Reference:

William Stallings
Computer Organization and Architecture
10th Global Edition

+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and Computer Evolution

+ 2

Architecture and Organization

Architecture Organization
◼ Architecture refers to those ◼ Organization refers to how
attributes of a system visible features are implemented.
to the programmer.

◼ Instruction set, number of bits ◼ Control signals, interfaces,

used for data representation, memory technology
I/O mechanisms, addressing
techniques

◼ E.g. is there a multiply ◼ E.g. is there a hardware

multiply unit or is
instruction? multiplication done by
repeated addition?
+ 3

Architecture and Organization

◼ Many computer manufacturers offer a family of computer

models, all with the same architecture but with differences in
organization.
◼ The different models in the family have different price and
performance characteristics.
◼ A particular architecture may span many years and encompass a
number of different computer models, its organization changing
with changing technology.

◼ The IBM System/370 family share the same basic architecture

◼ This gives code compatibility (at least backwards)

◼ Organization differs between different versions

+ 4

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

▪ One of the most important abstractions is the interface between

the hardware and the lowest-level software
▪ instruction set architecture, or simply architecture, of a computer

▪ The instruction set architecture includes anything programmers

need to know to make a binary machine language program work
correctly, including instructions, registers, memory access, I/O
devices, ...

▪ It allows computer designers to talk about functions

independently from the hardware that performs them.
▪ For e.g. we can talk about the functions of a digital clock (keeping
time, displaying the time, setting the alarm) independently from the
clock hardware (quartz crystal, LED displays, plastic buttons)
+ 5

Structure and Function

◼ Structure is the way in which components relate to each other

◼ Function is the operation of individual components as part of

the structure

+ 6

Function

◼ Basic functions that a computer can perform:

◼ Data processing
◼ Data storage
◼ Data movement
◼ Control
+ Peripherals
7

Structure
- Top
Level -
Simple
Single Communication
Processor lines

+ 8

Computer Components

◼ Four main structural components:

◼ Central processing unit (CPU): controls the operation of the
computer and performs its data processing functions; often
simply referred to as processor
◼ Main memory: stores data
◼ I/O: moves data between the computer and its external
environment
◼ System interconnection: some mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O
+ 9

CPU Components

◼ Major structural components:

◼ Control unit: controls the operation of the CPU and hence the
computer
◼ Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): performs the computer’s data
processing functions
◼ Registers: provide storage internal to the CPU
◼ CPU interconnection: some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers

+ 10

Multicore Computer Structure

◼ Contemporary computers have multiple processors

◼ When these processors reside on a single chip

◼ Multicore computer
◼ Each processing unit (control unit, ALU, registers, cache) is a core
+ 11

ENIAC – Background
◼ Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

◼ World’s first general purpose electronic digital computer

◼ Eckert and Mauchly

◼ University of Pennsylvania

◼ Trajectory tables for weapons

◼ Started 1943

◼ Finished 1946
◼ Too late for war effort
◼ Perform a series of complex calculations to determine feasibility of
the hydrogen bomb

◼ Used until 1955

12

Two early programmers (Gloria Ruth Gordon [Bolotsky] and Esther Gerston) at work on the ENIAC.
US Army photo from the archives of the ARL Library (US Army Research Laboratory).
+ 13

ENIAC - Details

◼ Decimal (not binary)

◼ 20 accumulators of 10 digits

◼ Programmed manually by switches

◼ 18,000 vacuum tubes

◼ 30 tons

◼ 1500 square feet

◼ 140 kW power consumption Glenn A. Beck (background) and Betty

Snyder (foreground) program ENIAC
◼ 5,000 additions per second in BRL building 328. (U.S. Army photo, c.
1947–1955)
Image from Wikepedia

+ 14

von Neumann/Turing

◼ Stored program concept

◼ Main memory storing programs and data

◼ ALU operating on binary data

◼ Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and

executing

◼ Input and output equipment operated by control unit

◼ Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies

◼ IAS in 1946

◼ Completed 1952
+ 15

Structure of von Neumann Machine

+ 16

IAS - Details

◼ 1000 x 40 bit words

◼ Binary numbers
◼ 2 x 20 bit instructions

◼ Memory formats
+ 17

IAS - Details
◼ Set of registers (storage in CPU)
◼ Memory buffer register (MBR):
Contains a word to be stored in
memory or sent to the I/O unit, or
is used to receive a word from
memory or from the I/O unit.
◼ Memory address register
(MAR): Specifies the address in
memory of the word to be written
from or read into the MBR.
◼ Instruction register (IR):
Contains the 8-bit opcode
instruction being executed.
◼ Instruction buffer register (IBR):
Holds temporarily the righthand
instruction from a word in
memory.
◼ Program counter (PC): Contains
the address of the next instruction
pair to be fetched from memory.
◼ Accumulator (AC) and
multiplier quotient (MQ): Hold
temporarily operands and results
of ALU operations.

18

Example:
Load M(x)
Add M(y)
Store M(z)
 Instruction Symbolic
Opcode representation Description
type
+ 19

IAS
Instruction
Set

+ 20

Problem 1.2

a) On the IAS, what would the machine code

instruction look like to store the contents
of an accumulator to memory address 8?

b) On the IAS, what would the machine code

instruction look like to add the contents of
memory address 16 to the accumulator?
+ 21

Solution
Transfer contents of accumulator
to memory location X
a) STOR M(8)

Add M(X) to AC; put result in AC

b) ADD M(16)

Refer to slide
20 for IAS
instruction set

+ 22

Problem 1.4

◼ Given the memory contents of the IAS computer

shown below, show the assembly language code
for the program starting at address 08A.

◼ Explain what this program does.

Address Contents
08A 010FA210FB
08B 010FA0F08D
08C 020FA210FB
+ 23

Solution

◼ The program will store the absolute value of the

content at memory location 0FA into memory
location 0FB.

+ 24

Commercial Computers

◼ 1947 – Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation

◼ UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

◼ US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations

◼ Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation

◼ Late 1950s – UNIVAC II

◼ Faster
◼ More memory
+ 25

IBM

◼ Punched card processing equipment

◼ 1953 – the 701

◼ IBM’s first stored program computer
◼ Scientific calculations

◼ 1955 – the 702

◼ Business applications

◼ Lead to 700/7000 series

+ 26

Transistors

◼ A transistor is an on/off switch controlled by electricity

◼ Replaced vacuum tubes

◼ Smaller

◼ Cheaper

◼ Less heat dissipation

◼ Solid State device

◼ Made from Silicon (sand)

◼ Invented 1947 at Bell Labs

◼ William Shockley et al.

+ 27

Transistor Based Computers

◼ Second generation machines

◼ NCR and RCA produced small transistor machines

◼ IBM 7000

◼ DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) – 1957

◼ Produced PDP - 1

+ 28

Microelectronics

◼ Literally – small electronics

◼ A computer is made of gates, memory cells, and

interconnections

◼ These can be manufactured on a semiconductor

◼ e.g. silicon wafer

+ 29

Generations of Computers

The integrated circuit (IC) combined dozens to hundreds of transistors

into a single chip.
A VLSI circuit is just billions of combinations of conductors, insulators,
and switches manufactured in a single small package.

+ 30

Moore’s Law
◼ Increased density of components on chip

◼ Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

◼ Number of transistors on a chip will double every year

◼ Since 1970’s, development has slowed a little

◼ Number of transistors doubles every 18 months

◼ Cost of chip has remained almost unchanged

◼ Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher

performance

◼ Smaller size gives increased flexibility

◼ Reduced power and cooling requirements

◼ Fewer interconnections increases reliability

 31

+ 32

IBM 360 Series

◼ 1964

◼ Replaced and not compatible with 7000 series

◼ First planned ‘family’ of computers

◼ Similar or identical instruction sets
◼ Similar or identical OS
◼ Increasing speed
◼ Increasing number of I/O ports (more terminals)
◼ Increasing memory size
◼ Increasing cost

◼ Multiplexed switch structure

+ 33

DEC PDP-8

◼ 1964

◼ First minicomputer

◼ Did not need air conditioned room

◼ Small enough to sit on a lab bench

◼ Cost
◼ $16,000
◼ Compared to $100k+ for IBM 360

◼ Embedded applications and OEM

◼ Bus structure

+ 34

DEC PDP-8 Bus Structure

Console Main I/O I/O

CPU
controller Memory Module Module

OMNIBUS
+ 35

Semiconductor Memory

◼ 1970

◼ Fairchild

◼ Size of a single core

◼ i.e. 1 bit of magnetic core storage

◼ Holds 256 bits

◼ Much faster than core

◼ Capacity approximately doubles each year

+ 36

Intel

◼ 1971 – 4004
◼ First microprocessor
◼ All CPU components on a single chip
◼ 4 bit

◼ Followed in 1972 by 8008

◼ 8 bit

◼ Both designed for specific applications

◼ 1974 – 8080
◼ Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor
+ 37

CISC vs RISC
◼ CISC: Complex Instruction Set Computers
◼ E.g. Intel’s x86

◼ RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computers

◼ E.g. ARM architecture

◼ Consider the high level statement: A = B + C

◼ On a typical CISC machine: add mem(B), mem(C), mem(A)

◼ On a typical RISC machine:

load mem(B), reg(1)
load mem(C), reg(2)
add reg(1), reg(1), reg(2)
store reg(1), mem(A)

+ 38

Evolution of the Intel x86

Architecture
◼ 8080:
◼ first general-purpose microprocessor
◼ 8 bit data path
◼ used in the first personal computer, the Altair.

◼ 8086:
◼ far more powerful
◼ 16-bit machine
◼ instruction cache, prefetch a few instructions
◼ variant: the 8088: 8 bit external bus, used in first IBM PC

◼ 80286:
◼ 16-MByte memory addressable
◼ up from 1 Mb

◼ 80386:
◼ 32 bit
◼ support for multitasking
+ 39

Evolution of the Intel x86

Architecture
◼ 80486:
◼ sophisticated and powerful cache technology and instruction
pipelining
◼ built-in math coprocessor

◼ Pentium:
◼ superscalar techniques
◼ multiple instructions executed in parallel

◼ Pentium Pro:
◼ increased superscalar
◼ aggressive register renaming
◼ branch prediction
◼ data flow analysis
◼ speculative execution

+ 40

Evolution of the Intel x86

Architecture
◼ Pentium II:
◼ MMX technology
◼ process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently

◼ Pentium III:
◼ additional floating-point instructions to support 3D graphics software

◼ Pentium 4:
◼ additional floating-point and multimedia enhancements

◼ Core:
◼ dual core: implementation of two processors on a single chip

◼ Core 2:
◼ 64 bits
◼ Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
◼ more recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
◼ Advanced Vector instruction sets of 256 and 512-bit instructions for vector data
+ 41

Embedded Systems
▪ A computer inside another device used for running one
predetermined application or collection of software

▪ Include the microprocessors found in your car, the computers in

a television set, and the networks of processors that control a
modern airplane or cargo ship

▪ Designed to run one application or one set of related

applications that are normally integrated with the hardware and
delivered as a single system

▪ Consider a music player: the processor need only be as fast as

necessary to handle its limited function, and beyond that,
minimizing cost and power are the most important objectives

▪ Have lower tolerance for failure

▪ Your new tv crashes
▪ Computer in a plane or cargo ship crashes

▪ Dependability is achieved primarily through simplicity,

emphasis is on doing one function as perfectly as possible

+ 42

Possible Organization of an
Embedded System
◼ Elements that differ from the typical
desktop or laptop computer:
◼ variety of interfaces that enable
the system to measure,
manipulate, and interact with
external environment
◼ human interface may be as simple
as a flashing light or as
complicated as real-time robotic
vision
◼ diagnostic port may be used for
diagnosing the system that is
being controlled—not just for
diagnosing the computer
◼ special-purpose field
programmable (FPGA),
application specific (ASIC), or
even nondigital hardware may be
used to increase performance or
safety
+ 43

ARM Architecture
◼ RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers

◼ Used in embedded systems

◼ Company doesn’t make processors but instead designs

microprocessor and multicore architectures and licenses them
to manufacturers

◼ High-speed processors

◼ Small die size

◼ Low power requirements

◼ Widely used in PDAs and other handheld devices, including

games and phones as well as a large variety of consumer
products

◼ Instruction Set Architecture: instructions are 32 bits long

+ 44

Cloud Computing

• Refers to large collections of servers that provide services

over the Internet

▪ Relies upon giant datacenters known as Warehouse Scale

Computers (WSCs)

▪ Companies like Amazon and Google build these WSCs

containing 100,000 servers and then let companies rent
portions of them so that they can provide software services to
PMDs without having to build WSCs of their own
+ 45

Cloud Services

▪ Software as a Service (SaaS) provides service to

customers in the form of software

▪ Platform as a Service (PaaS) provides service to

customers in the form of a platform on which the
customer’s applications can run

▪ Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) provides

processing, storage, networks,…