of the measurement, the ignition source sample was moved to
positions B (û(30, 55, 30)), C (û(45, 55, 30)), and D (û(50, 55, 30)) and process steps 4 to 5
were repeated.
Scenario 3: The ignition source was positioned at a height of 30 cm and the smoke
detector alarm time and CO concentration were measured. The experiment was performed
in the same sequence as those of the previous experiments (i.e., with ignition source heights
of 0 and 30 cm). However, in this scenario, the ignition source hot plate and ignition source
were installed at the û(15, 55, 60) position, as shown in Figure 11.
Upon completion of the measurement, the ignition source sample was moved to
positions B (û(30, 55, 60)), C (û(45, 55, 60)), and D (û(50, 55, 60)) and the experiment was
performed in the same way as in scenarios 1 and 2.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 14 of 23

Figure 11. Height of the ignition source.

4.2. Detection Performance Measurement Experiment by Smoke Detector Position

4.2.1. Smoke Detection Time and CO Concentration of Smoke Detector Installed on Ceiling
The experimental results indicate that the smoke detection time was longer and the
CO concentration was lower for the smoke detector sample installed on the ceiling than for
the samples next to the exhaust fan.
The smoke detector performance measurement results indicate that the smoke detector
sample on the ceiling did not sound an alarm when the amount of smoke was small; instead,
the smoke detector at #5 on the ceiling required up to 2 min and 49 s to indicate a detection.
The CO concentration was measured using an analog-to-digital converter (ADC),
where the ADC value increased as the CO absorption performance improved. For the
smoke detector sample at #5, the CO concentration ranged from 41 to 96.

4.2.2. Scenario 1: Smoke Detection Time and CO Concentration for Smoke Detectors
Installed near the Fan for Ignition Source Height of 0 cm
Smoke Detection Time
The smoke detection times for an ignition source height of 0 cm and ignition source
distances of 15, 30, 45, and 50 cm were measured; the results are shown in Figure 12. The
shortest detection times were 49 s at a distance of 15 cm, 1 min and 21 s at 30 cm, 57 s at
45 cm, and 1 min and 17 s at 50 cm. For all distances, smoke detector #1, which was the
closest to the exhaust fan, exhibited the fastest detection performance.

CO Concentration
In the case of CO concentration, the highest values measured were 107 ADC at an
ignition source distance of 15 cm, 116 ADC at 30 cm, 109 ADC at 45 cm, and 110 ADC at
50 cm, as shown in Figure 13. For all distances, smoke detector #1 exhibited the highest CO
concentration.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 15 of 23

Figure 12. Elapsed time until smoke detection for ignition source height of 0 cm.

Figure 13. Carbon monoxide detection concentration for ignition source height of 0 cm.

4.2.3. Smoke Detection Time and CO Concentration for Smoke Detectors Installed near Fan
for Ignition Source Height of 30 cm
Smoke Detection Time
As shown in Figure 14, the fastest detection times for each ignition source distance
were 2 min and 4 s at 15 cm, 32 s at 30 cm, 52 s at 45 cm, and 1 min and 44 s at 50 cm. One of
these results was observed for smoke detector #4, whereas the other results were observed
for smoke detector #1.
At a distance of 50 cm, smoke detector #4 exhibited the fastest detection time, although
the time difference between smoke detectors #1 and #4 was not large (15 s). The fastest
detection time was observed for smoke detector #1, which was the closest to the exhaust fan.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 16 of 23

Figure 14. Elapsed time until smoke detection at height of 30 cm from ignition source.

CO Concentration
With regard to the CO concentration, the highest values measured were 46 ADC at
an ignition source distance of 15 cm, 106 ADC at 30 cm, 35 ADC at 45 cm, and 35 ADC at
50 cm, as shown in Figure 15. For all distances, smoke detector #1 exhibited the highest CO
concentration.

Figure 15. Carbon monoxide detection concentration for ignition source height of 30 cm.

4.2.4. Smoke Detection Time for Smoke Detectors Installed near Fan for Ignition Source
Height of 60 cm
Smoke Detection Time
For this scenario, the ignition source height was changed to 60 cm and the ignition
source distance was set in the same manner as in Section 4.3.2. The measurements obtained
are shown in Figure 16.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 17 of 23

Figure 16. Elapsed time until smoke detection for ignition source height of 60 cm.

The fastest detection times for each ignition source distance were 1 min and 46 s at
15 cm, 44 s at 30 cm, 1 min and 37 s at 45 cm, and 1 min and 32 s at 50 cm. Two of these
results were obtained for smoke detector #1, whereas the remaining two were obtained for
smoke detector #4.
At distances of 50 and 45 cm, where smoke detector #4 exhibited fast detection, the
time difference between smoke detectors #1 and #4 was not large (up to 17 s). For the
remaining cases, the fastest detection time was observed for smoke detector #1, which was
the closest to the exhaust fan.

CO Concentration
With regard to the CO concentration, the highest values measured were 113 ADC at
an ignition source distance of 15 cm, 115 ADC at 30 cm, 111 ADC at 45 cm, and 107 ADC at
50 cm, as shown in Figure 17. For all distances, smoke detector #1 exhibited the highest
CO concentration.

Figure 17. Carbon monoxide detection concentration for ignition source height of 60 cm.

The highest CO concentration was measured by the CO sensor of smoke detector #1,
which was the closest to the exhaust fan.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 18 of 23

4.3. Performance Comparison and Analysis by Smoke Detector Position

4.3.1. Smoke Detection Time Comparison and Analysis
Figure 18 compares the shortest smoke detection times for the smoke detector positions
when the ignition source height was changed from 0 to 30 and 60 cm. Smoke detector #1
exhibited the fastest detection performance and required only 49 s to operate the detection
alarm. On the one hand, smoke detector #5 installed on the ceiling exhibited the slowest
detection performance, requiring 2 min and 49 s to indicate detection, as shown in Table 4.
Between the two, a performance difference of up to 2 min was observed based on the
experimental data.

Figure 18. Time comparison test result by ignition source height.

Table 4. Performance in terms of detection time for smoke time and carbon monoxide from ignition
source height of 0 cm (ceiling).

Distance from Fan Installation Surface

Ceiling Sample #5 (Separation Distance)
15 cm 30 cm 45 cm 50 cm
Smoke detection (minute: second) 1:34 1:37 2:09 2:49
CO concentration (unit: ADC) 41 96 45 42

Regardless of the ignition source height, smoke detector #1, which was the closest
to the exhaust fan, exhibited the highest detection performance. This indicates that the
ignition source position has no correlation with the reduction in smoke detection time. On
the other hand, the smoke detector performance increased as the distance from the exhaust
fan decreased.
The smoke detection time was, on average, slightly inversely proportional to the
ignition source height. The smoke detector operation became faster as the ignition source
height decreased. This was because of the scattering of smoke by the airflow of the
inhalation fan. Specifically, the inhalation fan scattered smoke at the ignition position, thus
decreasing the smoke concentration and the smoke was rapidly discharged by the airflow
of the exhaust fan.
This can be verified based on the finding that smoke detector #1 exhibited the fastest
detection times at ignition source distances of 15, 30, and 45 cm, at which the ignition
Fire 2023, 6, 49 19 of 23

sources were affected by the airflow of the inhalation fan, when the ignition source heights
were 30 and 60 cm, as shown in Figure 18. Smoke detector #4 exhibited a faster detection
performance than those of smoke detectors #2 and #3 at an ignition source distance of
50 cm, at which the ignition source was least affected by the airflow because the smoke
vertically ascended. Based on the same principle, the detection time deviation of smoke
detector #4 according to the ignition source height was determined to be 11.0 s, which was
significantly lower than those of smoke detectors #3 (24.7 s) and #2 (17.9 s).
These experimental results indicate that a fire situation in a closed facility can be more
rapidly detected if smoke detectors are attached to the ceiling of the facility or if several
smoke detectors are installed in the absence of factors that cause airflow change. However,
when devices and equipment that can change airflows, such as inhalation and exhaust fans,
are installed inside the closed facility, considerably fast smoke detection can be expected if
at least one smoke detector is installed closest to the exhaust fan.

4.3.2. CO Concentration Comparison and Analysis

Figure 19 compares the CO concentration according to the smoke detector position
when the ignition source height is varied from 0 to 30 and 60 cm.

Figure 19. Concentration value comparison test result by ignition source height.

For all heights, smoke detector #1, which was the closest to the exhaust fan, exhibited
the highest smoke concentration. This appears to be due to the accumulation of CO gas
around smoke detector #1 as the smoke was discharged through the exhaust fan. When
the ignition source height was 30 cm, the smoke was scattered under the influence of the
inhalation fan and discharged through the exhaust fan, resulting in a high measurement
for smoke detector #1. When the ignition source height was 60 cm, high CO concentrations
were measured by smoke detectors #3 and #4 because of the small influence of airflow and
the short distance to the samples because the ignition source was installed higher than the
inhalation fan. Nonetheless, smoke detector #1 still exhibited the highest CO concentration
as the smoke was discharged through it because of airflow due to the exhaust fan.
In terms of smoke detection time, û(15, 55, 0) exhibited the highest performance, as
shown in Figure 18. This result indicated that the smoke detector closest to the exhaust
fan can most rapidly detect smoke, regardless of the position of the fire on the floor of the
distribution panel.
Parameters û(15, 55, 0) also exhibited the highest detection performance in terms of
CO concentration, as shown in Figure 19. It can be inferred that the concentration for the
smoke detector sample installed near the fan was measured to be high because the gas
was collected around the exhaust fan because of smoke discharge through the fan. In the
Fire 2023, 6, 49 20 of 23

CO measurement experiment, smoke detector #1 rapidly detected smoke and exhibited

high CO concentrations on average, confirming that smoke detection performance in the
distribution panel can be increased via the placement of the smoke detector as close as
possible to the exhaust fan.

4.4. Discussion
4.4.1. Main Findings
Typically, in an actual distribution panel, fire sensors are installed at the center of the
panel ceiling. However, the experimental results of this study confirmed that the reaction
time was delayed and that the CO concentration was lower for a smoke detector installed
on the ceiling of a panel equipped with exhaust and inhalation fans than for a smoke
detector installed near the exhaust fan.
Based on this finding, the following implications were derived:
First, smoke that occurs at a height of 60 cm or higher, which is unaffected by inhalation
fans, rises vertically and is rapidly detected by the smoke detector immediately above the
ignition source. If only one detector is installed inside the distribution panel, the position
next to the exhaust fan is probabilistically good for fire prevention. On the other hand, if
many exhaust fans are installed in the distribution panel, installing each smoke detector as
close as possible to all exhaust fans is recommended.
Second, although smoke detectors #1, #2, #3, and #4 had different operation times in
each experiment, smoke detector #1 exhibited the highest CO concentration, confirming
that the largest amount of CO was collected near the exhaust fan as it was discharged
through the fan. If the smoke concentration is low, fire may not be detected because the
smoke is discharged to the outside under the influence of the exhaust fan. Therefore,
the smoke detectors must be supplemented with separate gas sensors. A smoke sensor’s
performance is determined by the amount of smoke not by the rate of smoke emission.
Therefore, the smoke release rate is not necessarily related to the detection rate, etc., when
there are multiple flashpoints.

4.4.2. Comparison with Previous Studies

The results of this study imply that, inside certain pieces of equipment or within
specific confined places, installing a smoke detector near the exhaust fan rather than
on the ceiling makes it possible to promptly detect a fire when airflow changes due to
inhalation/exhaust fans is expected.
This is consistent with the experimental results of previous studies by Munir and
Erfianto [2] and He et al. [22] and shows that the argument by Choi and Lee [17] that
multiple smoke detectors need to be installed is convincing.
The experimental method by Munir and Erfianto [2], in which fire detectors are
promptly operated via the control of a nearby exhaust fan upon the detection of smoke,
is identical to that in the present study, which is based on the occurrence of high CO
concentrations near exhaust fans; thus, fire detectors near these fans are rapidly operated
while the fire smoke is released to the outside under the influence of the exhaust fans.
According to He et al. [22], ventilator speed control based on the surrounding entrainment
phenomenon caused by the suction power of the ventilator is important in the event of
fire in a tunnel. Finally, the recommendation by Choi and Lee [17], that multiple smoke
detectors should be installed around a ceiling-type air conditioner for early fire detection
because of the airflow of the air conditioner, and the observation by Baek et al. [26], that
multiple sensors improved the system reliability for fire detection compared with that for
only a single sensor, both supported the comparative advantages of combined fire detectors
in terms of faster fire detection and more reliability than those for a single fire detector.
Fire 2023, 6, 49 21 of 23

4.4.3. Key Strengths

Typically, in a distribution panel, the fire sensor is installed at the center of the ceiling.
This is because people think that it is good to install them on the ceiling, as in buildings.
However, the experimental results proved that this method is ineffective.
Therefore, this study strongly suggests that it is necessary to consider the change in
the flow of smoke as an effect of the specifications of the inhalation/exhaust fans, ignition
source material, hot plate temperature, and internal structure of the distribution panel. This
study also provides a theoretical basis for revising current regulations on smoke detector
installation position in relation to electrical facilities that involve airflow changes, such as
distribution panels.
An exhaust fan is a device that manages heat inside the panel and maintains cooling
conditions. In Korea [31], fans should be installed on the ceiling or middle upper boundary
between the ceiling and floor of the building according to the smoke detector installation
regulations. However, there are no standardized regulations for fan installation locations
in closed installations such as cabinets. For this reason, most industrial sites install exhaust
fans in the upper ceiling for the cooling of closed equipment. There is an urgent need for
regulations and standardization in this area.
These results suggest that it is necessary to reflect on such considerations during the
installation of smoke detectors in equipment with inhalation and exhaust fans and for
changes in policies in the field of fire and environmental safety, such as test methods for
environmental safety inspection standards in relation to the introduction of equipment.
Additionally, this study can be applied in a similar manner to most offices with
separated spaces. Generally, in offices, each space is equipped with its own air conditioners.
The wind from air conditioners can affect smoke detectors depending on the size of the
space and the number and positions of air conditioners installed in the space. Therefore, in
the case of offices with air-conditioning equipment, it is necessary to review the policy that
presents consumer guidelines on the selection of smoke detector positions.

4.4.4. Key Limitations

The smoke detection time derived in this study is not an absolute standard for smoke
detection performance.
Distribution panels used at industrial sites have different sizes and internal structures
depending on the site and equipment involved. The smoke flow may also change depend-
ing on the environment and weather. Therefore, the smoke detection time derived in this
study has limitations in providing a basis for comparing smoke detection performance and
understanding its relationship with inhalation/exhaust fans.

5. Conclusions
Because of the airflow generated by the inhalation/exhaust fans installed in distribu-
tion panels, the response speed of a smoke detector according to the installation position
and the effect of fans on the fire detection performance were analyzed. To this end, an
experimental study was conducted, in which five type-2 photoelectric smoke detector
samples with a light sensitivity of 15% were installed in a distribution panel. One of the
samples was installed on the ceiling, whereas the remaining four samples were installed
near the fan at certain distances. The smoke detection time and CO concentration were then
measured while the ignition source height was varied between experiments. The ignition
source height was discretely varied between 0, 30, and 60 cm. For the smoke detector
position, the separation distance from the wall was discretely varied between 15, 30, 45,
and 50 cm.
According to the experimental results, smoke detector #5, which was installed on the
ceiling of the distribution panel, exhibited the lowest performance in terms of smoke and
CO concentration detection. However, smoke detector #1, which was located immediately
next to the exhaust fan, detected smoke most rapidly in 9 experiments out of 12 for all
Fire 2023, 6, 49 22 of 23

ignition source heights for û(15, 55, 0), û(15, 55, 30), and û(15, 55, 60). It also exhibited the
highest CO concentration for all ignition source heights.
When the experimental results were analyzed, it was observed that for different
ignition source positions and heights, the smoke detection time decreased by 75% and
the CO concentration increased by 100% for the smoke detector immediately next to the
exhaust fan compared with those for the smoke detector installed on the ceiling because of
airflow changes caused by the inhalation/exhaust fans.
To design an optimal sensor position for such an internal structure, additional exper-
iments on the alarming speed of an electric fire in a distribution panel and the detection
performance of various gas sensors will be performed using type-1 photoelectric smoke
detectors (light sensitivity 7.5%) in the presence of airflow due to inhalation/exhaust fans
in the distribution panel.
In the future, the alarming speed of an electric fire in a distribution panel will be
analyzed using type-1 photoelectric smoke detectors (light sensitivity of 7.5%), the perfor-
mance of which will be compared in the presence of airflow due to inhalation/exhaust fans
in the distribution panel. In addition, the smoke detector response speed will be analyzed
through the installation of various additional sensors and research will be conducted on
monitoring systems for the prevention of electrical fires. Further research is required—
through the simulation of smoke detector locations—to design optimal sensor locations
and develop a theoretical analysis that accounts for the various site characteristics and
different internal structures of the equipment. Through this, it can be determined that more
rapid fire prediction and detection will be possible by closely examining the movement
tendencies of smoke in the cabinet.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-M.Y. and S.-H.K.; methodology, I.-M.G.; Y.-M.Y. and
S.-H.K.; software, I.-M.G.; validation, Y.-M.Y., D.-S.R. and S.-H.K.; formal analysis, Y.-M.Y. and S.-H.K.;
investigation, I.-M.G.; resources, Y.-M.Y.; data curation, I.-M.G. and Y.-M.Y.; writing—original draft
preparation, I.-M.G. and S.-H.K.; writing—review and editing, I.-M.G. and S.-H.K.; visualization,
I.-M.G., D.-S.R. and S.-H.K.; supervision, S.-H.K.; project administration, Y.-M.Y. and S.-H.K.; funding
acquisition, S.-H.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data supporting the reported results are available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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