07_MobileNetwork_pdf.

FH11 4/11/06 3:26 PM Page 1

C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/11/06 3:26 PM Page 2
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

ABSTRACT
Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) refer to a class of wireless
networks that can be formed dynamically and randomly without
the need for infrastructural setups. Such networks are able to
adapt and reconfigure themselves on the fly according to node
mobility and changing network topologies. These characteristics
are particularly attractive to the military user due to the
inherent unpredictability of the tactical environment. MANET
technology has its roots in defence, having been developed
from military research efforts. This article presents an overview
of MANET technology, its key characteristics and how it can
be leveraged for the Third Generation Singapore Armed Forces.
Experience gained and lessons learnt from an experiment
initiated and funded by the Future Systems Directorate on
MANET are also discussed.

Chim Yuen Chong

Raymond Seah Kwang Wee
Sim Soon Lian
Tan Jia Hui

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/13/06 7:52 PM Page 3
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking
78

Instead, as shown in Figure 1(b), the ad hoc

INTRODUCTION network is decentralised, with all mobile
nodes functioning as routers and all wireless
A Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is an devices being interconnected to one another.
interconnected system of wireless nodes Intuitively, this means that the MANET is
which communicate over bandwidth- also a self-configuring network in which
constrained wireless links. Each wireless node network activities, including the discovery
can function as a sender, a receiver or a of the topology and delivery of messages,
router. When the node is a sender, it can are executed by the nodes themselves.
send messages to any specified destination
node through some route. As a receiver, it The second characteristic of a MANET is that
can receive messages from other nodes. it has a dynamic topology. Nodes are free
When the node functions as a router, it can to move arbitrarily, causing the network
relay the packet to the destination or next topology to change rapidly and
router in the route. When necessary, each unpredictably over time. Alternative paths
node can buffer packets awaiting are automatically found, after which data
transmission (He, 2003). packets are forwarded across the multi-hop
paths of the network. MANETs use various
The nodes move randomly; hence at a given routing mechanisms to accomplish this. This
point in time, an ad hoc network exists is further elaborated in Annex A.
between the nodes, giving rise to an arbitrary
network topology. MANETs can be Thirdly, a MANET operates on bandwidth-
dynamically formed among any group of constrained variable-capacity links. Wireless
wireless users and require no existing links have significantly lower capacity than
infrastructure or configuration. hard-wired links. As such, a MANET has
relatively low bandwidth links, high bit error
MANET CHARACTERISTICS rates, and unstable and asymmetric links.
This is in contrast to wired networks which
are characterised by high bandwidth links,
A MANET has several marked characteristics.
low bit error rates and stable and symmetric
First, it does not have a centralised
links. One effect of having a low link capacity
infrastructure. It is unlike the traditional
is that congestion is typically the norm
mobile wireless networks in which base
rather than the exception (Corson and
stations, access points and servers have to
Macker, 1999).
be deployed before the networks can be
used. Figure 1(a) illustrates how an
Fourthly, a MANET is often bound by energy-
infrastructure-based wireless network would
constrained operations (Corson and Macker,
operate1.
1999). This is because its nodes are often
hand-held battery-powered devices. Since

(a) Infrastructure-based wireless network (b) Ad hoc wireless network

Figure 1.

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/13/06 7:52 PM Page 4
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

the mobile nodes rely on these exhaustible also inactive because communication by node
means for energy, power conservation is 3 may interfere with node 2 (Holland and
important in a MANET system design. Vaidya, 2002). Thus, with more hops, there
are in turn more idle nodes, which reduces
Lastly, there is limited physical security. the throughput.
Mobile wireless networks are more prone
to the physical security threats of Throughput Drops with
eavesdropping, interception, denial-of-
Increasing Mobility
service and routing attacks as compared to
fixed-cable networks (Corson and Macker,
Highly mobile nodes will result in more
1999). Hence, security techniques have to
overheads due to frequent topology changes.
be applied to reduce these threats. Nodes
This is because of the increase in the number
prefer to radiate as little power as necessary
of routing packet transmissions due to the
and transmit as infrequently as possible. This
need to determine new routes after route
will decrease the probability of detection
failures. When the routing table is used,
and interception. In addition, the
each node keeps a list of all available
decentralised nature of network control
destinations as well as the number of hops
will add robustness against failure as
required to reach each destination. Changes
opposed to the centralised networks.
in the topology will be reflected in the
routing table. Any routing table changes are
LIMITATIONS OF MANETs relayed to all the other nodes. This imposes
a larger overhead on the overall network.
There is a current and future need for When the overhead is large, a lower
dynamic ad hoc networking technology. This percentage of the packet goes towards
highly adaptive networking technology, the transmission of data, resulting in a
however, still faces various limitations. lower throughput.

Throughput Drops with Delay

More Hops
Delay represents the average time duration
Nodes that are in the transmission range of which a packet takes from the time it leaves
each other are able to send the data packets a source to the time it arrives at its
directly. However, when the node needs to destination. As seen above, there is a need
send data to a non-neighbouring node, the to keep the nodes busy with the transmission
data packets will have to be sent through a and receiving of packets in order to increase
sequence of multiple hops, with the the throughput of the network. This, in turn
intermediate nodes acting as routers. This will mean that the queue of each node is
indicates an increase in the number of hops always not empty, leading to a longer delay.
taken. Throughput will decrease rapidly
when the number of hops is increased. This
can be explained using the four-hop network
MILITARY APPLICATIONS
illustrated in Figure 2. OF MANETs
1 2 3 4 5 The operating concept of the Third
Generation Singapore Armed Forces (3G SAF)
Figure 2. Multi-hop network 79
is characterised by fast operational tempos
When link 1-2 is active, link 2-3 cannot be and is hence subjected to dynamic topology
active because a node cannot be transmitting changes. The environment is dense and there
and receiving at the same time. Link 3-4 is is usually no direct line of sight between

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/13/06 7:52 PM Page 5
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

80

military users who need to communicate. (i.e. non-terrestrial) dimension, through the
Thus, a range extension is required for this use of an Airborne Communication Node
operating environment. Hence, in military (ACN), needs to be exploited.
applications, rapid network formation,
extended operating range and survivability The ACN is essentially an airborne platform
are key requirements. Wired networking that carries a communications payload to
requires base stations to be set up in the perform communications and networking
correct locations. This is a task that is not relay functions2. The advantage of such a
easily done or not applicable in hostile or platform is that it enjoys a high vantage point.
foreign environments. The network is also This increases the likelihood of having direct
vulnerable to failures, as the system will not LOS with ground nodes, grounding
be usable if one or several base stations connectivity across physical barriers that might
occur in wireless networks. Several ACNs may
are destroyed.
be deployed in a network to provide a more
A MANET, on the other hand, can meet robust architecture. ACNs therefore form an
military requirements in such environments. important complementary concept to
In the distributed network architecture, all MANETs. This is shown in Figure 3.
the nodes are equipped with routing
capability. They are hence able to forward
ACN
information on behalf of other nodes,
resulting in multi-hop routes. The limitation
of having short radio transmission ranges is
hence overcome. Nodes are also easily added, MANETs
removed or relocated. The dynamics of a
MANET hold great promise for improving
the communication network and in turn
enhance the Integrated Knowledge-based
Command and Control capability of the SAF. Figure 3. A MANET with ACN backbone

MANETs for the SAF

EXPERIMENT ON
The SAF’s operating environment is MANET-ACN CONCEPT
characterised by heavy vegetation and
increasing concentrations of built-up areas. This section describes an experiment initiated
These present challenging obstacles for by the Future Systems Directorate on the
communications as radio signals experience MANET-ACN concept.
blockages and fading as they are transmitted
Two-tier Communications
through such terrain. While a MANET could
potentially mitigate some of these
Network Architecture
undesirable effects through its inherent The network architecture focuses on two
dynamic routing and self-healing and types of wireless networks: intra-cluster
self-forming characteristics, a direct adoption networking and inter-cluster networking.
of the MANET concept for the SAF’s ground Intra-cluster networking concentrates on
troops is unlikely to yield very high returns. the connectivity for ground client terminals
This is because the MANET data path will that are within the air-to-ground
probably go through several hops in the communications coverage of an air platform.
heavily shielded terrain, resulting in poor Inter-cluster networking concentrates on
overall network throughput and latency the connectivity of ground client terminals
performance. To overcome this, the vertical that are from different clusters. It relies on

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/13/06 7:52 PM Page 6
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking

Figure 4. Two-tier communications architecture network configuration

the air-to-air communications backbone Air Platform

radios to form a point-to-point, point-to-
multipoint or mesh networks. The air platform is required to hoist the
communications payload to an elevated
Figure 4 shows the two-tier communications height. Possible air platforms include
architecture with two separate radios to unmanned aerial vehicles, remote-controlled
provide the backbone connectivity and end airships, blimps or helicopters, and tethered
user connections. The two separate radios balloons and blimps. For the purpose of
for air-to-air and air-to-ground the experiment, tethered balloons were
communications operate on different used due to their low cost and ease
frequency bands/channels and thus a higher of deployment.
data throughput performance can
be achieved. Results and Challenges
An omni-directional antenna is used for the Initial trials showed that a data rate of
air-to-air communications to provide an all- several megabits per second (Mbps) can be
round coverage. This is necessary since the delivered on the move with the MANET-
air platforms can be deployed at any ACN concept. Some of the key challenges
location. For air-to-ground coverage, either encountered during the experiment are
sectorised or omni-directional antennas can described below:
be used.
The balloon platform, though relatively
MANET Radios easy to deploy, is susceptible to wind
conditions. Strong winds can sway the
Different commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) balloon (and the antennas on board) in
MANET radios were tested and assessed by unpredictable directions, creating havoc for
the team for deployment. These radios the stability of the wireless links. To
incorporate various MANET protocols and overcome this, a bigger balloon was used
are based on the IEEE 802.11b/g or 802.11a to provide a larger effective uplift, improving 81
Wi-Fi standards for physical transmission. A stability. The use of multiple anchor points
final radio configuration was selected and to hold down the balloon was explored.
integrated on the air platform. The team also came up with an innovative

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/11/06 3:26 PM Page 7
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

82

method of securing the payload and antenna design had to take these factors into account,
to minimise movement in strong wind through the use of appropriate housing and
conditions. Lastly, an antenna with a wider fans for better air circulation and heat
beamwidth was used to provide a larger dissipation. The team is currently considering
tolerance for movement. additional means of improving the
ventilation of the payload.
The antenna radiation patterns will
critically affect system performance. For
instance, the use of sectorised antennas for
CONCLUSION
the air-to-ground link would provide good
coverage for a limited range directly below A MANET, with its inherent dynamic and
the balloon platform. On the other hand, flexible architecture, demonstrates attractive
the use of omni-directional antennas for the potential for military applications. It is able
same purpose would provide good to overcome traditional communications
performance at further distances, but this limitations through its automatic relaying
comes with a null zone (i.e. no/poor and self-healing/forming features. Coupled
coverage) at certain locations near the with the ACN concept incorporating one or
balloon. A careful balance needs to be struck more airborne platforms, MANETs could be
in order to deliver optimal performance for exploited to provide the 3G SAF with
the required operational scenario and unprecedented communications reach and
requirements. operational flexibility, especially in the low-
echelon tactical environment. Other than
For local trials, there are limitations on supporting traditional SAF military roles,
the permissible transmission power as well MANETs, being "infrastructureless", can also
as the altitude of the tethered balloon. The
be leveraged for increasingly important
Infocomm Development Authority of
functions such as Operations Other Than
Singapore limits the permissible transmission
War, or OOTWA, in which quick deployability
power of these radios while the Civil Aviation
is of prime concern.
Authority of Singapore limits the permissible
altitude of the tethered balloon. There are
In the commercial sector, developments in
also policy constraints from the Republic of
MANETs are still ongoing. Emerging
Singapore Air Force on when airborne
technologies such as Multiple-Input Multiple-
platforms can be deployed. The team
Output, or MIMO, and smart antennas can
therefore had to conduct the trials within
be integrated within a MANET framework
these limitations. More extensive trials and
experiments, both local and overseas, are for an even more powerful networking

being planned to further evaluate and experience. Experimentation will be the key

improve system performance. to identifying, introducing and assimilating

such technologies for transforming SAF into
Because of the long hours of operation a 3G fighting force.
under direct sunlight, there is the problem
of heat dissipation. Temperatures within the
payload increase significantly as heat builds
up. This leads to the overheating and
consequently the under-performance of
some of the COTS components. The payload

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/11/06 3:26 PM Page 8
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking

When the routing information becomes

ANNEX A: MANET invalid quickly, there are many short-lived
ROUTING PROTOCOLS routes that are being determined and not
used before they turn void. Hence, another
MANET nodes perform the routing functions drawback resulting from the increased
themselves. Due to the limited wireless mobility is the amount of traffic overhead
transmission range, the routing generally generated when evaluating these
consists of multiple hops. Therefore, the unnecessary routes. This is especially
nodes depend on one another to forward aggravated when the network size increases.
packets to the destinations. The nature of The fraction of the total control traffic that
the networks places two fundamental consists of actual practical data is
requirements on the routing protocols. First, further decreased.
it has to be distributed. Secondly, since the
topology changes are frequent, it should Lastly, if the nodes transmit infrequently,
compute multiple, loop-free routes while most of the routing information is deemed
keeping the communication overheads to redundant. The nodes, however, continue
a minimum. to expend energy by continually updating
these unused entries in their routing tables
Based on route discovery time, MANET (Scientific Research Corporation, 2004). As
routing protocols fall into two general mentioned, energy conservation is very
categories:
important in a MANET system design. Hence,
this excessive expenditure of energy is
Proactive routing protocols
not desired.
Reactive routing protocols

Thus, proactive MANET protocols work best

There is also a new class of routing protocols
in networks that have low node mobility or
known as the hybrid routing protocols, which
where the nodes transmit data frequently.
tries to encompass the advantages of both
the proactive and reactive routing protocols.
Examples of proactive MANET protocols
include:
Proactive Routing Protocols
Optimised Link State Routing, or OLSR
Proactive MANET protocols are table-driven
Topology Broadcast based on Reverse Path
and will actively determine the layout of the
Forwarding, or TBRPF
network. Through a regular exchange of
Fish-eye State Routing, or FSR
network topology packets between the
Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector,
nodes of the network, a complete picture
or DSDV
of the network is maintained at every single
Landmark Routing Protocol, or LANMAR
node. There is hence minimal delay in
Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing
determining the route to be taken. This is
Protocol, or CGSR
especially important for time-critical traffic
(Scientific Research Corporation, 2004).
Reactive Routing Protocols
However, a drawback to a proactive MANET
of protocol is that the life span of a link is Reactive MANET protocols only find a route
to the destination node when there is a need
83
significantly short. This phenomenon is
brought about by the increased mobility of to send data. The source node will start by
the nodes, which will render the routing transmitting route requests throughout the
information in the table invalid quickly. network. The sender will then wait for the

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/11/06 3:26 PM Page 9
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

84

destination node or an intermediate node Cornell's Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)

(that has a route to the destination) to Scientific Research Corporation's Wireless
respond with a list of intermediate nodes Ad hoc Routing Protocol (WARP) - based
between the source and destination. This on ZRP with additional enhancements for
is known as the global flood search, which Quality of Service, or QoS support
in turn brings about a significant delay (MobileRouteTM)
before the packet can be transmitted. It
also requires the transmission of a significant The most recognised protocol among these
amount of control traffic (Scientific Research is the ZRP. In this protocol, the radius of
Corporation, 2004). each node's local routing zone plays an
important part in determining the proactive
Thus, reactive MANET protocols are most zone. The proactive routing protocol is used
suited for networks with high node mobility to determine the topology within the radius
or where the nodes transmit data of the node. The reactive routing protocol
infrequently. is then used to locate nodes outside the
radius of the node on demand.
Examples of reactive MANET protocols
include: The adjustment of the zone radius will allow
the protocol to adapt to different MANET
Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector, environments. A larger radius will favour
or AODV the proactive routing protocol, optimal for
Dynamic Source Routing, or DSR slow-moving nodes or large amounts of
Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm, traffic (Scientific Research Corporation, 2004).
or TORA Consequently, a smaller zone radius will
favour the reactive protocol, which is optimal
Hybrid Routing Protocols for fast-moving nodes or small amounts
of traffic.
Since proactive and reactive routing protocols
each work best in oppositely different The WARP, on the other hand, constantly
scenarios, there is good reason to develop updates all the active routes between the
hybrid routing protocols, which use a mix nodes in the network. This is done using
of both proactive and reactive routing routing tables and link-update propagations
protocols. These hybrid protocols can be (De Renesse and Aghvami, 2004). When
used to find a balance between the proactive there are link breakages, the destination
and reactive protocols. may become unreachable. In this scenario,
WARP will use reactive protocols to find
The basic idea behind hybrid routing alternative routes to break the deadlock.
protocols is to use proactive routing
mechanisms in some areas of the network
ENDNOTES
at certain times and reactive routing for the
rest of the network. The proactive 1. ARC Communications Research Network.
operations are restricted to a small domain A d H o c N e t w o r k s
in order to reduce the control overheads (http://www.acorn.net.au/telecoms
and delays. The reactive routing protocols /adhocnetworks/adhocnetworks.cfm).
are used for locating nodes outside this
domain, as this is more bandwidth-efficient 2. DARPA. Airborne Communications Node
in a constantly changing network. (ACN/AJCN). Advanced Technology Office
(http://www.darpa.mil/ato/
Examples of hybrid routing protocols include: programs/ACN/).

Composite
07_MobileNetwork_pdf.FH11 4/11/06 5:07 PM Page 10
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K

Mobile Ad Hoc
Networking

He, C. (2003) Throughput and delay in

REFERENCES Wireless Ad hoc Networks. Final report of
EE359 Class Project, Stanford University.
Corson, S. and Macker, J. (1999). Mobile Ad
Hoc Networking (MANET): Routing Protocol
Holland, G & Vaidya, N. (2002). Analysis of
Performance Issues and Evaluation
TCP Performance over Mobile Ad Hoc
Considerations. Network Working Group.
Networks. Texas A&M University.

De Renesse, R. and Aghvami, A.H. (2004).

Scientific Research Corporation. (2004).
Formal Verification of Ad-hoc Routing
Mobile RouteTM. White Paper.
Protocols using SPIN Model Checker. Centre
for Telecommunication Research, King's
College London, UK.

BIOGRAPHY
Chim Yuen Chong is Programme Manager (C3I). He manages, designs and
conducts communications experimentation and exploration for the Singapore
Armed Forces (SAF). His role also requires him to identify and assess emerging
areas in wireless communications and networking technologies, and support
the SAF in integrating these technologies with evolving warfighting concepts.
A Public Service Commission Scholar, he graduated with a Master of Engineering
from the National University of Singapore in 1997.

Raymond Seah Kwang Wee is Senior Communications Engineer (C3I). He is

actively involved in communications experimentation, conducting technical
evaluation and engineering assessment of new wireless communications and
networking technologies and systems for the 3G SAF. He graduated with a
Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) from the
Nanyang Technological University in 2000.

Sim Soon Lian is Project Lead (C3I). He is responsible for the exploration and
assessment of emerging wireless communications and networking technologies
for the SAF. His work entails the design, conduct and analysis of experiments
to evaluate the performance of these technologies and their potential
application in the 3G SAF. He graduated from the National University of
Singapore in 1999 with a Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Engineering).

Tan Jia Hui is Communications Engineer (C3I). She is currently involved in the
experimentation and exploration of wireless communications and networking
technologies for the SAF. She graduated with a Bachelor of Engineering
(Electrical and Electronic Engineering) from the Nanyang Technological
University in 2005.
85

Composite