GREEN BOOK SOLUTION

TO THE SOVEREIGN LORD JEHOVAH GOD

 CHAPTERS AVAILABLE

CHAPTER 1

CHAPTER 2

CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 6

CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 10

CHAPTER 12

CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER 14

CHAPTER 15

CHAPTER 16

CHAPTER 17

CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 20
 CHAPTER 1

QUESTION 1
Indirect method of manufacturing Iron

The blast furnace is the indirect method of producing steel.

A medium sized blast furnace is the indirect method of producing steel,
A medium sized blast furnace is 30m high and 10m in diameter in the widest part.
The blast furnace is used for removing impurities from Iron ore.
Iron ore, coke(fuel) and limestone are hoisted to the top of the furnace. As the charge works
its way down to the bottom of the furnace, carbon monoxide is formed by combustion of air
and coke.
The temperature of the charge increases to 30000 F which is enough to melt the ore. When the
level of iron and slag approaches the tuyeres, the slag is drawn off and the metal is tapped.
The molten iron obtained from this process is called pig iron.
DIAGRAM TO BE INSERTED

QUESTION 2

INDIRECT METHOD DIRECT METHOD

1. the Iron obtained is pig Iron Iron obtained here is sponge iron
2. Here the Iron ore is reduced by CO Here the Iron ore is reduced by Carbon
gas element called coke.
3. Chemical reaction: Chemical reaction:
Fe3O4 + CO => 3FeO + CO2 FeO + C => Fe + CO2

QUESTION 3
In electric furnace steel production method, the major charge material is scrap steel, which is
available at low cost. The scrap steel is then melted by the heat generated by an electric arc
struck between the electrode through the scrap.
QUESTION 4
Killed steel Semi-killed Rimmed
1. All oxygen is removed Some of the dissolved oxygen is In rimmed, the process takes
and the molten metal is removed advantage of reaction between
allowed to cool without dissolved oxygen and carbon
any evolution of gas content to form CO2 gas.
2. Killed steel is required Semi-killed is required when Rimmed is used in production of
for high strength very fine surface is requied steel sheet or plate as bubbles
creates clearance.

QUESTION 5
Slabs Blooms Billets
75-200mm thick, 200mm 150-300mm square 50-150mm square
wide

QUESTION 6
Rolling: Sections and flats
Forging: Bars and bill
Extrusion: Sections and hollows
Drawing: Wires, pipes.
 CHAPTER 2
QUESTION 1
Due to the presence of carbon, it is easy to adjust the composition and internal structure of
steel to achieve certain properties.

QUESTION 2
Low carbon steel Medium carbon steel High carbon steel
3. 0.002-0.25 carbon 0.25-0.5 0.5-2
content
4. Used in making Used in making machine Used in making tool steel
structural steel part steel

QUESTION 3
High carbon steels are called tool steel due to their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion
and deformation, and their ability to hold a cutting edge at elevated temperature.

QUESTION 4
Cast Iron is not steel. Steel consists of Iron which contains 2% or less of carbon while cast iron
consist of Iron which contains about 4% of carbon.

QUESTION 5
The limitation of plain carbon steels are overcome by the presence of alloying elements. The
addition of alloying elements enhances the outstanding characteristics of plain carbon steels
and improves other properties and some even induces specific properties.
QUESTION 6
Stainless steels is a group of ferrous metals that contains about 10% or more of chromium due
to their higher resistance to corrosion and higher strength at elevated temperatures compared
to low alloy steels.

QUESTION 7
Ferritic Martensitic Austenitic
1. 13% or more 12-14% chromium 16-25% chromium
chromium
2. Contains nickel Contains no nickel Contains nickel
3. parramagnetic ferromagnetic Non- magnetic
4. Body-centered Body centered tetragonal Face centered
5. Highly resistant to Less resistant to corrosion Ecceptional corrosion
corossion resistance
 CHAPTER 3

QUESTION 1
Carbon content which can successfully undergo heat treatment has a range of 0.3-1.7% by
weight.

QUESTION 2

𝛼 Ferrite exists at low temperature and low carbon content and will transform to 𝛾 austenite
at 9120C. The maximum carbon content or the 𝛼 Ferrite is 0.02%. 𝛼 Ferrite is a solid solution of
carbon in BCC FE. (A2).
𝛾 austenite is a solid solution of carbon in FCC Fe with maximum solubility of 2.14% C. On
further heating, it converts into 𝛿 ferrite at 13940C (A3, Acm). 𝛾 austenite phase is non magnetic
and is unstable at temperatures below eutectic temperature (7270C, A1 )
𝛿 ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in BCC Fe. This phase has similar structure to 𝛼 Ferrite but
exists only at high temperatures. It is located at A4 and has a melting point of 15380c.
QUESTION 3
 Development of new alloys based on application requirements
 Production of these alloys
 Development and control of appropriate heat treatment procedures to improve the
chemical, physical and mechanical properties of these new alloys.
 Troubleshooting problems that arise in application of these new alloys, ultimately
improving products predictability.

QUESTION 4
 Annealing involves heating the metal to a certain temperature, allowing it to soak for a
long time then cooling at appropriate speed.
 Normalizing involves heating the workpiece to a suitable temperature and then cooling
it in air.
 Tempering involves heating to a certain temperature, allowing to soak for a certain
period of time then cooling in a certain way.
 Spheroidizing involves heat treating at a temperature slightly below eutectoid
temperature (temperature at which the solution is a solid solution rather than liquid),
following a slow cooling process.

QUESTION 5
Since 0.4% is whithin the range of plain carbon steels that can undergo heat treatment, the
following applies;
a. Quenching: The microstructure expected here is martensite. Reason is that the steel
is first heated to austenite as, then as a result of very rapid cooling, the austenitic
structure is transformed into martensite.
b. Tempering: Tempered matensite, reason is that from the already hardened steel
created by quenching steel created by quenching steel in matensite, during the
tempering process, steel is heated to temperatures between 1250C and 7000C the
resulting microstructure after cooling is tempered matensite.
c. Annealing: Coarce Pearlite and ferrite, reason is the steel is first heated to a higher
temperature above the eutectoid line, after soaking for some time, steel undergoes
equilibrium cooking giving coarse eutectoid pearlite along with grain boundary
phases, further cooling gives pearlite and ferrite.
 d. Normalizing: Fine Pearlite and ferrite, reason is during slow cooling of Fe-C alloy,
pearlite forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite cools below 7230C
e. Carburizing: Matensite, reason is that carbon difuses to the outer region of the
component, then the component is quenched to produce hard matensite in the
outer region.

QUESTION 6
The surface of the metal to be sturdied by microscopic methods is prepared by sectioning,
grinding, polishing and etching. The specimen is first cut carefully removing the disturbed layer
and surface is rubbed with successively finer abrasives until a smoth polished surface is
obtained, sensibly free from disturbing effects from cutting and grinding. Etching reagents,
which reveals the structure of the metal, then attacks the clean smoth undisturbed surface
chemically or otherwise.
Procedure
 Sectioning: may be carried out by sawing or breaking
 Grinding: Emery or silicon carbide clothes are normally used. These strips of cloth and
paper are laid flat on plates and the specimen is robbed to and fro on the strips.
 Mechanical polishing: This is done in 2 stages, with a coarse and fine abrasive or
polishing agent respectively.
 Etching: This consists essentially of either submerging the specimen in, or swabbing it,
with a chemical reagent that removes the surface layer produced on polishing and then
attacks preferentially, grain boundaries and second phase precipitates.
 CHAPTER 5

QUESTION 1
Nucleation involves diffusion of atoms and since diffusion is a thermally activated process,
then the rate of nucleation is very temperature dependent.
At temperature just below melting point diffusion rate is very rapid, Gibbs free energy and
nucleation radius are very large, therefore nucleation rate must be very low.
Maximum nucleation rate is at intermediate temperatures. These results are applicable to the
solid-solid transformation, but solid-solid transformation occurs at a much slower rate. This is
evident from the fact that diffusion rates in solids are much slower than in liquids. The critical
gibbs free energy for solid phase is less than critical gibbs energy of liquid phase because of
this diffusion in solids is slow. Rate of Nucleation for solid-solid transformation is often so slow
that meta-stable phases can exist in-between the transformation. The rate of approach to
equilibrium for solid systems is so slow that true equilibrium structures are rarely achieved.
When phase transformations are induced by temperature changes, equilibrium conditions are
maintained only if heating and cooling is carried out at extremely slow and unpractical rates.
For many technologically important alloys, the preffered state is a meta stable one,
intermediate between the initial and equilibrium states.

QUESTION 2

The metastable phases are achieved by super cooling or undercooling of the steel.

QUESTION 3
C-Curves or thermal transformation diagrams are the plots of temperature against time. (Time
Temperature Transformation)
They are derived from the combined effect of temperature and available free energy

QUESTION 4
An equilibrium diagram is a graph showing the temperature and composition ranges whithin
which each of the phases of a particular alloy exist under equilibrium conditions.
Equilibrim diagrams are plots of temperature against composition, showing the changes which
takes place between these variables and the various phases that exists during and after
solidification process. The curves are the loci of all critical points of all the alloys in the system.

QUESTION 5
i. Eutectic reactions
ii. Peritectic reactions
 iii. Eutectoid reactions

Eutectic reaction: A doubly saturated liquid solution freezes isothermally into a fine grained
mechanical mixture of two solid phases.

Peritectic reaction: The solid crystal that precipitated from a liquid solution reacts isothermally
with that liquid to form crystals of different solid.

Eutectoid reaction: A doubly saturated solid solution decomposes isothermally into a fine-
grained mechanical mixture.

NUMBER 6

At intermediate temperatures, Gibbls free energy is at its maximum and the radius is at its
critical value and it is at this value that nucleation occurs hence at intermediate temperatures,
solid reaction rates are most rapid because
 Sufficient force helps to nucleate new phases
 Because thermal diffusion is quite rapid.
 CHAPTER 6

QUESTION 1

Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram

a. At higher temperature, isothermal transformation produces coarse pearlite structures.

b. Isothermal transformations at lower temperatures produce finer pearlite because of
reduced thermal activity to assist the diffusion of carbon from the areas forming ferrite
to all areas forming carbide.
c. When isothermal transformation takes place at a temperature below knee or nose of
the isothermal transformation curve, the resulting microstructure is Banite
d. When isothermal transformation takes place at a temperature Ms =3200C Matensite is
formed.

QUESTION 2

Fast cooling rate allows phase transformation to occur at lower temperatures and thus
produce a finer grain structure than does slow cool. Thus steel cooled slowly have coarser
micro structure and since yield strength increases with decreasing grain size, a faster cooling
rate increases strength.

QUESTION 3

For any given cooling rate if the transformation takes place at lower temperatures where
diffusion rates are low, the microstructure will be finer. If the transformation takes place at
higher temperature, when diffusion is high, microstructure will be coarse.

QUESTION 4

In a TTT diagram, if a sample is quenched from the austenite range to a temperature above
the nose and then isothermally transformed, all the austenite will transform into pearlite. If
the steel is quenched below the nose, corresponding to a rapid cooling rate, the ferrite and
Fe3C no longer form the plate like pearlite structure, instead the Fe3C appears as finely
dispersed particles in the ferrite matrix.

QUESTION 5

Factors that control reaction rate:

 Temperature regulation
 Control of nucleation site
 Modification of diffusion rate
 Grain sizes.

Fine austenite grain size will give rise to faster transformation reaction than steel with coarser
austenite. In the earlier case, there are more grain boundary regions for reaction to occur, so
that more nucleation can occur in a given interval (achieved by the use of Mn).
The most significant effect of the addition of alloying elements to steel is to retard the reaction
autenite => ferrite + carbide
by reducing rate of diffusion of the carbon atoms to the reaction site. Alloying elements are
used to displace the TTT curves to the right.
 CHAPTER 9

QUESTION 1
The addition of alloying elements enhances the outstanding characteristics of plain carbon
steels and improves other properties and some even induces specific properties.

QUESTION 2
Nickel: Improves steels tensile, impact and fatigue strengths.
Chromium: Improves resistance to heat and corrosion
Molybedenum: Addition inhibits grain growth and leads to fine grain pearlike structure.
Manganese: Improves forging and welding properties.

Hume-Rothery’s rule states that the ionic radii of the two solids must be whithin 15% at each
other.
i.e misfit parameters(𝜀)
Therefore -0.15 <= 𝜀 <= 0.15
Shear stress value for misfit parameter is given by 𝜏 = 2𝜀𝐶𝐺
Where C is the concentration of alloying elements
G is the shear modulus.
Since 𝜏 =f(𝜀, 𝐶)
When 𝜏 = 𝜏max when 𝜀 ≈ 𝐶
When 𝜀 tends to 0, C tends to Cmax and vice versa
𝜀 -> 0.15, C -> 0
For maximum strength, 𝜀, 𝐶 = 0.07 − 0.08
Therefore for maximum strength purposes, the difference between the parent lattice atom
and the alloy atom must be approximately 7% or 8%. Any extra could be for other things e.g
corrosion resistance.
QUESTION 4
 Alloys can raise or reduce the melting point temperature of steel thereby engaging
temperature regulation.
 Alloys can reduce grain growth thereby leading to the controlling of grain size.
 Alloys can modify diffusion rates

QUESTION 5
BCC elements such as Cromium, Molebedenum, vanadium are more soluble in ferrite than in
austenite and they increase the stability range of ferrite by raising the eutectoid temperature
and expanding the ferrite field.
When much BCC elements is present e.g (> 15% Cr), ferrite persists up to the melting point
such steels are non-hardenable.
On the other hand FCC elements such as Ni, Mn and Cu are more soluble in austerite field and
tends to stabilize the phase by lowering the austerite -> ferrite transformation temperature
and raising the 𝛼 → 𝛿 temperature.
If sufficient FCC element is present then 𝛾 → 𝛼 transformation temperature is depressed into
room temperature and the alloy consists of austenite at room temperature and will therefore
be non-hardenable
 CHAPTER 10

QUESTION 1
 Other sessile dislocation
 Foreign solute atoms
 Precipitates
 Grain boundaries
The yield strength can be increased by the following mechanism
 Work hardening
 Solid solution strengthening
 Precipitation strengthening
 Grain boundary strengthening

QUESTION 2
Alloying elements due to their influence on transformation, provides a great control over the
microstructure of steel, with consequent benefits in mechanical properties such as increased
strength, hardness, hardenability and toughness, as well as creep resistance and strength at
elevated temperatures.

QUESTION 3
Smaller grains have greater ratios of surface area to volume which means a greater ratio of
grain boundary to dislocation. The more grain boundaries that exist, the higher the strength
becomes.
The widely accepted equation for the relationship between yield stress 𝜎𝑦 and the grain
diameter d is given by hall-petch relation which is
𝐾𝑦
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑖 +
√𝑑

Where 𝜎𝑖 = friction stress opposing the movement of dislocation in the grain

𝐾𝑦 is constant or stress required to move free dislocations along the slip planes or yield stress
of a single crystal (intercept on the stress axis).
From the equation it can be observed that the yield strength (term on the left side) is inversely
proportional to the square root of the grain size (grain diameter). As grain size decreases, the
yield strength increases.
This is the only mechanism that impacts toughness into a material.

QUESTION 4
Steels can be strengthened by several basic mechanisms, the most important of which is the
movement of dislocation past obstacles.
Obstacles here are:
 Other sessile dislocations
 Foreign solute atoms
 Precipitates
 Grain boundaries
Movement of obstacles past the above gives rise to different strengthening mechanism.

QUESTION 5
 The hardening/strengthening effect is not retained at elevated temperatures for
precipitate hardening, however it is retained for dispersion strengthening
 The strength is developed by a heat

QUESTION 6
Dislocations can cut deformable particles such as patially coherent precipitates. The
strengthening is due to work done by the plastic strains, dislocation by pass mechanism and
shearing of the precipitate and the creation of new precipitate matrix interface.
In dispersion hardening, strengthening is due to the difficulty of dislocations either shearing or
bypassing of the completely incoherent obstacles. The dislocations loop between the
precipitates and the applied stress must be sufficient for this to occur.

QUESTION 7
The driving force for the precipitation reaction is the reduction in free energy ∆𝐺 is composed
of the following
∆𝐺 = ∆𝐺𝑣 + ∆𝐺𝑠 + ∆𝐺𝐸
Where ∆𝐺𝑣 = volume free energy of phase change
∆𝐺𝑠 = Free energy of precipitate/matrix interface
∆𝐺𝐸 = Strain free energy caused by misfit between precipitate and matrix

∆𝐺𝑣 always takes negative value but ∆𝐺𝑠 and ∆𝐺𝐸 can have large positive values and
therefore oppose the phase transformation. For the case of the formation of the equilibrium
precipitate directly from the supersaturated solution, the surface free energy will be high and
therefore the activation energy for the process will be high. The consequence of this is the
formation of transition precipitates in the ageing sequence. These have interfaces that are
coherent and patially coherent with matrix and therefore have no values of ∆𝐺𝑠 . Precipitation
of these phases is much easier than the formation of equilibrium precipitates.
 Precipitates are sheared by dislocations which results in chemical hardening where the
number of solute atom bonds increase.
 Due to interactions between strain field of a dislocation and the coherency strain field
surrounding a precipitate internal strain hardening results.
 The presence of non-deformation particles causes the dislocation to loop around them.
 When precipitates lies across or normal to slip planes, of the matrix effective resistance
to dislocation movement is achieved.
 CHAPTER 12

QUESTION 1

Crystalization of polymers is a process associated with partial alignment of their molecular

chains. These chains fold together to form ordered regions called lamellae, which compose
larger spheroidal structures named sperodites. Polymers can crystallize upon cooling from
melting, mechanical stretching or solvent evaporation.
Crystallization Mechanisms:

 Solidification from melt: Polymers are composed of long molecular chains which forms
irregular, entangled coils in melt. Some polymers retain such a disordered structure
upon freezing and readily convert into amorphous solids.
 Nucleation: Starts with small, nanometer-sized areas where as a result of heat motion
some chains or their segments occur parallel
 Crystal growth from melt: Crystal growth is achieved by the further addition of folded
polymer chain segments and only occurs for temperatures below the melting
temperature and above the glass transition temperature.
 Crystallization by stretching: This mechanism consideres crystallization from the melt,
which is important for injection molding of plastic components. Another type of
crystallization occurs upon extrusion used in making fibers and fillers.
 Crystallization from solution: Polymers can also be crystallized from a solution or upon
evaporation of a solvent.
 Confined crystallization when polymers crystallize from an isotropic, bulk of melt or
concentrated solution, the crystalline lamellae (10 to 20 nm in thickness) are typically
organized into a spherulitic morphogy.
QUESTION 2
Polymethyl Methacrylate
Polyethylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Poly styrene
Poly-isobutylene.

QUESTION 3
Most aspect of the mechanical behavior of polymer depends on the ease with which the long
polymer chain can slide over each other.
The structure of the polymer greatly affects this behavior. Two broad description of polymer
structure are found in the common description of a polymer as being either thermoplastics or
thermosetting.
Polymers consist of very long molecules that contain chains of carbon. They are held by very
strong covalent bonds. There are greater intermolecular forces between the long chains
compared with smaller simple molecules.
 CHAPTER 13

QUESTION 1
Activation energy for creep Q is given by
𝜀
𝑅𝐼𝑛( 1 )
𝜀2
𝑄= 1 1
−
𝑇2 𝑇1

Given
T1 = 1500C + 273 = 423K
T2 = 2000C + 273 = 473K
𝜀1 = 0.0175hr-1
𝜀2 = 0.345hr-1
0.00175
8.314𝐼𝑛( )
0.345
𝑄= 1 1
−
473 423

Q = 175791.74 Kcal/mol0K ANS

QUESTION 2
 Ironbase alloy
 Nickel base alloy
 Cobalt base alloys

QUESTION 3
When designing suitable creep resistant alloys, the metals must be able to withstand high
temperatures of about a quarter of their melting point of the base metal in degrees absolute
(> 0.25Tm)
From the point of design, a material must satisfy the condition that, whithin the assumed life,
the total creep will not exceed a certain value.

QUESTION 4
d. Steel in service with a low tensile stress and low temperature.
Reason:
Like viscous flow, the steady state creep is sensitive to both stress and temperature. The
higher the temperature and stress level, the higher the creep rate and vice-versa.

QUESTION 5

Because Polycrystaline materials undergo work hardening or strain hardening in the process of
plastic deformation; continuing deformation under constant stress is observed in the
phenomenon of creep, implies a simultaneous occurrence of some recovery or thermal
softening. The time rate at which creep deformation occurs is thus dependent upon the
relative rates with which the recovery and strain hardening process occurs.
At low temperatures, recovery process which are not dependent on diffusion such as cross slip
of screw dislocation play important role in the creep process, while at higher temperatures,
dislocation climb (which involves the diffusion of vacancies and atoms) is of prime importance.

QUESTION 6
 Dispersion hardening is similar to precipitate hardening, however at high temperatures,
a precipitation hardened alloy would lose its strength by coarsening process. In
dispersion hardening, on the other hand, oxide particles are embedded in a metallic
matrix, with very little solubility effectively prevents coarsening, as the coalescence of
the particles can occur only by the smaller particles dissolving and reprecipitating on
larger particles.
  Cold working cannot be used for creep resistance. At temperature above 0.4 Tm,
recrystalisation will occur quite readily and the cold-work strength will be lost on
recrystallization.
 Solid solution strengthening can be used for better creep resistance
 For grain size refinement, coarse-grained materials exibit better creep resistance than
fine-grained ones.

QUESTION 7
Graph of creep rate against strain
Creep rate

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
-50

Stress MNm-2

For steady state creep, the equation at constant temperature is given as

𝜕𝜀
= 𝐵𝜎 𝑛 (n > 1)
𝜕𝑡

Where B and n are constants.

Subtituting values into the equation to find constants
0.00008 = B100n
0.0026 = B150n
Dividing equation (i) and (ii) and taking natural log of both sides,
In(2/65) = In(100/150)n
N = 8.595
Substituting into eqn (i)
0.0008 = B1008.595
B = 5.165 * 10-22
Testing for stress of 200MNm-2
𝜕𝜀
= (5.165 ∗ 10−22 ) ∗ 2008.595
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜀
= 0.03
𝜕𝑡

Hence the graph fits power law but is not true power law since at 200MNm-2 the theoretical
value of creep rate differs from the actual creep rate.

QUESTION 8
For high temperature applications, fine grains are to be avoided as grain boundaries aid
deformation (grain boundary sliding possibly resulting in cavities at grain junction) instead of
resisting it. For this reason, coarse-grain materials exhibit better creep resistance than fine
grained ones.
 CHAPTER 14

QUESTION 1
There are two stage in fatigue mechanism; crack initiation and crack propergation.
 Crack initiation: Small cracks form at some point of high stress concentration. Cracks are
formed in 2 stages. In stage 1, cracks are formed by the growth of crevices or intrusion
on planes closely aligned to the maximum shear stress direction. The change to stage 2
growth usually occurs when a crack meets a slip obstacle such as grain boundary. The
criterion for growth in the second stage is the maximum principal tensile stress and it is
during this stage that striations or beach markings may occur. At constant stress range
the growth of fatigue cracks generally proceeds in a regular manner, although at low
stress levels there may be periods during which no growth can be detected.

 Crack Propergation: The high stress at the end of a crack will cause plastic deformation,
so that elastic theory cannot be applied with repeated stressing the plastic zone at the
end of the crack would gradually work-harden causing a gradual increase in stress range
in that region. If the fracture stress were reached before complete work hardening
occurred, the crack would advance through the plastic zone.

QUESTION 2

Fatigue limit is defined as the stress at which the specimen exibits ‘infinite’ life (> 108 cycles). It
can also be defined as the highest stress that a material can withstand for an infinit number of
cycles without failure occurring.
Fatigue limit is obtained by testing multiple specimen of the same material to determine the
highest stress at which the material does not fail for a large number of cycles (> 108 cycles).
Fatigue strength can be defined as the strength of materials under repeated or cyclic stress. It
can also be defined as the highest stress that a material can withstand for a given number of
cycles without breaking.
Fatigue strength is obtained by testing multiple specimen to determine the highest stess at
which the material fails while noting the number of cycles at which it fails.
For non ferrous metals, the S-N curve (stress/number of cycles) does not tend to any limiting
value (at least up to a life of the order of 109 cycles).

QUESTION 3
The failure occurs due to the cyclic nature of the load which causes microscopic material
imperfections (flows) to grow into a macroscopic crack (initiation phase).

QUESTION 4
GRAPH OF STRESS MNm-2 AGAINST NO. OF CYCLES
STRESS
7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
CYCLE
0 2000000 4000000 6000000 8000000 10000000 12000000 14000000 16000000 18000000 20000000 22000000
SS
From the graph,
For N = 105, value of fatigue strength equals
𝑥−6300 100000−41000
=
5600−6300 128000−41000

X = 5825.29
Hence at N = 105
Fatigue strength = 5825.29MNm-2

For N = 106, value of fatigue strength equals

𝑥−5000 1000000−590000
=
4600−5000 1620000−590000

X = 4840.78
Hence at N = 106
Fatigue strength = 4840.78MNm-2

For N = 5 * 106, value of fatigue strength equals

𝑥−4600 5000000−1620000
=
4550−4600 5500000−1620000

X = 4556.44
Hence at N = 5 * 106
Fatigue strength = 4556.44MNm-2

QUESTION 5
The three basic factors that affects the fatigue life of a structural part is
 Tensile stress on structural parts
 Variation on flunctuation in applied stress
 Number of cycles applied.
Other variables includes stress concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, residual
stress, meturllurgical structures that tend to alter the condition for fatigue.
QUESTION 6
The fatigue strength of a material under flunctuating stresses that is with a static that is with a
static stress super imposed on the alternating stress can be represented on a diagram in which
the alternating stress S is plotted against the static or mean stress Sn as shown in the figure
below. The curve joining the two points represents the contour of the combinations of static
and alternating stress giving the same endurance.

To determine this curve experimentally, a number of S-N curves are required, each for a
constant value of Sm and Sa. The two straight lines are the curves shown above represent the
three most widely used empirical relationship for predicting fatigue strength under
flunctuating strength under flunctuating stresses. The relationships may be written
mathematically as follows:
Goodman law, Sa = S (1 – Sm/Su)
Gerber’s law, Sa = S (1 – (Sm/Su)2)
Soderberg’s law, Sa = S (1 – Sm/Sy)
Where Sa is the alternating stress associated with a mean stress Sm, S is the alternating fatigue
strength, so the tensile strength and Sy the yield strength
 CHAPTER 15

QUESTION 1
Given C =2𝜇m
E =200GN/m2
𝛾 = 1.5 Jm-2
Actual fracture strength = 1200MN/m2
The formula for brittle fracture strength is given by
2𝛾𝐸
𝜎= √
𝜋𝐶

2∗1.5∗200∗10^9
𝜎= √
𝜋∗2∗10^−6

𝜎 = 309MNm-2
The reason why the calculated stress is less than the actual fracture strength is because even
metals which fail in a brittle manner must have undergone some plastic deformation prior to
fracture.

QUESTION 2

Griffith supposed that a crack propergates when the strain energy released in the process is
2𝛾𝐸
just sufficient to meet the energy requirement for the creation of new surfaces. 𝜎 = √
𝜋𝐶

However for metals, even those that fail in a brittle manner must have undergone some plastic
deformation prior to fracture.
Orowon suggested that Griffith equation be made more compactable with brittle fracture in
metals by the inclusion of a term 𝛾p expressing the plastic work required to extend the
crackwall.
2𝐸(𝛾𝑐 + 𝛾𝑝 )
𝜎= √
𝜋𝐶

Since surface energy term 𝛾𝑠 can be neglected since 𝛾𝑝 is about 100 to 1000 𝛾𝑠 .
 𝐸𝛾𝑝
𝜎𝑓 ≈ √
𝐶

QUESTION 3
Brittle failure or fracture is the failure of a material without apparent plastic deformation. It
occurs suddenly and the broken pieces can be fitted together to produce the original shape.
The fracture may be in the form of cleavage along crystal planes or it may be inter-granular
occurring along grain boundaries. Ductile materials can fail in a brittle manner when cracks
that are nucleate can propergate at a high velocity. The elastic energy that is released by the
movements of the crack provides the driving force.

QUESTION 4
Considering Orowon’s approach to fracture
𝐸𝛾𝑝
𝜎𝑓 ≈ √
𝐶

𝜎𝑓 (C)1/2 = (𝐸𝛾𝑝 )1/2

Let the product of elastic moduli and plastic work required to extend crack wall be a constant
𝜎𝑓 (C)1/2 = Constant
 CHAPTER 16

QUESTION 1
Ductile fracture consists of
i. Cavity nucleation
ii. Cavity growth
iii. Cavity coalescence
Any material must contain impurities or second phase precipitates. As the heterogenous
material is stressed, the matrix is deformed plastically but the second phase precipitates are
only elastically deformed. This difference between the deformation of the two gives rise to the
formation of cavities at the particles matrix interface. If the particle is brittle enough, it just
fractures to give cavities.
Continuous stressing past the cavity nucleation stress gives rise to additional nucleation of
cavities and cavity growth until such a point of instability. When the bridge between the
cavities is no longer strong enough to carry the load (the stress), they coalese by a process of
necking to form a localized band through which deformation takes place.

QUESTION 2
Given C = 2𝜇m
E = 350GN/m2
𝛾 = 2 Jm-2
We know that fracture stress
 2𝛾𝐸
𝜎= √
𝜋𝐶

2∗2∗350∗10^9
𝜎= √
𝜋∗2∗10^−6

𝜎 = 472MNm-2
a. The temperature for 𝜀 = 10-2
472 = 20.6 + 173600/T + 61.3log10(10-2)
T = 302.4K
b. The temperature for 𝜀 = 10-5
472 = 20.6 + 173600/T + 61.3log10(10-5)
T = 229K
 CHAPTER 17

QUESTION 1
The process of fatigue failure is characterized by three distinct steps:
1. crack initiation, in which a small crack forms at some point of high stress concentration;
2. crack propagation, during which this crack advances incrementally with each stress
cycle;
3. final failure, which occurs very rapidly once the advancing crack has reached a critical
Size.
Cracks associated with fatigue failure almost always initiate (or nucleate) on the surface of a
component at some point of stress concentration. Crack nucleation sites include surface
scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents, and the like. In addition, cyclic loading can
produce microscopic surface discontinuities resulting from dislocation slip steps that may also
act as stress raisers and therefore as crack initiation sites.
The region of a fracture surface that formed during the crack propagation step may be
characterized by two types of markings termed beachmarks and striations. Both features
indicate the position of the crack tip at some point in time and appear as concentric ridges
that expand away from the crack initiation site(s), frequently in a circular or semicircular
pattern. Beachmarks (sometimes also called clamshell marks) are of macroscopic dimensions ,
and may be observed with the unaided eye. These markings are found for components that
experienced interruptions during the crack propagation stage—for example, a machine that
operated only during normal workshift hours. Each beachmark band represents a period of
time over which crack growth occurred. However, fatigue striations are microscopic in size and
subject to observation with the electron microscope.
The diagram above is an electron fractograph that shows this feature. Each striation is thought
to represent the advance distance of a crack front during a single load cycle. Striation width
depends on, and increases with, increasing stress range.
During the propagation of fatigue cracks and on a microscopic scale, there is very localized
plastic deformation at crack tips, even though the maximum applied stress to which the object
is exposed in each stress cycle lies below the yield strength of the metal. This applied stress is
amplified at crack tips to the degree that local stress levels exceed the yield strength. The
geometry of fatigue striations is a manifestation of this plastic deformation.
It should be emphasized that although both beachmarks and striations are fatigue
fracture surface features having similar appearances, they are nevertheless different in
both origin and size. There may be thousands of striations within a single beachmark.

Often the cause of failure may be deduced after examination of the failure surfaces.
The presence of beachmarks and/or striations on a fracture surface confirms that the cause of
failure was fatigue. Nevertheless, the absence of either or both does not exclude fatigue
failure. Striations are not observed for all metals that experience fatigue.
Furthermore, the likelihood of the appearance of striations may depend on stress state.
Striation detectability decreases with the passage of time because of the formation of surface
corrosion products and/or oxide films. Also, during stress cycling, striations may be destroyed
by abrasive action as crack mating surfaces rub against one another.
One final comment regarding fatigue failure surfaces: Beachmarks and striations do not
appear on the region over which the rapid failure occurs. Rather, the rapid failure may be
either ductile or brittle; evidence of plastic deformation will be present for ductile failure and
absent for brittle failure. This region of failure may be noted in diagram above.

QUESTION 2

With ductile metals under static loading, plastic flow of the material proceeds fracture and
ruptured surface shows a fibrous structure produced by the stretching of the crystals, giving
rise to a number of teas ridges and dimples. Creep fracture is virtually similar to this with the
ruptured surface producing greater stretches of the crystals.

Brittle- fracture, characterized by fast crack propagation appears granular and glossy. Trans
granular – cleavage surfaces usually contains a large number of cleavage steps and a ‘river
patern’ of branching cracks. These indicasions of the absorption of energy by local
deformation. The surfaces of inter-granular brittle fractures are much smoother, with a
general absence of cleavage steps.
 CHAPTER 18

QUESTION 1
From maximum principal stress theory, a material yields when the greatest positive principal
exceeds the tensile yield strength.
From question greatest positive principal stress = 2𝜎
Tensile yield strength = 200N/mm2
therefore 2𝜎 = 200N/mm2
𝜎 = 100N/mm2 ANS

From max shear stress theories or stress difference theory, a material will fail when max shear
stress in a complex system reaches a value of max shear stress in simple tension at elastic
limit.
Max shear stress criterion is given by
𝜎1 – 𝜎3 = 𝜎y0
Where 𝜎1 and 𝜎3 are principal stresses and 𝜎y0 is tensile yield strength.
Therefore 2𝜎 – 1/2𝜎 = 200N/mm2
4 𝜎2 - 400 𝜎 + 1 = 0
𝜎 = 99.997N/mm2 ANS

QUESTION 2

The thin walled cylinder is subjected to 2 principal stresses which are hoopes stress and
longitudinal stress.
𝑃𝑑 4∗2(400) 1600
𝜎ℎ = = =
2𝑡 2𝑡 𝑡
𝑃𝑑 4∗2(400) 800
𝜎𝑙 = = =
4𝑡 4𝑡 𝑡
a. From max principal stress theory,
Greatest positive principal stress = tensile yield stress
Due to factor of safety,
Working stress in tenstion = Elastic limit / FOS
Working stress = 270/3 = 90N/mm2

Hence 1600/t =90

t = 17.78mm ANS

b. From von mises theory

(𝜎1− 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2− 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3− 𝜎1 )2
𝜎𝑦0 = √
2
2
𝜎𝑦0 = 90N/mm
𝜎1 = 1600/t
𝜎3 = 800/t
 𝜎2 = 0
The equation for vonmises becomes
1600 800
90 = √(1600/𝑡)2 + (800/𝑡)2 + ( )( )
𝑡 𝑡
t = 15.396mm ANS

QUESTION 3

Let the diameter of the bold be d

cross sectional area = 𝜋/4 * d2

axial stress
10(103 )
𝜎𝑥 = 𝜋 2 = 12732.4/d2 𝜎𝑦 = 0
𝑑
4

Shear stress
5(103 )
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜋 2 = 6366.2/d2
𝑑
4
Principal stress is given by the formula
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = + √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2

12732.4 12732.4 2
6366.2 2
𝜎1 = + √( ) + ( 2 )
2𝑑 2 2𝑑 2 𝑑
15369.37
𝜎1 =
𝑑2

12732.4 12732.4 2 6366.2 2

𝜎2 = − √( ) + ( 2 )
2𝑑 2 2𝑑 2 𝑑
2636.97
𝜎2 = −
𝑑2
a. From max principal stress theory
Greatest positive principal stress = tensile yield strength.
Due to FOS
Working stress in tension = elastic limit/ FOS
270
𝜎𝑦0 = = 90N/mm2
3
15369.37/d2 = 90
d = 13.07mm ANS

b. From maximum principal shear stress theory

𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦0
15369.37/d2 + 2636.97/d2 = 90
 d = 14.14mm ANS

QUESTION 4

For brittle materials, a failure criterion is maximum principal stress theory.

This theory states that a material subjected to any combination of loads will fracture
whenever the greatest positive (or negative) Principal stress exceeds the tensile (or
compressive) ultimate strength.
According to this theory, the strength of the material depends upon only one of the principal
stress ( the largest tension or the largest compression).

QUESTION 5

The maximum shear stress theory states that the failure or yield of a ductile material will occur
when the maximum shear stress of the material equals or exceeds the shear stress value at
yield point in the uniaxial tensile test.
Theory Formula

Considering principal stresses in uniaxial test

𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 ; 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 = 0
So maximum shear stress
𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎𝑦0
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑦𝑜 = 1 3 =
2 2
Therefore 𝜏𝑦𝑜 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
𝜎1 − 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑦0

Failure occurs when 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ 𝜏𝑦𝑜

For safe design conditions
𝜏𝑦𝑜 𝜎𝑦0
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝐹𝑂𝑆 2 𝐹𝑂𝑆

QUESTION 6
Von Mises states that a material will fail when its distortion energy reaches a critical value.
Von misses stress is an equivalent stress value based on distortion energy to decide if a ductile
material will fail (yield or fracture) under a given loading condition; that if the load equals or
greater than the yield limit of the same material under a simple uniaxial tension the material
will fail.
Theory Formula

Failure by distortion energy or von misses compares two kinds of distortion energy.
i. Distortion energy in complex loading conditions (deviatoric component)
ii. Distortion energy for the same material under uniaxial tension.
Us = [UT – UV]
 Where Us is deviatoric component
UT is total strain energy, Uv is hydrostatic component
Uv = ½ 𝜎̅∆
1−2𝑣
Uv = (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 )2
6𝐸
1 2
UT = [𝜎 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎3 2 − 2𝑣(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 )]
2𝐸 1
1+𝑣
Us = [(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 ]
6𝐸

For pure shear

1+𝑣
Us = 𝜏𝑦0 2
𝐸
Combining the two Us
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 6𝜏𝑦0 2 - - - -(i)

For uniaxial tension

1+𝑣
Us = 𝜎𝑦0 2
3𝐸
Combining the two Us (deviatoric component)
(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 + (𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2 = 2𝜎𝑦0 2

(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 )2 + (𝜎2 − 𝜎3 )2 +(𝜎3 − 𝜎1 )2

𝜎𝑦0 =√
2

The right hand side is the equivalent stress value based on distortion energy. When the
RHS ≥ LHS of the equation, failure of the material occurs.

Hypotheses based on Von mises:

At yielding in uniaxial tension, 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦0 ; 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 = 0
Substituting these values in to relation of pure shear energy, (eqn (i))
𝜎𝑦0 2 + 𝜎𝑦0 2 = 6𝜏𝑦0 2
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦0 = √3𝜏𝑦0

Therefore the Von mises’s criterion predicts that yield stress in pure shear will be less
1
than in uniaxial tension according to 𝜏𝑦0 = 𝜎𝑦0
√3
 CHAPTER 20

QUESTION 1

One of the most economic inspection technique that can be used to check the severity of
these fatigue crack is ultrasonic flow detection.
Here an echo sounding technique is used. Elastic waves are sent out by a probe transducer and
are reflected back by discontinuities.
Resuults are recorded on an oscilloscope by the transmission pulse giving front and back echo.
½ to 20MHz frequency elastic waves are used.
Types of waves used.
i. Longitudinal or compressive waves
ii. Shear or transverse waves
iii. Surface waves.
If a crack is filled with a material of the same acoustic impedence. If the crack is covered with
air, the reflection is higher than the transmission; but if vacuum, everything will be reflected.
Flaws smaller than the wavelength of the sound will not be picked.
To detect smaller flaws, much higher frequency that can be attained is limited by the grain
boundaries. Such high frequencies detect grain boundaries. Such high frequencies detect grain
boundaries as flaws and also cause noise in the instrument.

QUESTION 2

a. The value for intensity of Energy is given by

I = I0 e-u x
The intensity of the incident radiation at top surface of defect Id will be given by
Id = I0 e-u1 (x1 – x2)
Value of final transmission radiation through defect
I2 = Id e-u2.x2
I2 = I0 e-u1 (x1 – x2).e-u2.x2
I2 = I0 e-u1 (x1 – x2) - u2.x2

But I1 = I0 e-u1.x1
Therefore I2 = I1ex2(u1 – u2)
I2/ I1 = ex2(u1 – u2) ANS

b. If the controlling factor is x2(u1 – u2) then any defect with absorption characteristics
compared to u, will significantly alter the transmission factor. This can be used for a
practical method for analyzing components for internal flaws because each flow will
give rise to different transmission factor, which will directly affect normally the
exposure of an x-ray film placed on the other side of the body of the incident beam. A
 small hole will cause a light spot on the positive film whereas a small highly absorbent
slag inclusion will cause a dark spot on the positive film.
c. 𝜇fecm = 2560cm2g-1
𝜇Alcm = 135cm2g-1
I1/I2 = ex2(u1 – u2)
=e0.001(135 – 2560)
= 0.0875
Hence the percentage reduction of transmission factor is 8.85% of the original valve.