CHAPTER 4

INTERSECTION &
INTERCHANGES

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Chapter 4: Intersection & Interchanges
4.1 Types of Intersection : At grade & grade
separated intersections with illustration
4.2 Traffic Control devices : Signal, road sign
& marking, lighting requirement

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 Learning Outcomes (CO1:PO1)
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Describe with illustration various types of intersection (at
grade and grade separated). (CO1-PO1)
2. Discuss on traffic control devices – channelization, sign
and markings. (CO1-PO1)
3. Carry out simple traffic light design using Webster
Method. (CO1-PO1)

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 Introduction
• Geometric design of transportation facilities must
provide for the resolution of traffic conflicts.

• Conflicts may be classified as:

i. Merging - vehicles enter the traffic stream
ii. Diverging - vehicles leave the traffic stream
iii. Weaving - vehicles cross path by first merging & then
diverging
iv. Crossing - vehicles cross path directly
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Merging Diverging

Weaving
Crossing
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Three basic ways of resolving crossing conflicts:
1. Time - sharing solutions
* right-of-way (priority) to particular movements for
particular times
* ex: signalized intersection
2. Space - sharing solutions
* covert crossing conflicts into weaving conflicts
* ex: traffic circles or rotary
3. Grade separation
* eliminate the crossing conflict by placing the conflicting
streams at different elevations.
* ex: freeway interchanges & highway-railway grade separation
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4.1 Types of Intersection

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Intersection
 Area shared by two or more roads - to provide change
in route location
 Aims → efficiency of the operation
→ safety
→ speed
→ cost of operation
→ capacity

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Importance ✓ Min no. of intersection

principles in a ✓ Proper geometry layout - hazardous
good design
movement eliminated
✓ Should permit drivers to discern quickly
✓ Follow natural path
✓ Minimize no. of conflict point – separation
of crossing, merging and diverging movement
✓ Adequate ‘storage’ space at intersection
where vehicles are forced to wait

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4.1 Types of Intersection

At grade intersection

Type of Grade separated intersection

intersections

Interchanges
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4.1 Types of Intersection

At Grade Intersection
 3-leg, 4-leg and multi-leg intersection
 Intersecting road meets a common level
 Category:
- Uncontrolled junction
- Priority junction
- Time sharing junction - traffic signal
- Space sharing junction - roundabout

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4.1 types of intersection

Four basic elements are generally considered in the design:

a) Human factors - driving habits and decision-
reaction times
b) Traffic consideration - capacities, turning
movements, vehicle speeds, and size and
distribution of vehicles
c) Physical elements - characteristics and use of
abutting property, sight distance and geometric
features
d) Economic factors -costs and benefits and energy
consumption

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Basic types:
1. T or three-leg intersections
2. Cross or four-leg intersections
3. Multileg intersections

T / Y / 3 leg Intersection
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4.1 Types of Intersection

Types of T or three-leg intersections:

a) Plain T Intersection
- for minor or local road
- for rural two-lane highways that carry light traffic
b) T Intersection (with left turn lane)
- locations with higher speeds & turning volumes
- potential rear-ends collision
- add surfacing/flaring to separate left-turning vehicles
from through vehicles

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4.1 Types of Intersection

c) T Intersection (with divisional island & right passing lane)

- right-turn volume from through road onto minor road
is high.
- an auxiliary lane may be provided
- space for through vehicles to maneuver around the
right-turning vehicles.
d) T Intersection (with divisional island & turning roadway)
- channelized T intersection
- both left & right turn storage lane
- for locations where volumes are high
- will probably be signalized
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e) T Intersection (Staggered)
- Several roads meet a main road at a slight
distance apart
- Do not all come together at the same point

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Types of cross or four-leg intersections:

a) Plain four-leg Intersection

- for minor or local road
- minor road crosses a major highway
- low turning volumes
b) Four-leg intersection (with left turn roadway)
- turning volumes are frequent
- add divisional island
- common in suburban areas where pedestrians are
present
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4.1 Types of Intersection

c) Four-leg intersection (with divisional island)

- for a two-lane highway that carries moderate volumes at
high speeds or operates near capacity

d) Four-leg intersection with divisional island & turning roadway

- 4 four-lane approaches
- carrying high through & turning volumes
- usually signalized

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Multileg Intersections
- Have five or more
approaches
- Should be avoided

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Intersection skew at
90 degrees.

Intersection skew at
75 degrees.

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4.1 Types of Intersection

 Traffic Circles:
A circular intersection that provides a circular traffic pattern
with significant reduction in the crossing conflicts points.
 Types:
1) Rotaries
- large diameters greater than 300ft
- allowing speeds exceeding 48 km/h.
2) Neighborhood traffic circles
- much smaller than rotaries, lower speed
- used as traffic calming and/or as an aesthetic device
- consists of pavement marking rather than raised island.

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4.1 Types of Intersection

3) Roundabouts
Have specific characteristics:
- Yield control at each approach
- Separation of conflicting traffic movements by pavement
markings or raised islands.
- Allow travel speed of less than 48km/h
- Parking usually not allowed within the circulating
roadway.

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Grade Separated
• Intersecting road at different elevation
• Purpose:
- Permit cross flow at different levels w/out interruption
- Eliminate bottlenecks because of higher volume of traffic
- Prevent accident
- Reduce delays

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Types of separation structures

Overpass Underpass
Deck type most suitable – Most desirable struct. from
may present lateral and standpoint of vehicular
vertical clearance probs on operation is one that will
lower roadway, but span the entire highway &
supports relative to upper provide lateral clearance of
roadway are underneath & struct. supports from edge
out of sight. of pavement – consistent
with design req.

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Interchanges (Grade separation with ramps)

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4.1 Types of Intersection

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Types of interchanges:
Three-leg design
i) T-type

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4.1 Types of Intersection

ii) Y-type

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4.1 Types of Intersection

Four-leg design
- Ramps in one or two quadrant

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4.1 Types of Intersection

i) Diamond

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4.1 types of intersection

ii) Cloverleaf

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4.1 Types of Intersection

iii) Directional

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4.1 Types of Intersection

iv) Rotary

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4.1 types of intersection

High-capacity stack interchange

between Interstates 105 and 110
in Los Angeles, California.

Diamond Cloverleaf Trumpet

http://www.cbrd.co.uk/reference/interchanges/ 35
4.1 Types of Intersection

A typical cloverleaf interchange

with collector/distributor roads

Trumpet interchange
near Arnhem, Netherland

A typical diamond interchange

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To be continued

See you next week…

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Control Devices

• Purpose:
a) assign the right of way to drivers
b) facilitate highway safety by ensuring the orderly and
predictable movement of all traffic on highway.

• Control may be achieved by using traffic signals, signs

or markings that regulate, guide, warn and/or channel
traffic.

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

• Guidelines are provided in the Manual on Uniform

Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)

• To be effective, a traffic control device must

a) Fulfil a need
b) Command attention
c) Convey a clear simple meaning
d) Command the respect of road users
e) Give adequate time for proper response

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

• To ensure that a traffic control device possesses these

five properties, the MUTCD recommends that engineers
consider the following five factors:

a) Design - size, colour & shape

b) Placement - within the cone of vision
c) Operation - consistent
d) Maintenance - regularly maintained
e) Uniformity - similar devices.

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic signs fall into four (4) broad areas:

a) Regulatory signs - stop/yield, speed signs, parking

signs, one way signs
b) Warning signs - construction zones, pedestrian
crossing & school zone
c) Guide or informational signs - directions to driver
to various destination
d) Directional signs - high speeds highway used at
interchanges

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Intersection Control
a) Yield Signs/ Give way Signs
- All drivers on approaches are required to slow down
& yield the R-O-W to all conflicting vehicles at the
intersection.
- Stopping are not mandatory.
- Placed on minor road approaches

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

b) Stop Signs
- Used where an approaching vehicle is required to stop
before entering the intersection.
- Should not be used at signalized intersections or on
through roadways of expressway.
- May be used: minor road intersects a major road,
unsignalized intersection, high speed, restricted view &
serious crashes.

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Channelization
 Traffic flow at intersections to definite paths – directed
into infinite paths by islands and markings
 For junction, unchannelized intersection is the simplest
types – but dangerous and inefficient
 More efficient – all junction must be provided with
islands and markings

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Channelization
AASHTO defines: -
Separation of conflicting traffic movements into definite
paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to
facilitate the safe & orderly movements of both vehicles &
pedestrians.
Increased capacity

Proper channelized Enhanced safety

intersection

Increased driver confidence

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Blockage of Location of
prohibited traffic control
movement devices
Control of Pedestrian
speed Purposes of
channelization protection
Separation
of conflicts Traffic
Elimination of protection
Control of excessive
conflict intersectional
angle area

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

@ Separation of conflicts
- To diminish the number of possible vehicle conflicts
- To reduce the possible area of conflicts
- To present drivers with only one decision at a time
@ Control of angle of conflict
- Small angles of crossing cause severe accident if it
occurs. Severity is reduced if the angle of conflict is
controlled
@ Control of speed
- To reduce the speed of the traffic entering the
intersection
- To increase the speed of traffic leaving the
intersection 48
4.2 Traffic Control Devices

@ Protection of traffic
- To protect vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic
stream
@ Protection of pedestrians
- To provided a haven of refuge for pedestrian between traffic
flow
@ Blockage of prohibited movement
- To support regulations by making improper movement or
encroachments impossible or inconvenient.
@ Location of traffic control devices
- To provided space for traffic control devices such as
direction indicators, sign, etc.
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Channelization

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Channelization at
T-intersection

Channelization at 4-leg
intersection
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Control System

Traffic signal installed at intersection because of some
reasons:
i) Control movement of vehicular & pedestrian traffic
ii) For heavy traffic flow
iii) Reduce number of conflict points
iv) Improve overall safety

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Types of Traffic Signal

Pre-timed Semi-actuated Fully actuated
•Preset time & phases •Vehicle detector on •Vehicle detectors at all
•Constant cycle length minor street approaches
•Simple & cheap •Green always at major •Each phase subjected
•Effective in street unless minor to min to max green
progressive signal street actuation occurs time
system •2-phase plan •Some phase skipped –if
•Can be operated in diff. •Cycle length maybe no demand
timing plans varies •Cycle length-varies
•Less efficient in •Good for low-moderate •Termination of phase-
fluctuating demand demand no actuations within
spec time @when max
green time
•Flexible form 53
4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Several advantages and disadvantages of traffic control is

presented in the table below:

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Provide orderly traffic 1. Can cause delay -
movement during off-peak
2. Reduce frequency of 2. Accident frequency
certain accident (right (rear-end) may
angle and pedestrian) increased
3. Used to interrupt heavy 3. Red-runners
traffic at intervals to
allow other traffic to
go/stop
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Conflict Areas at Intersection

Crossing
Diverging
Merging

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Terms & Definition for Traffic Signal Design

Optimum Cycle Time (Co) - total time for the signal to

complete one sequence of signal indication cycle

Co = 1.5L + 5 where; Ymax = y n or s + y e or w

1 - Ymax y = ratio of critical flow (q/s)
q = actual critical flow (pcu/h)
s = saturation flow (pcu/h)
L = total lost time

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

• Phase - the part of cycle allocate to any combination of

traffic movements receiving right-of-way simultaneously
during one or more intervals

Two phase of traffic signal

Four phase of traffic signal 57

4.2 Traffic Control Devices

• Interval - a period of time during which all signal

indications do not change (constant)
• Offset - time lapse, in seconds between the beginning
of a green phase at next intersection
• Saturation flow (s)- when the green period begins, vehicles
take some time to start accelerate to normal running speed
but after few seconds the vehicle queue discharge at a more-
or-less constant rate.
s = 525W pcu/hr, where W=lane width>5.5m,
otherwise;

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

•Effective green time (gi) , gi = yi (Co – L)

Ymax

• Controller green time (ki)= actual green time

ki = gi + l – a

• Lost time ( l ) - Time during which the intersection is not

effectively used by any movement

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

• Total Lost Time (L) - Summation of lost time at one phase

and total time between intergreen minus amber
L =  l +  (I – a)

• Intergreen (I) - Time between the end of green indication

for one phase and beginning of a green indication to another

• All red-interval - Display time of red indication for all

approaches - used for pedestrians cross the road

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How to design? > Webster Method

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Signal Design (2-phase)

The approach to a traffic signal controlled system listed as follows:
a. Intergreen time 3.5 sec for N/S, 4 sec for E/W
b. Lost time 1.5 sec for N/S, 2 sec for E/W
c. Amber time 3 sec for both approaches
d. Lane width 5.5 m for N/S, 5.0 m for E/W
Approaches North South East West
Flow, q 505 652 760 872
Saturation flow, S (pcu/hr)
y = q/s
y critical
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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66
 Exercise
The approach to a traffic signal (2 phase) controlled
system are as listed below:
• Intergreen period , I = 4 sec
• Lost time, l = 2 sec
• Amber time, a = 3 sec
• Lane width 6.5 m for N/S, 7.5 m for E/W
Approaches North South East West
Flow, q 980 820 1400 1350
Saturation flow, S (pcu/hr)
y = q/s
y critical
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

Traffic Signal Design (4-phase)

By using the Webster
method, determine a
suitable signal timing for
the intersection using a 4-
phase system. Use a
yellow interval of 3 secs
and take lost time as 3.5
secs. Design this traffic
light signal as a not all-red
phase. Take saturation
flow as 2000 pcu/hr for all
lanes.
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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4.2 Traffic Control Devices

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End of Chapter 4…

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