Cobalt

Cobalt is a chemical element; it has symbol Co

and atomic number 27. As with nickel, cobalt is
Cobalt, 27Co
found in the Earth's crust only in a chemically
combined form, save for small deposits found in
alloys of natural meteoric iron. The free element,
produced by reductive smelting, is a hard, lustrous,
silvery metal.

Cobalt-based blue pigments (cobalt blue) have

been used since antiquity for jewelry and paints,
and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass. The Cobalt
color was long thought to be due to the metal
Pronunciation /ˈkoʊbɒlt/ ⓘ[1]
bismuth. Miners had long used the name kobold
ore (German for goblin ore) for some of the blue Appearance hard lustrous bluish gray
pigment-producing minerals. They were so named metal
because they were poor in known metals and gave
off poisonous arsenic-containing fumes when Standard atomic weight Ar°(Co)

smelted.[5] In 1735, such ores were found to be 58.933 194 ± 0.000 003
reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since 58.933 ± 0.001 (abridged)[2]
ancient times), which was ultimately named for the
kobold. Cobalt in the periodic table

–
Today, some cobalt is produced specifically from ↑
one of a number of metallic-lustered ores, such as Co
↓
cobaltite (CoAsS). The element is more usually Rh
produced as a by-product of copper and nickel iron ← cobalt → nickel
mining. The Copperbelt in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Zambia yields Atomic number (Z) 27
most of the global cobalt production. World Group group 9
production in 2016 was 116,000 tonnes (114,000 Period period 4
long tons; 128,000 short tons) (according to
Natural Resources Canada), and the DRC alone Block d-block
accounted for more than 50%.[6] Electron [Ar] 3d7 4s2
configuration
Cobalt is primarily used in lithium-ion batteries,
and in the manufacture of magnetic, wear-resistant Electrons per shell 2, 8, 15, 2
and high-strength alloys. The compounds cobalt Physical properties
silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl2 O4 , cobalt Phase at STP solid
blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass,
Melting point 1768 K ​(1495 °C, ​2723 °F)
ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs
naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-59. Boiling point 3200 K ​(2927 °C, ​5301 °F)
Cobalt-60 is a commercially important Density (near r.t.) 8.90 g/cm3
radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for
the production of high-energy gamma rays. Cobalt when liquid (at m.p.) 7.75 g/cm3
is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst
Heat of fusion 16.06 kJ/mol
when refining crude oil. This is to purge it of
sulfur, which is very polluting when burned and Heat of 377 kJ/mol
causes acid rain.[7] vaporization
Molar heat 24.81 J/(mol·K)
Cobalt is the active center of a group of
capacity
coenzymes called cobalamins. Vitamin B12 , the
best-known example of the type, is an essential Vapor pressure
vitamin for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
also a micronutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi.
at T (K) 1790 1960 2165 2423 2755 3198

Characteristics Atomic properties

Oxidation states −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4,
+5[3] (an amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.88
Ionization energies 1st: 760.4 kJ/mol
2nd: 1648 kJ/mol
3rd: 3232 kJ/mol
(more)
Atomic radius empirical: 125 pm
Covalent radius Low spin: 126±3 pm
A block of electrolytically refined
High spin: 150±7 pm
cobalt (99.9% purity) cut from a large
plate

Spectral lines of cobalt

Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal with a specific
gravity of 8.9. The Curie temperature is 1,115 °C Other properties
(2,039 °F)[8] and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Natural occurrence primordial
Bohr magnetons per atom.[9] Cobalt has a relative
Crystal structure ​ exagonal close-packed
h
permeability two-thirds that of iron.[10] Metallic
(hcp)
cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures:
hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature
between the hcp and fcc structures is 450 °C Speed of sound 4720 m/s (at 20 °C)
(842 °F), but in practice the energy difference thin rod
between them is so small that random intergrowth
of the two is common.[11][12][13] Thermal expansion 13.0 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal 100 W/(m⋅K)
Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected conductivity
from oxidation by a passivating oxide film. It is
attacked by halogens and sulfur. Heating in Electrical 62.4 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
oxygen produces Co3 O4 which loses oxygen at resistivity

900 °C (1,650 °F) to give the monoxide CoO.[14] Magnetic ordering ferromagnetic
The metal reacts with fluorine (F2 ) at 520 K to Young's modulus 209 GPa
give CoF3 ; with chlorine (Cl2 ), bromine (Br2 ) and
Shear modulus 75 GPa
iodine (I2 ), producing equivalent binary halides. It
Bulk modulus 180 GPa
does not react with hydrogen gas (H2 ) or nitrogen
gas (N2 ) even when heated, but it does react with Poisson ratio 0.31
boron, carbon, phosphorus, arsenic and sulfur.[15] Mohs hardness 5.0
At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with
mineral acids, and very slowly with moist, but not Vickers hardness 1043 MPa
dry, air. Brinell hardness 470–3000 MPa
CAS Number 7440-48-4
Compounds History
Discovery and first Georg Brandt (1735)
Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and
isolation
+3, although compounds with oxidation states
ranging from −3 to +5 are also known. A common Isotopes of cobalt
oxidation state for simple compounds is +2
(cobalt(II)). These salts form the pink-colored Main isotopes[4] Decay
2+
metal aquo complex [Co(H2 O)6 ] in water. abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue
2−
56
Co synth 77.236 d β+ 56
Fe
[CoCl4 ] .[3] In a borax bead flame test, cobalt
57 57
shows deep blue in both oxidizing and reducing Co synth 271.811 d ε Fe
flames.[16] 58
Co synth 70.844 d β+ 58
Fe

59
Co 100% stable
Oxygen and chalcogen
compounds 60
Co trace 5.2714 y β− 100% 60
Ni

Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has rocksalt structure. It is readily
oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)3 ). At temperatures of 600–
700 °C, CoO oxidizes to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3 O4 ), which has a spinel structure.[3] Black
cobalt(III) oxide (Co2 O3 ) is also known.[17] Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO
(Néel temperature 291 K) and Co3 O4 (Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe3 O4 ),
with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states.[18]

The principal chalcogenides of cobalt include the black cobalt(II) sulfides, CoS2 , which adopts a pyrite-like
structure, and cobalt(III) sulfide (Co2 S3 ).

Halides

Four dihalides of cobalt(II) are known: cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF2 ,

pink), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2 , blue), cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr2 ,
green), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI2 , blue-black). These halides exist in
anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride
is blue, the hydrate is red.[19]
3+ 2+
The reduction potential for the reaction Co + e− → Co is
Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate +1.92 V, beyond that for chlorine to chloride, +1.36 V.
Consequently, cobalt(III) chloride would spontaneously reduce to
cobalt(II) chloride and chlorine. Because the reduction potential for
fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V, cobalt(III) fluoride is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III)
compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with
water.[14]
Coordination compounds

As with all metals, molecular compounds and polyatomic ions of cobalt are classified as coordination
complexes, that is, molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to one or more ligands. These can be
combinations of a potentially infinite variety of molecules and ions, such as:

2+
water H2O, as in the cation hexaaquocobalt(II) [Co(H2O)6] . This pink-colored complex is
the predominant cation in solid cobalt sulfate CoSO4·(H2O)x , with x = 6 or 7, as well as in
water solutions thereof.
3+
ammonia NH3, as in cis-diaquotetraamminecobalt(III) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2] , in hexol
6− −
[Co(Co(NH3)4(HO)2)3] , in [Co(NO2)4(NH3)2] (the anion of Erdmann's salt),[20] and in
−
[Co(NH3)5(CO3)] .[20]
2− 3−
carbonate [CO3] , as in the green triscarbonatocobaltate(III) [Co(CO3)3] anion.[21][20][22]
− −
nitrite [NO2] as in [Co(NO2)4(NH3)2] .[20]
−
hydroxide [HO] , as in hexol.
− 2−
chloride [Cl] , as in tetrachloridocobaltate(II) CoCl4] .
− 3−
bicarbonate [HCO3] , as in [Co(CO3)2(HCO3)(H2O)] .[20]
2−
oxalate [C2O4] , as in trisoxalatocobaltate(III) [Co(C2O4)3−
3] .
[20]

These attached groups affect the stability of oxidation states of the cobalt atoms, according to general
principles of electronegativity and of the hardness–softness. For example, Co3+ complexes tend to have
ammine ligands. Because phosphorus is softer than nitrogen, phosphine ligands tend to feature the softer
Co2+ and Co+, an example being tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride (P(C6 H5 )3 )3 CoCl). The more
electronegative (and harder) oxide and fluoride can stabilize Co4+ and Co5+ derivatives, e.g. caesium
hexafluorocobaltate(IV) (Cs2 CoF6 ) and potassium percobaltate (K3 CoO4 ).[14]

Alfred Werner, a Nobel-prize winning pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds of
3+
empirical formula [Co(NH3 )6 ] . One of the isomers determined was cobalt(III) hexammine chloride. This
coordination complex, a typical Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six
ammine orthogonal ligands and three chloride counteranions. Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in
3+
place of ammonia gives tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) ([Co(en)3 ] ), which was one of the first
coordination complexes to be resolved into optical isomers. The complex exists in the right- and left-handed
forms of a "three-bladed propeller". This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow-gold needle-like
crystals.[23][24]

Organometallic compounds

Cobaltocene is a structural analog to ferrocene, with cobalt in place of iron. Cobaltocene is much more
sensitive to oxidation than ferrocene.[25] Cobalt carbonyl (Co2 (CO)8 ) is a catalyst in carbonylation and
hydrosilylation reactions.[26] Vitamin B12 (see below) is an organometallic compound found in nature and
is the only vitamin that contains a metal atom.[27] An example of an alkylcobalt complex in the otherwise
uncommon +4 oxidation state of cobalt is the homoleptic complex tetrakis(1-norbornyl)cobalt(IV) (Co(1-
norb)4 ), a transition metal-alkyl complex that is notable for its
resistance to β-hydrogen elimination,[28] in accord with Bredt's rule.
+ −
The cobalt(III) and cobalt(V) complexes [Li(THF)4 ] [Co(1-norb)4 ]
+ −
and [Co(1-norb)4 ] [BF4 ] are also known.[29]

Isotopes
59 Co is the only stable cobalt isotope and the only isotope that exists
naturally on Earth. Twenty-two radioisotopes have been characterized:
the most stable, 60 Co, has a half-life of 5.2714 years; 57 Co has a half- Structure of tetrakis(1-
life of 271.8 days; 56 Co has a half-life of 77.27 days; and 58 Co has a norbornyl)cobalt(IV)
half-life of 70.86 days. All the other radioactive isotopes of cobalt have
half-lives shorter than 18 hours, and in most cases shorter than
1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have half-lives shorter than 15 minutes.[30]

The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (50 Co) to 73 u (73 Co). The primary decay mode
for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the only stable isotope, 59 Co, is electron capture
and the primary mode of decay in isotopes with atomic mass greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta
decay. The primary decay products below 59 Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes; above that the decay
products are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.[30]

History
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color
to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian
sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of
Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the Tang dynasty
(618–907 AD) and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD).[31]

Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation
of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass, cast during the
14th century BC.[32][33] Blue glass from Egypt was either colored with
copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass is from the
eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BC). The source for the cobalt
Early Chinese blue and the Egyptians used is not known.[34][35]
white porcelain,
manufactured c. 1335 The word cobalt is derived from the German kobalt, from kobold meaning
"goblin", a superstitious term used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first
attempts to smelt those ores for copper or silver failed, yielding simply
powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the
ore oxidized the arsenic into the highly toxic and volatile arsenic oxide, adding to the notoriety of the
ore.[36] Paracelsus, Georgius Agricola, and Basil Valentine all referred to such silicates as "cobalt".[37]

Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt c. 1735, showing it to be a
previously unknown element, distinct from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new
"semi-metal".[38][39] He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass,
which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be
discovered since the pre-historical period. All other known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury,
tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.[40]
During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of cobalt blue (a pigment made with
cobalt compounds and alumina) and smalt (cobalt glass powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics
and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket.[41][42] The first mines for the production
of smalt in the 16th century were located in Norway, Sweden, Saxony and Hungary. With the discovery of
cobalt ore in New Caledonia in 1864, the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore
deposits in Ontario, Canada, in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the Katanga Province in
the Congo in 1914, mining operations shifted again.[36] When the Shaba conflict started in 1978, the
copper mines of Katanga Province nearly stopped production.[43][44] The impact on the world cobalt
economy from this conflict was smaller than expected: cobalt is a rare metal, the pigment is highly toxic,
and the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials. In some cases,
industry was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives.[43][44]

In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn T. Seaborg discovered the radioisotope cobalt-60.[45] This isotope was
famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in radioactive beta
decay.[46][47]

After World War II, the US wanted to guarantee the supply of cobalt ore for military uses (as the Germans
had been doing) and prospected for cobalt within the US. High purity cobalt was highly sought after for its
use in jet engines and gas turbines.[48] An adequate supply of the ore was found in Idaho near Blackbird
canyon. Calera Mining Company started production at the site.[49]

Cobalt demand has further accelerated in the 21st century as an essential constituent of materials used in
rechargeable batteries, superalloys, and catalysts.[48] It has been argued that cobalt will be one of the main
objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but
this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded
production.[50]

Occurrence
The stable form of cobalt is produced in supernovae through the r-process.[51] It comprises 0.0029% of the
Earth's crust. Free cobalt (the native metal) is not found on Earth's surface because of its tendency to react
with oxygen in the atmosphere. Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soils, plants,
and animals.[52] In the ocean cobalt typically reacts chlorine. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron,
pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth.

In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with nickel. Both are characteristic components of meteoric iron,
though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron
alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to remain as the free (but alloyed)
metal.[53]

Cobalt in compound form occurs in copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component that
combines with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs2 ), glaucodot
((Co,Fe)AsS), and skutterudite (CoAs3 ) minerals.[14] The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs
together with vaesite in the copper deposits of Katanga Province.[54] When it reaches the atmosphere,
weathering occurs; the sulfide minerals oxidize and form pink erythrite ("cobalt glance":
Co3 (AsO4 )2 ·8H2 O) and spherocobaltite (CoCO3 ).[55][56]
Cobalt is also a constituent of tobacco smoke.[57] The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy
metals like cobalt from the surrounding soil in its leaves. These are subsequently inhaled during tobacco
smoking.[58]

In the ocean
Cobalt is a trace metal involved in photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation detected in most ocean basins and is
a limiting micronutrient for phytoplankton and cyanobacteria.[59][60] The Co-containing complex
cobalamin is only synthesized by cyanobacteria and a few archaea, so dissolved cobalt concentrations are
low in the upper ocean. Like Mn and Fe, Co has a hybrid profile of biological uptake by phytoplankton via
photosynthesis in the upper ocean and scavenging in the deep ocean, although most scavenging is limited
by complex organic ligands.[61][62] Co is recycled in the ocean by decaying organic matter that sinks below
the upper ocean, although most is scavenged by oxidizing bacteria.

Sources of cobalt for many ocean bodies include rivers and terrestrial runoff with some input from
hydrothermal vents.[63] In the deep ocean, cobalt sources are found lying on top of seamounts (which can
be large or small) where ocean currents sweep the ocean floor to clear sediment over the span of millions of
years allowing them to form as ferromanganese crusts.[64] Although limited mapping of the seafloor has
been done, preliminary investigation indicates that there is a large amount of these cobalt-rich crusts located
in the Clarion Clipperton Zone,[65] an area garnering increasing interest for deep sea mining ventures due
to the mineral-rich environment within its domain. Anthropogenic input contributes as a non-natural source
but in very low amounts. Dissolved cobalt (dCo) concentrations across oceans are controlled primarily by
reservoirs where dissolved oxygen concentrations are low. The complex biochemical cycling of cobalt in
the ocean is still not fully understood, but patterns of higher concentrations have been found in areas of low
oxygen[66] such as the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) in the Southern Atlantic Ocean.[67]

Cobalt is considered toxic for marine environments at high concentrations.[68] Safe concentrations fall
around 18 μg/L in marine waters for plankton such as diatoms.

Production
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite
(see above), but most cobalt is obtained by reducing the cobalt by-products
of nickel and copper mining and smelting.[70][71]

Since cobalt is generally produced as a by-product, the supply of cobalt

depends to a great extent on the economic feasibility of copper and nickel
mining in a given market. Demand for cobalt was projected to grow 6% in
2017.[72]

Primary cobalt deposits are rare, such as those occurring in hydrothermal

deposits, associated with ultramafic rocks, typified by the Bou-Azzer
district of Morocco. At such locations, cobalt ores are mined exclusively,
albeit at a lower concentration, and thus require more downstream
Cobalt ore processing for cobalt extraction.[73][74]

Several methods exist to separate cobalt from copper and nickel, depending
on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One method is froth flotation, in
which surfactants bind to ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent roasting
converts the ores to cobalt sulfate, and the copper and Cobalt mine production (2022) and reserves in
the iron are oxidized to the oxide. Leaching with water tonnes according to USGS[69]
extracts the sulfate together with the arsenates. The
Country Production Reserves
residues are further leached with sulfuric acid, yielding
a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached DR Congo 130,000 4,000,000
from the slag of copper smelting.[75] Indonesia 10,000 600,000
The products of the above-mentioned processes are Russia 8,900 250,000
transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co3 O4 ). This oxide Australia 5,900 1,500,000
is reduced to metal by the aluminothermic reaction or
Canada 3,900 220,000
reduction with carbon in a blast furnace.[14]
Cuba 3,800 500,000

Extraction Philippines 3,800 260,000

Madagascar 3,000 100,000

The United States Geological Survey estimates world
Papua New Guinea 3,000 47,000
reserves of cobalt at 7,100,000 metric tons.[76] The
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) currently Turkey 2,700 36,000
produces 63% of the world's cobalt. This market share
Morocco 2,300 13,000
may reach 73% by 2025 if planned expansions by
mining producers like Glencore Plc take place as China 2,200 140,000
expected. Bloomberg New Energy Finance has United States 800 69,000
estimated that by 2030, global demand for cobalt could
Other countries 5,200 610,000
be 47 times more than it was in 2017.[77]
World total 190,000 8,300,000
Changes that Congo made to mining laws in 2002
attracted new investments in Congolese copper and cobalt
projects. Glencore's Mutanda Mine shipped 24,500 tons of
cobalt in 2016, 40% of Congo DRC's output and nearly a
quarter of global production. After oversupply, Glencore
closed Mutanda for two years in late 2019.[78][79]
Glencore's Katanga Mining project is resuming as well and
should produce 300,000 tons of copper and 20,000 tons of
cobalt by 2019, according to Glencore.[72]

Democratic Republic of the Congo World production trend

In 2005, the top producer of cobalt was the copper deposits

in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga Province. Formerly Shaba province, the area had
almost 40% of global reserves, reported the British Geological Survey in 2009.[80]

Artisanal mining supplied 17% to 40% of the DRC production.[81] Some 100,000 cobalt miners in Congo
DRC use hand tools to dig hundreds of feet, with little planning and fewer safety measures, say workers
and government and NGO officials, as well as The Washington Post reporters' observations on visits to
isolated mines. The lack of safety precautions frequently causes injuries or death.[82] Mining pollutes the
vicinity and exposes local wildlife and indigenous communities to toxic metals thought to cause birth
defects and breathing difficulties, according to health officials.[83]

Child labor is used in mining cobalt from African artisanal mines.[81][84] Human rights activists have
highlighted this and investigative journalism reporting has confirmed it.[85][86] This revelation prompted
cell phone maker Apple Inc., on March 3, 2017, to stop buying ore from suppliers such as Zhejiang
Huayou Cobalt who source from artisanal mines in the DRC, and begin using only suppliers that are
verified to meet its workplace standards.[87][88]

There is a push globally by the EU and major car manufacturers (OEM) for global production of cobalt to
be sourced and produced sustainably, responsibly and traceability of the supply chain. Mining companies
are adopting and practising ESG initiatives in line with OECD Guidance and putting in place evidence of
zero to low carbon footprint activities in the supply chain production of lithium-ion batteries. These
initiatives are already taking place with major mining companies, artisanal and small-scale mining
companies (ASM). Car manufacturers and battery manufacturer supply chains: Tesla, VW, BMW, BASF
and Glencore are participating in several initiatives, such as the Responsible Cobalt Initiative and Cobalt for
Development study. In 2018 BMW Group in partnership with BASF, Samsung SDI and Samsung
Electronics have launched a pilot project in the DRC over one pilot mine, to improve conditions and
address challenges for artisanal miners and the surrounding communities.

The political and ethnic dynamics of the region have in the past caused outbreaks of violence and years of
armed conflict and displaced populations. This instability affected the price of cobalt and also created
perverse incentives for the combatants in the First and Second Congo Wars to prolong the fighting, since
access to diamond mines and other valuable resources helped to finance their military goals—which
frequently amounted to genocide—and also enriched the fighters themselves. While DR Congo has in the
2010s not recently been invaded by neighboring military forces, some of the richest mineral deposits adjoin
areas where Tutsis and Hutus still frequently clash, unrest continues although on a smaller scale and
refugees still flee outbreaks of violence.[89]

Cobalt extracted from small Congolese artisanal mining endeavors in 2007 supplied a single Chinese
company, Congo DongFang International Mining. A subsidiary of Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, one of the
world's largest cobalt producers, Congo DongFang supplied cobalt to some of the world's largest battery
manufacturers, who produced batteries for ubiquitous products like the Apple iPhones. Because of accused
labour violations and environmental concerns, LG Chem subsequently audited Congo DongFang in
accordance with OECD guidelines. LG Chem, which also produces battery materials for car companies,
imposed a code of conduct on all suppliers that it inspects.[90]

The Mukondo Mountain project, operated by the Central African Mining and Exploration Company
(CAMEC) in Katanga Province, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It produced an estimated
one-third of the total global cobalt production in 2008.[91] In July 2009, CAMEC announced a long-term
agreement to deliver its entire annual production of cobalt concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to
Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.[92]

In February 2018, global asset management firm AllianceBernstein defined the DRC as economically "the
Saudi Arabia of the electric vehicle age", due to its cobalt resources, as essential to the lithium-ion batteries
that drive electric vehicles.[93]

On March 9, 2018, President Joseph Kabila updated the 2002 mining code, increasing royalty charges and
declaring cobalt and coltan "strategic metals".[94][95]

The 2002 mining code was effectively updated on December 4, 2018.[96]

In December 2019, International Rights Advocates, a human rights NGO, filed a landmark lawsuit against
Apple, Tesla, Dell, Microsoft and Google company Alphabet for "knowingly benefiting from and aiding
and abetting the cruel and brutal use of young children" in mining cobalt.[97] The companies in question
denied their involvement in child labour.[98]

Canada

In 2017, some exploration companies were planning to survey old silver and cobalt mines in the area of
Cobalt, Ontario, where significant deposits are believed to lie.[99]

Cuba

Canada's Sherritt International processes cobalt ores in nickel deposits from the Moa mines in Cuba, and
the island has several others mines in Mayarí, Camagüey, and Pinar del Rio. Continued investments by
Sherritt International in Cuban nickel and cobalt production while acquiring mining rights for 17–20 years
made the communist country third for cobalt reserves in 2019, before Canada itself.[100]

Indonesia

Starting from smaller amounts in 2021, Indonesia began producing cobalt as a byproduct of nickel
production. By 2022, the country had become the world's second-largest cobalt producer, with Benchmark
Mineral Intelligence forecasting Indonesian output to make up 20 percent of global production by
2030.[101]

Applications
In 2016, 116,000 tonnes (128,000 short tons) of cobalt was used.[6] Cobalt has been used in the production
of high-performance alloys.[70][71] It is also used in some rechargeable batteries.

Alloys

Cobalt-based superalloys have historically consumed most of the cobalt produced.[70][71] The temperature
stability of these alloys makes them suitable for turbine blades for gas turbines and aircraft jet engines,
although nickel-based single-crystal alloys surpass them in performance.[102] Cobalt-based alloys are also
corrosion- and wear-resistant, making them, like titanium, useful for making orthopedic implants that do not
wear down over time. The development of wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th
century with the stellite alloys, containing chromium with varying quantities of tungsten and carbon. Alloys
with chromium and tungsten carbides are very hard and wear-resistant.[103] Special cobalt-chromium-
molybdenum alloys like Vitallium are used for prosthetic parts (hip and knee replacements).[104] Cobalt
alloys are also used for dental prosthetics as a useful substitute for nickel, which may be allergenic.[105]
Some high-speed steels also contain cobalt for increased heat and wear resistance. The special alloys of
aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium–cobalt
magnet) are used in permanent magnets.[106] It is also alloyed with 95% platinum for jewelry, yielding an
alloy suitable for fine casting, which is also slightly magnetic.[107]

Batteries

Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2 ) is widely used in lithium-ion battery cathodes. The material is composed of
cobalt oxide layers with the lithium intercalated. During discharge (i.e. when not actively being charged),
the lithium is released as lithium ions.[108] Nickel–cadmium[109] (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride[110]
(NiMH) batteries also include cobalt to improve the oxidation of nickel in the battery.[109] Transparency
Market Research estimated the global lithium-ion battery market at $30 billion in 2015 and predicted an
increase to over US$75 billion by 2024.[111]

Although in 2018 most cobalt in batteries was used in a mobile device,[112] a more recent application for
cobalt is rechargeable batteries for electric cars. This industry has increased five-fold in its demand for
cobalt, which makes it urgent to find new raw materials in more stable areas of the world.[113] Demand is
expected to continue or increase as the prevalence of electric vehicles increases.[114] Exploration in 2016–
2017 included the area around Cobalt, Ontario, an area where many silver mines ceased operation decades
ago.[113] Cobalt for electric vehicles increased 81% from the first half of 2018 to 7,200 tonnes in the first
half of 2019, for a battery capacity of 46.3 GWh.[115][116]

Since child and slave labor have been repeatedly reported in cobalt mining, primarily in the artisanal mines
of DR Congo, technology companies seeking an ethical supply chain have faced shortages of this raw
material and[117] the price of cobalt metal reached a nine-year high in October 2017, more than US$30 a
pound, versus US$10 in late 2015.[118] After oversupply, the price dropped to a more normal $15 in
2019.[119][120] As a reaction to the issues with artisanal cobalt mining in DR Congo a number of cobalt
suppliers and their customers have formed the Fair Cobalt Alliance (FCA) which aims to end the use of
child labor and to improve the working conditions of cobalt mining and processing in the DR Congo.
Members of FCA include Zhejiang Huayou Cobalt, Sono Motors, the Responsible Cobalt Initiative,
Fairphone, Glencore and Tesla, Inc.[121][122]

Research is being conducted by the European Union into the possibility of eliminating cobalt requirements
in lithium-ion battery production.[123][124] As of August 2020 battery makers have gradually reduced the
cathode cobalt content from 1/3 (NMC 111) to 1/5 (NMC 442) to currently 1/10 (NMC 811) and have also
introduced the cobalt free lithium iron phosphate cathode into the battery packs of electric cars such as the
Tesla Model 3.[125][126] In September 2020, Tesla outlined their plans to make their own, cobalt-free
battery cells.[127]

Lithium iron phosphate batteries officially surpassed ternary cobalt batteries in 2021 with 52% of installed
capacity. Analysts estimate that its market share will exceed 60% in 2024.[128]

Catalysts

Several cobalt compounds are oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used to convert xylene to terephthalic
acid, the precursor of the bulk polymer polyethylene terephthalate. Typical catalysts are the cobalt
carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents"
through the oxidation of drying oils.[129][108] However, their use is being phased out due to toxicity
concerns.[130] The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion between steel and rubber in steel-
belted radial tires. In addition they are used as accelerators in polyester resin systems.[131][132][133]
Cobalt-based catalysts are used in reactions involving carbon monoxide. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the
Fischer–Tropsch process for the hydrogenation of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels.[134]
Hydroformylation of alkenes often uses cobalt octacarbonyl as a catalyst.[135]

The hydrodesulfurization of petroleum uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process
helps to clean petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.[108]

Pigments and coloring

Before the 19th century, cobalt was

predominantly used as a pigment. It has
been used since the Middle Ages to make
smalt, a blue-colored glass. Smalt is
produced by melting a mixture of roasted
mineral smaltite, quartz and potassium
carbonate, which yields a dark blue
silicate glass, which is finely ground after
Cobalt blue glass the production.[136] Smalt was widely
used to color glass and as pigment for
paintings.[137] In 1780, Sven Rinman
discovered cobalt green, and in 1802 Louis Jacques Thénard discovered cobalt
blue.[138] Cobalt pigments such as cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate), cerulean blue
(cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of cobalt green (a mixture of cobalt(II) oxide
and zinc oxide), and cobalt violet (cobalt phosphate) are used as artist's pigments Cobalt-colored glass
because of their superior chromatic stability.[139][140]

Radioisotopes

Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60 Co) is useful as a gamma-ray source because it can be produced in predictable
amounts with high activity by bombarding cobalt with neutrons. It produces gamma rays with energies of
1.17 and 1.33 MeV.[30][141]

Cobalt is used in external beam radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation
treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization),[142] industrial radiography (e.g. weld integrity
radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches.
The metal has the unfortunate property of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation
protection. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not discarded properly, and
one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, when a discarded
radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez,
Mexico.[143][144]

Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. Loss of potency requires periodic replacement of the
source in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear
accelerators in modern radiation therapy.[145] Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or 57 Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often
used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B12 uptake, and for the Schilling test. Cobalt-57 is used as
a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in X-ray fluorescence
devices.[146][147]
Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate 59 Co, some of which would be activated in a
nuclear explosion to produce 60 Co. The 60 Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, is sometimes called a cobalt
bomb.[148]
[149]

Other uses
Cobalt is used in electroplating for its attractive appearance, hardness, and resistance to
oxidation.[150]
It is also used as a base primer coat for porcelain enamels.[151]

Biological role
Cobalt is essential to the metabolism of all animals. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as
vitamin B12 , the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element.[152][153] Bacteria in the
stomachs of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B12 , a compound which can only be
produced by bacteria or archaea. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the
health of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other
source of vitamin B12 .[154]

Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C-Co bond
that participates in the reactions.[155] In humans, B12 has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl.
MeB12 promotes methyl (−CH3 ) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B12 catalyzes rearrangements in
which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of
the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or
an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl-CoA to Su-CoA, an important step in
the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.[156]

Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), other cobaltoproteins are
known besides B12 . These proteins include methionine aminopeptidase 2, an enzyme that occurs in
humans and other mammals that does not use the corrin ring of B12 , but binds cobalt directly. Another non-
corrin cobalt enzyme is nitrile hydratase, an enzyme in bacteria that metabolizes nitriles.[157]

Cobalt deficiency

In humans, consumption of cobalt-containing vitamin B12 meets all needs for cobalt. For cattle and sheep,
which meet vitamin B12 needs via synthesis by resident bacteria in the rumen, there is a function for
inorganic cobalt. In the early 20th century, during the development of farming on the North Island Volcanic
Plateau of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was discovered that the
volcanic soils lacked the cobalt salts essential for the cattle food chain.[158][159] The "coast disease" of
sheep in the Ninety Mile Desert of the Southeast of South Australia in the 1930s was found to originate in
nutritional deficiencies of trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the
development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay given orally for lodging in
the animal's rumen.[160][159][161]
 Cobalamin Cobalt-deficient sheep

Health issues
The LD50 value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be Cobalt
between 150 and 500 mg/kg.[163] In the US, the Occupational Hazards
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has designated a
GHS labelling:[162]
permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace as a time-
weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg/m3 . The National Institute for Pictograms
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended
exposure limit (REL) of 0.05 mg/m3 , time-weighted average. The
IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is Signal word Danger
20 mg/m3 .[164] Hazard H302, H317,
statements H319, H334,
However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health H341, H350,
problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the
H360F, H412
addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led
to a peculiar form of toxin-induced cardiomyopathy, which came Precautionary P273, P280,
statements
to be known as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy.[165][166] P301+P312,
P302+P352,
Furthermore, cobalt metal is suspected of causing cancer (i.e., P305+P351+P338,
possibly carcinogenic, IARC Group 2B) as per the International P308+P313
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) Monographs.[167]
NFPA 704
0
It causes respiratory problems when inhaled.[168] It also causes (fire diamond)
2 0
skin problems when touched; after nickel and chromium, cobalt is
a major cause of contact dermatitis.[169]

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Further reading

Harper, E. M.; Kavlak, G.; Graedel, T. E. (2012). "Tracking the metal of the goblins: Cobalt's
cycle of use". Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (2): 1079–86.
Bibcode:2012EnST...46.1079H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012EnST...46.1079H).
doi:10.1021/es201874e (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes201874e). PMID 22142288 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22142288). S2CID 206948482 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:206948482).
Narendrula, R.; Nkongolo, K. K.; Beckett, P. (2012). "Comparative soil metal analyses in
Sudbury (Ontario, Canada) and Lubumbashi (Katanga, DR-Congo)". Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 88 (2): 187–92.
Bibcode:2012BuECT..88..187N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012BuECT..88..187N).
doi:10.1007/s00128-011-0485-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00128-011-0485-7).
PMID 22139330 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22139330). S2CID 34070357 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34070357).
Pauwels, H.; Pettenati, M.; Greffié, C. (2010). "The combined effect of abandoned mines and
agriculture on groundwater chemistry". Journal of Contaminant Hydrology. 115 (1–4): 64–78.
Bibcode:2010JCHyd.115...64P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010JCHyd.115...64P).
doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2010.04.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jconhyd.2010.04.003).
PMID 20466452 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20466452).
Bulut, G. (2006). "Recovery of copper and cobalt from ancient slag". Waste Management &
Research. 24 (2): 118–24. Bibcode:2006WMR....24..118B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
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External links
"Cobalt" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/C
obalt). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VI (9th ed.). 1878. pp. 81–83.
Cobalt (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/027.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Centers for Disease and Prevention – Cobalt (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/cobalt/)
The Cobalt Institute (https://www.cobaltinstitute.org/)
Responsible Cobalt Institute (http://www.cccmc.org.cn/docs/2016-11/201611211415026740
21.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210307221605/http://www.cccmc.org.cn/doc
s/2016-11/20161121141502674021.pdf) 2021-03-07 at the Wayback Machine

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