UNITY UNIVERSITY
DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL & MINING ENGINEERING
Surveying II
(CENG 2081)
CHAPTER- 5
Introduction to Global Positioning System
DEC,2016
(BERHANU G.)
©Berhanu G/yohannes 2016/17
CONTENTS
Introduction
GPS signal
Reference coordinate system for GPS
Fundamentals of GPS positioning
Errors in GPS observation
Linear combination of GPS observables
GPS positioning modes
Application of GPS
5.1 Introduction
GPS - Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
navigation system developed by the U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) in the early 1970s.
It provides continuous positioning and timing information
Serves to an unlimited number of users
The Global Positioning System is comprised of three segments:
Space segment,
The control segment and
User segment.
t
Space Segment
The space segment consists of 29-satellite
Each GPS satellite transmits a signal, which has the
following of components:
two sine waves (also known as carrier frequencies), (L1 & L2)
two digital codes, and (C/A & P code)
a navigation message.
The carriers and the codes are used mainly to determine
the distance from the user's receiver to the GPS
satellites.
The navigation message contains information on
The location (coordinate) of the satellites as a function of time.
Satellite health
The transmitted signals are controlled by highly
accurate atomic clocks onboard the satellites.
Control segments
Consists of a worldwide network of tracking stations, with a
master control station (MCS) located in the United States at
Colorado Springs, Colorado and three ground antenna to
uplink data to the satellite.
Their primary objectives of tracking the GPS satellites are
In order to determine and predict satellite locations
In order to assure system integrity
To understand behavior of the satellite atomic clocks
To predict atmospheric data
the satellite almanac
This information is then packed and uploaded into the GPS
satellites through the S-band link.
US Space Command
Cape Canaveral
Hawaii
Kwajalein Atoll
Diego Garcia
Ascension
Is.
Master Control Station Monitor Station Ground Antenna
User segment
Includes all military and civilian users with a GPS
receiver
A user can receive the GPS signals, which can be used
to determine his or her position anywhere in the world.
Primary Functions of GPS
The primary functions of the GPS fall into four
categories:
Position and waypoint coordinate.
The distance and direction between any two
waypoints, or a position and a waypoint.
Travel progress reports.
Accurate time measurement.
GPS perform the above functions based on signal
communication
5.2 GPS signal
All GPS satellites transmit signal composed of two carrier
frequencies (L1= 1575.42 MHz, L2 = 1227.6 MHz) and
modulated by two digital codes and a navigation message.
Even though all of the GPS satellites transmit the same L1
and L2 carrier frequencies, the code modulation is
different for each satellite, which significantly minimizes
the signal interference
The receiver picks up the satellite's transmission and
compares the incoming signal to its own internal signal.
By comparing how much the satellite signal is lagging,
the travel time becomes known.
The GPS signal contains three different types of
information:
Pseudo random code,
Almanac data and
Ephemeris data.
The pseudo random code is simply an I.D. code that
identifies which satellite is transmitting information.
Almanac data is data that describes the orbital courses of
the satellites.
Ephemeris data is data that tells the GPS receiver where
each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the
day.
GPS signal structure
C/A, P code, Navigation message
5.3 Reference coordinate system for GPS
The fact that the topographic surface of the Earth is highly
irregular makes it difficult for the geodetic calculations.
To overcome these problem geodesists adopted a smooth
mathematical surface, called the reference surface to approximate
the irregular shape of the Earth,
Which is sphere for low accuracy positioning, or ellipsoid for
high accuracy positioning.
The reference ellipsoid used of GPS work is the WGS84 ellipsoid
(geocentric). With semi major axis (a) = 6378137m and f=
1/298.257223563.so minor axis (b)=a*(1-f)=6356752.31m
The satellites coordinates as given in the broad cast ephemeris
will refer to the WGS 84 reference system.
Because the objective of GPS surveys is to locate points on the
surface of the earth, it is necessary to have a so called terrestrial
frame of reference, which enables relating points physically to
the Earth.
5.4 Fundamentals of GPS positioning
GPS positioning is based on resection, which is the method of
determining position by measuring distances to points at known
coordinates.
Therefore, the fundamental technique of GPS is to measure the
ranges (distances) between the receiver and a few
simultaneously observed satellites.
5.4 Fundamentals of GPS positioning
At a minimum, resection requires 3 ranges to 3 known points.
But in case of GPS, since there is an offset in clocks of Satellite
and receiver, clock error will be treated as unknown in addition to
the coordinates of a point.
Such that one additional measurement is required, i.e. minimum
4 simultaneous “Pseudo ranges” to 4 satellites are necessary.
But the question is how we get distances from satellite to
receiver and satellite location?
When a GPS receiver is switched on, it will pick up the GPS
signal(carrier, code and navigation message) through the receiver
antenna.
The partial outcome of the signal processing consists of the
distance to the GPS satellites through the digital codes (Known
as the pseudo ranges) and the satellite coordinates through the
navigation messages.
A receiver measures difference in these times and it will process
it using its built-in software to calculate the range
Distance = Travel time x Speed of light
GPS receivers in determining distances to satellites employ two
fundamental methods:
Code ranging or pseudorange measurement and
Carrier phase- shift measurements.
Pseudorange measurement is a measure of the range or distance
between the GPS receiver and the GPS satellite which is needed for
the position computation
When the PRN code is transmitted from the satellite, the receiver
generates an exact replica of that code to identify the satellite
from which the signal comes from.
Then measure the time difference between the signal from the
satellite to the receiver.
Multiplying the travel time by the speed of light gives the range
between the satellite and the receiver.
This range is called a pseudo-range (“false range”) because the
receiver’s clock is not synchronized with the satellites clocks.
Pseudo-range is subject to several error sources, such as delays
caused by the atmosphere, and multipath interference.
Time
Difference
Satellite PRN
Receiver PRN
Carrier- Phase measurement is another way of measuring the
ranges.
The range would simply be the sum of the total number of full
carrier cycles plus fractional cycles at the receiver and the
satellite, multiplied by the carrier wavelength.
The carriers are just pure sinusoidal waves.
Cycle Slips is a discontinuity or a jump in the GPS carrier- phase
measurements, due to temporary signal loss.
This signal loss can be due to obstruction of the GPS satellite
signal by building, bridges, trees, and other objects.
This can be corrected by using several methods to avoid large
errors into computed coordinates.
Examining the so called triple difference observable, which is
formed by combining the GPS observables in a certain way, is
the most popular in practice.
5.5 Errors in GPS Observation
Even though GPS is the most accurate positioning method, it is
not free from errors.
GPS pseudo code and carrier phase measurements are subject to
different types of errors.
These errors can be
Satellite dependent,
propagation dependent or
receiver dependent.
Satellite Dependent Errors
GPS carrier and pseudorange code measurements are subjected to
errors due to satellite erroneous data transmission to the receiver.
Satellite clock error: accurate but not perfect
Satellite ephemeris errors: difference b/n actual and expected
position
Satellite geometry: relative position of satellite as seen by receiver
Selective Availability intentional dithering of SPS signal to reduce
position accuracy to some GPS users.
S/A was designed to prevent America’s enemies from using GPS
against US and her allies.
In May 2000 the Pentagon reduced S/A to zero meters error.
S/A could be reactivated at any time by the Pentagon.
Signal Propagation Dependent Errors
Satellite signal propagates in the atmosphere and this travel
media is composed of different layers, namely ionosphere and
troposphere.
Due to the presence of these layers the signal propagation is
characterised by delay and bending of the light ray.
Ionospheric delay
Tropospheric delay
Multipath error
Receiver dependent errors
The space segment and the signal propagation media is not the
only source of error and biases in GPS measurement, but there
are also receiver dependent errors like:
Receiver clock: less accurate crystal clocks
Antenna phase-center variation:
Antenna-phase-center is the point on the receiver at which the
signal is received
If this point is different from the geometric center of the
antenna , then Antenna phase-center variation exists
Types of error in GPS system with approximate values
Types of errors Magnitude of the error
Ionospheric effects ± 5 meters
Shifts in the satellite orbits ± 2.5 meter
Clock errors of the satellites' clocks ± 2 meter
Multipath effect ± 1 meter
Tropospheric effects ± 0.5 meter
Calculation and rounding errors ± 1 meter
5.6 Linear combinations of GPS observables
In principle, there are three groups of GPS errors and biases:
satellite related errors, receiver related errors, and atmosphere
related errors and biases.
The measurements of two GPS receivers simultaneously
tracking a particular satellite contain more or less the same
satellite related errors and atmospheric errors.
The shorter the separation between the two receivers, the more
similar the errors and biases are.
Therefore, if we take the difference between the measurements
collected at the two receivers, the satellite related errors and the
atmospheric related errors will be reduced significantly.
This linear combination is known as between receiver single
difference.
Similarly, the two measurements of a single receiver tracking
two satellites contain same clock errors.
Therefore, taking the difference between these two
measurements removes the receiver clock errors.
This difference is known as between satellite single difference.
From the above linear combinations other combinations like
double or triple differences can be developed.
5.7 GPS Positioning Modes
Positioning with GPS can be performed by either of two ways:
point positioning or
relative positioning.
Point positioning requires satellite coordinate as well as a
minimum of four ranges to four satellites to determine the
receiver’s position.
This positioning method is used mainly when a relatively low
accuracy is required.
Relative Positioning or differential positioning employs two GPS
receivers simultaneously tracking the same satellites to determine
their relative coordinates.
Of the two receivers, one is selected as a reference, or base,
which remains stationary at a site with precisely known
coordinates.
There are a number of relative positioning modes like
Static GPS surveying is a relative positioning technique that
depends on the carrier phase measurements.
It employs two or more receivers simultaneously tacking the
same satellites.
One receiver, the base receiver, is setup over a point with
precisely known coordinates such as a survey monument.
The other receiver, the remote receiver, is set up over a point
whose coordinates are sought.
Fast (Rapid) static surveying is similar to static surveying, but in
this case only the base receiver remains stationary over the
known point during the entire observation session.
The rover receiver remains stationary over the unknown point for
a short period of time only and then move to another point whose
coordinates are sought.
This method is suitable when the survey involves a number of
unknown points located in the vicinity of known points.
Stop- and -Go GPS surveying is another carrier phase based
relative positioning technique.
In such case, a base receiver that remains stationary over the
known point and one or more rover receivers.
The rover receiver travels between the unknown points, and
makes a brief stop at each point to collect the GPS data. (read
more in this topic)
5.8 Application of GPS
Because it provides high-accuracy positioning in a cost effective
manner, GPS has found its way into many industrial applications,
replacing conventional methods in most cases.
GPS For Engineering
Road construction
Pile foundation positioning
Precise structure placement (Prefabricated)
Setting out
5.8.1 Advantages of GPS over other ground methods
Inter-visibility between the points is not required with GPS. This
means that extensive traversing is eliminated
GPS provides user-defined coordinates in a digital format, which
can be easily exported to any GIS system for further analysis.
The accuracy obtained with GPS is consistent over the entire
network; such accuracy is lacked by conventional surveying
methods.
Also, with GPS, one reference station can support an unlimited
number of rover receivers.
Use of GPS in cadastral surveying is cost-effective.
THANK YOU!
40
