MATERIALS

IN
TOOLING
 Tooling Materials

The material selected when creating a

particular tool normally is determined by the
mechanical properties necessary for that
tool’s proper operation. These materials
should be selected only after a careful study
and evaluation of the function and requirements
of the proposed tool. For most applications,
more than one type of material will be
satisfactory, and a final choice normally will
be governed by material availability and
economic considerations.

The principal materials used for tools can be

divided into three major categories: ferrous
metals, nonferrous metals, and nonmetallic
materials. Ferrous tool materials have iron as
a base metal and include tool steel, alloy
steel, carbon steel, and cast iron. Nonferrous
materials have a base metal other than iron and
include aluminum, magnesium, zinc, lead,
bismuth, copper, and a variety of other metals
and their alloys. Nonmetallic materials include
woods, plastics, rubbers, epoxy resins,
ceramics, and diamonds that do not have a
metallic base. To properly select a material,
several physical and mechanical properties
should be understood to determine how they
affect a tool’s function and operation.
 Physical Properties
Physical Properties

The physical properties of a material control how it will react under certain
conditions. Physical properties are natural in the material and cannot be
permanently altered without changing the material itself. These properties include:
density, color, thermal and electrical conductivity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, and melting point.

Density Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The density of a material is a measure of its mass per unit The coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure of how a
volume, typically measured in units of lb/in³ (g/mm³ ). Density material expands when exposed to heat. Materials such as
is important to consider when the weight of a tool needs to be aluminum, zinc, and lead have a high rate of expansion, while
minimized. carbon and silicon expand very little when heated. Using
materials with low coefficients of thermal expansion is important
Color when dimensional accuracy is critical. Specifying materials with
Color is the natural tint contained throughout the material. For differing rates of thermal expansion can cause problems in
example, steels are normally a silver-gray color and copper is constructing and using tools.
usually a reddish brown. thermal and electrical conductivity

Thermal conductivity and Electrical Conductivity Melting Point

Measure how quickly or slowly a specific material conducts heat The melting point is the temperature at which a material changes
or electricity. Aluminum and copper, for example, have a high from a solid to a liquid state. Materials such as tantalum and
rate of thermal and electrical conductivity, while nickel and tungsten have a high melting point, while lead and bismuth have a
chromium have a comparatively low rate. comparatively low melting point. The melting point is a
consideration when high temperatures are involved in the use of a
tool.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of a material can be permanently altered by thermal or

mechanical treatment. These properties include strength, hardness, toughness,
plasticity, ductility, malleability, and modulus of elasticity.

Yield Strength
The yield strength of a material is often the most important property to consider when
selecting an alloy for a specific application. Measured in units of lb/in.2 (psi) or
kN/m2 (kPa), yield strength is the stress level at which an alloy will show permanent
elongation after the stress has been removed. A typical yield strength reported is
0.2%, which indicates that the stress produced 0.2% elongation in a 2-in. (50.8-mm)
test specimen. Therefore, if permanent deformation is not acceptable for a given
application, the stresses that a component is subjected to must be below the yield
strength of the alloy. Heat treatments can be used to increase or decrease the yield
strengths of alloys.

Ultimate tensile strength

Is the value obtained by dividing the maximum load observed during tensile testing by
the specimen’s cross-sectional area before testing. An example of a plot of a tensile
test is shown in Figure 2-1. This plot shows the yield point as well as fracture
points for several different materials. A material’s ultimate tensile strength is an
important property to consider when designing large fixtures or other tooling.

The tensile tests successfully made on tool steel involve the use of tempering
temperatures much higher than those typically used on tools. Tool steels for hot work,
fatigue, or impact applications are usually specified at lower hardness levels.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Mechanical Properties
[continued]

Strength
Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation. The most common units
used to designate strength are pounds per square inch (psi) and kilo Pascals (kPa).
When designing tools, the principal categories to be most concerned with are a
material’s ultimate tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength, and yield
strength.

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength plays an important role in tool design. It is the maximum stress
that a metal, subjected to compression, can withstand without fracture bending or
bulging (see Figure 2-2). The compressive strength test is used on hardened tool
steels, especially at high hardness levels. For all ductile materials, the specimens
flatten out under load, and there is no well-marked fracture. For these materials,
compressive strength is usually equal to tensile strength.

Shear Strength
The shear strength of a material is important to consider when designing tools that
will be subjected to shear loads or torsion loads. Shear strength is defined as the
stress necessary to cause failure in shear loading (or torsion loading). For most
steels, the shear strength (see Figure 2-3) is approximately 50–60% of the alloy’s
tensile yield strength. Shear strengths are measured in units of lb/in.2 (psi) or
kN/m2 (kPa).

Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to resist fracture when subjected to impact
loads (sudden rapid loads). Materials that have high toughness must have a combination
of high strength and high ductility. Those with high strength but little ductility
have low toughness.
Hardness
Hardness is the ability
Solar of the Spectrum
Radiation material to re sist penetration or withstand abrasion.
It is an important property in selecting tool materials. However, hardness alone does
Mechanical Properties
[continued]
not determine the wear or abrasion resistance of a material. In alloy steels, especially
tool steels, the resistance to wear or abrasion varies with alloy content. Hardness
scales have been developed, each covering a separate range of hardness for different
materials.

Rockwell Hardness
Rockwell hardness is the most widely used method for measuring the hardness of steel.
The Rockwell hardness test is conducted by using a dead weight that acts through a
series of levers to force a penetrator into the surface of the metal being tested. The
softer the metal being tested, the deeper it will be penetrated with a given load. The
dial gage does not directly read the depth of penetration, but shows scales of Rockwell
numbers instead. A variety of loads and penetrators can be used, each designated by a
different letter and the relative hardness or softness measured.

Two types of penetrators are used in Rockwell hardness testing: a diamond cone, known as
a brale, for hard materials such as tool steel, and a hardened steel ball for soft
materials.

Brinell Hardness
The Brinell hardness method of measurement is much older than the Rockwell method. It
operates similarly to the Rockwell ball-test principle. In the Brinell machine, a 10 mm
(.39 in.) steel ball is forced into the material being tested under a load of up to
3,000 kg (6,600 lb). Instead of measuring the penetration, the diameter of the
impression in the test piece is measured using a small hand microscope with a lens
calibrated in millimeters. The measured diameter is converted into a Brinell hardness
number by using a table. The Brinell hardness measurement is most useful on soft and
medium-hard materials. On steels of high hardness, the impression is so small that it is
difficult to read; therefore, the Rockwell test is used more commonly for such
materials. A comparison of the designations for each system, as well as other hardness
tests, is shown in Table 2-1
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Mechanical Properties
[continued]

Plasticity
Plasticity is the property of a material that allows it to be
extensively deformed without fracture. Two general categories of
plasticity are ductility and malleability.

• Ductility is the property of a material that allows it to be

stretched or drawn with a tensional force without fracture or
rupture.
• Malleability is the property of a material that permits it to be
hammered or rolled without fracture or rupture.

Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the elastic stiffness of a
material. It is a ratio of the stress to the strain in the elastic
region of a tensile test. The modulus of elasticity determines how
much a material will elastically deflect under an applied load. For
alloys within the same family, the modulus of elasticity does not vary
(for example, the modulus of all steels is 30 × 106 psi; the modulus
of all aluminum alloys is 10.5 × 106 psi). The modulus of elasticity
is not affected by heat treatment
Solar Radiation Spectrum Mechanical Properties
[continued]
Solar Radiation Spectrum Mechanical Properties
[continued]
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Ferrous Metals
Ferrous Tool Materials

Many ferrous materials can be used for tool construction. Typically,

materials such as carbon steels, alloy steels, and cast irons are
widely used for jigs, fixtures, and similar special tools.

These materials are supplied in several different forms. The most

common types used for tools are hot-rolled, cold-rolled, and ground.
When steel is hot-rolled at a mill, a layer of decarburized slag, or
scale/oxide, covers the entire surface of the metal. This scale/oxide
should be removed when the part being made is to be hardened. If,
however, the metal is to be used in an unhardened condition, the
scale/oxide may be left on. When ordering hot-rolled materials, the
designer must make allowance for the removal of the scale/oxide. Cold-
rolled steels are generally used for applications where little or no
machining or welding is required. Cold-rolled bars are reasonably
accurate and relatively close to size. When rolled, these steels
develop internal stresses that could warp or distort the part if it
were extensively machined or welded. A cold-rolled bar is
distinguished from a hot-rolled bar by its bright, scale-free surface.

Steels are also available in a ground condition. These materials are

held to close tolerances and are available commercially in many sizes
and shapes. They are normally used where a finished surface is
required without additional machining. The two standard types of
ground materials are “to-size” and “oversize.” To-size materials
are ground to a specific size, such as .25 in. (6.4 mm), .50 in. (12.7
mm), or any similarly standard size. Oversize materials are normally
ground .015 in. (0.38 mm) over the standard size.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Carbon Steels
Carbon steels are used extensively in tool construction. They contain
mostly iron and carbon with small amounts of other alloying elements,
and are the most common and least expensive types of steel used for
tools. The three principal types are low-carbon, medium-carbon, and
high-carbon steels. Low-carbon steel contains 0.05–0.30% carbon;
medium-carbon steel contains 0.30–0.70% carbon; and high-carbon steel
contains 0.70–1.50% carbon. As the carbon content is increased in
carbon steel, the maximum strength and hardness also increase when the
metal is heat-treated.

Low-carbon steels are soft, tough steels that are easily machined and
welded. Due to their low carbon content, these steels cannot be
hardened except by case hardening. Low-carbon steels are well suited
for tool bodies, handles, die shoes, and similar situations where
strength and wear resistance are not critical.

Medium-carbon steels are used where greater strength and toughness are
required. Since medium-carbon steels have higher carbon content, they
can be heat-treated to make studs, pins, axles, and nuts. Steels in
this group are more expensive as well as more difficult to machine and
weld than low-carbon steels.

High-carbon steels are the most hardenable type of carbon steel. They
are used frequently for parts with which wear resistance is an
important factor. Other applications where high-carbon steels are well
suited include drill bushings, locators, and wear pads. Since the
carbon content of these steels is so high, parts made from them are
normally difficult to machine and weld.
 Ferrous Metals
[continued]

Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are basically carbon steels with
additional elements added to alter their
characteristics and bring about a predictable change
in their mechanical properties. Not normally used for
most tools due to their cost, some alloy steels have
found favor for special applications. The alloying
elements used most often in steels are manganese,
nickel, molybdenum, and chromium.

Another type of alloy steel frequently used for

tooling applications is stainless steel. Stainless
steel is a term used to describe high-chromium and
nickel-chromium steels. These steels are used for
tools that must resist high temperatures and corrosive
atmospheres. Some high-chromium steels can be hardened
by heat-treatment and are used where resistance to
wear, abrasion, and corrosion are required. Martensite
stainless steel is sometimes preferred for plastic
injection molds. Here, the high chromium content
allows the steel to be highly polished and prevents
deterioration of the cavity from heat and corrosion.
Tool Steels Ferrous Metals
Are alloy steels produced primarily for use in cutting [continued]

tools. The five principal properties of tool steels

are:
1. heat resistance,
2. abrasion resistance,
3. shock resistance,
4. resistance to movement or distortion in hardening,
and
5. cutting ability.

The steels listed in Table 2-2 will adequately serve

95% of all metal-stamping operations. The list
contains 31 steels, nine of which are widely applied
and readily available. Tool steels are identified by
letter and number symbols. All the steels listed,
except those in the S and H groups, can be heat-
treated to a hardness greater than Rockwell C62.

Frequently, hardness is proportional to wear

resistance, but this is not always the case because
wear resistance usually increases as the alloy content
and, particularly the carbon content, increases The
toughness of steels, on the other hand, is inversely
proportional to their hardness, and increases markedly
as the alloy or carbon content is lowered. Table 2-3
lists basic characteristics of steels used for press
tools; Table 2-4 lists the hardening and tempering
treatments; and Table 2-5 lists typical applications
of various steels
 Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Tool Steel Classes
The general nature and application of the various standard tool
steel classes are as follows.

W: water-hardening tool steels. This group includes plain carbon D: high-carbon, high-chromium die steels. Type D2 is the principal
(W1) and carbon vanadium (W2). These were the original tool steel in this class. It finds wide application for long-run dies. It
steels. Because of their low cost, abrasion- and shock-resisting is deep-hardening, fairly tough, and has good resistance to wear.
qualities, ease of machinability, and ability to take a keen Steels D3, D4, and D6, containing additional carbon, have very high
cutting edge, the carbon grades are widely applied. Both W1 and W2 wear resistance and lower toughness. Steels D2 and D4 are air-
steels are shallow hardening and are readily available. hardened.

O: oil-hardening tool steels. Types O1 and O2 are manganese oil- S: shock-resisting tool steels. These steels contain less carbon and
hardening tool steels. They are readily available and inexpensive. have higher toughness. They are applied where heavy cutting or forming
These steels have better stability than water-hardening steels, operations are required, and where breakage is a serious problem.
and are of equal toughness with water-hardening steels when the Steels S1, S4, and S5 are readily available. Steels S4 and S5 are more
latter are hardened throughout. Wear resistance is slightly better economical than S1.
than that of water-hardening steels of equal carbon content. Steel
O7 has greater wear resistance because of its increased carbon and
tungsten content.

A: air-hardening die steels. Type A2 is the principal air- H: hot-work die steels. These steels combine red hardness with good
hardening tool steel. It has minimum movement in hardening and wear resistance and shock resistance. Air-hardening, they are used on
higher toughness than the oil-hardening die steels, with equal or occasion for cold-work applications. They have relatively low carbon
greater wear resistance. Steels A4, A5, and A6 can be hardened content and intermediate to high alloy content.
from lower temperatures. However, they have lower wear resistance
and higher resistance against distortion.
 Ferrous Metals
[continued]

Tool Steel Classes

The general nature and application of the various standard tool
steel classes are as follows.

T and M: tungsten and molybdenum high-speed steels. Steels T1 and Cast Iron
M2 are equivalent in performance and have good red hardness and Cast iron is essentially an alloy of iron and carbon, containing from
abrasion resistance. They have higher toughness than many of the 2–4% carbon, 0.5 to about 3% silicon, 0.4 to approximately 1%
other die steels and may be hardened by conventional methods or manganese, plus phosphorus and sulfur. Other alloys may be added
surface-hardened by carburizing. Steels M3, M4, and T15 have depending on the properties desired. The high compressive strength
greater cutting ability and resistance to wear. They are more and ease of casting gray irons are utilized in large forming and
difficult to machine and grind because of their increased carbon drawing dies to produce such items as automobile panels, refrigerator
and alloy contents. cabinets, bathtubs, and other large articles. Conventional methods of
hardening result in little distortion. Alloying elements are added to
L: low-alloy tool steels. Steels L3 and L6 are used for special promote graphitization and improve mechanical properties or develop
die applications. Other L steels find application where fatigue special characteristics.
and toughness are important considerations, such as in coining or
impression dies.

F: finishing steels. Steel F2 has limited use, but is occasionally Invar®

applied where extremely high wear resistance in a shallow- Invar is an iron-nickel alloy with 35–36% nickel and smaller amounts
hardening steel is desired. of other elements added for machinability. It is strong, tough, and
ductile, with a fair amount of corrosion resistance. The main feature
of Invar is that it has a coefficient of thermal expansion of almost
zero, thus providing the dimensional stability required for length
standards and optical platforms. However, one problem with Invar is
that it is difficult to machine.
Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Ferrous Metals
[continued]
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Non-Ferrous Metals
Non-Ferrous Tool Materials

Nonferrous tool materials are used to some degree as die materials in

special applications, and generally for applications with limited
production requirements. On the other hand, in jig and fixture design,
some nonferrous materials are used extensively where magnetism or tool
weight is important. Another area where nonferrous materials are
finding increased use is for cutting tools. Alloys and compositions of
nonferrous materials are used extensively to machine the newer,
exotic, high-strength metals.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Non-Ferrous Metals
[continued]

Aluminum Magnesium
Has been used for special tooling for a long time. The principal Magnesium, like Aluminum, is a lightweight yet strong tooling
advantages to using aluminum are its high strength-to-weight ratio, material. Lighter than Aluminum, Magnesium has a good strength-
nonmagnetic properties, and relative ease in machining and forming. to-weight ratio. Magnesium is commercially available in sheets,
Pure aluminum is corrosion resistant, but not well suited for use as a bars, and extruded forms. The only disadvantage in using
tooling material except in limited, low-strength applications. magnesium is its potential fire hazard. When specifying magnesium
Aluminum alloys, while not as corrosion resistant as pure aluminum, as a tooling material, make sure those who are to make the
are much stronger and well suited for many special tooling various parts are well acquainted with the precautions that must
applications. Aluminum/copper (2000series), aluminum/magnesium and be observed when machining this material.
silicon (6000series), and aluminum/zinc (7000series) are the alloys
most frequently used for tooling applications. Depending on
composition, some aluminum alloys are weldable and some can be heat- Bismuth Alloys
treated. One of the principal advantages of bismuth alloys is their
comparatively low melting temperature. Many alloy compositions
One form of aluminum alloy finding increased use is aluminum tooling will melt in boiling water. In addition to acting as a reusable
plate. This material is available in sheets and bars made to close nesting material, it can be applied as a matrix material for
tolerances. Aluminum tooling plate is useful for a wide variety of securing punch and die parts in a die assembly, and as cast
tooling applications. From supports and locators to base plates and punches and dies for short-run forming and drawing operations.
tool bodies, aluminum tooling plate provides a lightweight alternative Another frequent application of these alloys is for cast work
to steel. holders. In this case, the material is melted and poured around
the part and, once cool, the part is removed and the cast nest is
Other variations of aluminum frequently used for tooling are aluminum used to hold subsequent parts for machining. In these
extrusions and cast bracket materials. In most cases, these materials applications, the material is cast around the thin sections and
can be used as is, with little or no machining required. acts as a support during machining. Once the machining is
complete, the material is melted off the part and can be reused.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Non-Ferrous Metals
[continued]

Carbides
Are a family of tool materials made from the carbides of tungsten,
titanium, tantalum, or a combination of these elements. They are
powder metals consisting of the carbide with a binder, usually cobalt,
hot-pressed and then sintered into desired shapes. The most common
carbide material used for special tools is tungsten carbide. All
carbides are characterized by their high hardness values and
resistance to wear. This makes them an excellent choice for cutting
tools. The specific grades and characteristics commonly used to
classify carbides are shown in Tables 2-6 and 2-7. Table 2-6 shows the
unofficial C-classification system, and Table 2-7 contains the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) system. These
classification systems are application based and only roughly tied to
material properties. Generally, there is a tradeoff between hardness
and toughness, but micrograin carbides provide greater hardness and
toughness together.

Cermets
Cermets are similar to carbides, but they consist of titanium carbide
(TiC) or titanium nitride (TiN) powder in a nickel or cobalt binder.
They are harder and stronger than carbides, and provide better cutting
performance on ferrous materials.
Solar Radiation Spectrum Non-Ferrous Metals
[continued]
Solar Radiation Spectrum Heat Treatment

Heat-Treating

The purpose of heat-treatment is to modify and control the

properties of a metal or alloy. This is done by altering the
structure of the metal or alloy by heating it to definite
temperatures and cooling it at various rates. This combination of
heating and controlled cooling determines not only the nature and
distribution of the micro-constituents, which in turn determine
the properties, but also the grain size. Heat-treating should
improve the alloy or metal for the service intended.
It can:
• remove strains after cold-working;
• remove internal stresses, such as those produced by drawing,
bending, or welding;
• increase the hardness of the material;
• improve the machinability of the material;
• improve the cutting capabilities of tools;
• increase the wear-resisting properties of the material;
• soften the material, as in annealing, and
• improve or change the properties of a material such as its
corrosion resistance, heat resistance, magnetic properties,
etc., as required
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Heat Treatment
[continued]

Hardening Steels

Quench Hardening
Is the process of heating to a temperature above the critical range,
then cooling rapidly enough through the critical range to appreciably
harden the steel. (See Table 2-4 for specific treatment.)

What happens during the heat-treatment of die steels is represented

graphically in Figure 2-5. Starting in the annealed condition at A,
the steel is soft, consisting of an aggregate of ferrite and carbide.
Upon heating above the critical temperature to B, the crystal
structure of ferrite changes, becoming austenite, and dissolving a
large portion of the carbide. The new structure, austenite, is always
a prerequisite for hardening. By quenching it (cooling rapidly to room
temperature), the carbon is retained in solution, and the structure
known as martensite (C) results. This is the hard matrix structure in
steels. It is initially highly stressed since the change from
austenite involves some volumetric expansion against the natural
stiffness of the steel. It must be reheated to an intermediate
temperature (D) to soften it slightly and relieve those internal
stresses that unduly embrittle the steel. This process is called
tempering. If quenching is not rapid enough, the austenite reverts to
ferrite and carbide (E), and high hardness is not obtained. The rate
at which quenching is required to produce martensite depends primarily
on the alloy content. Low-alloy die steels are water- or oil-hardened,
while highly alloyed steels usually can be hardened in air (that is,
quenched at a much slower rate). Highly alloyed steels make the
reaction more sluggish.
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Heat Treatment
[continued]

Normalizing Annealing
Involves heating the material to a temperature between 100–200° F The process of annealing consists of heating the steel to an
(56–111° C) above the critical range and cooling in still air. This elevated temperature for a defined period of time and cooling
is about 100° F (56° C) above the regular hardening temperature. The it slowly. Annealing is done to produce homogenization and
purpose of normalizing is usually to refine grain structures that have establish normal equilibrium conditions with corresponding
been altered during forging. With most of the medium-carbon forging characteristic properties. Tool steel is generally purchased in
steels (alloyed and unalloyed), normalizing is highly recommended the annealed condition. Sometimes it is necessary to rework a
after forging and before machining to produce more homogeneous tool that has been hardened, and the tool must then be
structures and, in most cases, improve machinability. High-alloy, air- annealed. For this type of anneal, the steel is heated slightly
hardened steels are not normalized, since to do so would cause them to above its critical range, then cooled very slowly (50–100° F
harden and defeat their primary purpose. Increasing temperatures can [10–38° C] per hour). Finished parts may be annealed without
cause grain growth to occur, which would further reduce hardness. surface deterioration by placing them in a closed pot and
covering with compounds that will combine with the air present
Stress Relieving to form a reducing atmosphere. Partially spent carburizing
Is a method of relieving the internal stresses set up in steel during compound is widely used for annealing, as well as cast-iron
forming, cold working, and cooling after welding or machining. It is chips, charcoal, and commercial neutral compounds.
the simplest heat-treatment and is accomplished merely by heating the
steel to 1,200–1,350° F (649–732° C) followed by air or furnace Spheroidizing
cooling Large dies are usually roughed out, then stress relieved and Is a form of annealing that, in the process of heating and
finish machined. This will minimize their changing in shape not only cooling steel, produces a rounded or globular form of carbide.
during machining, but during subsequent heat-treating as well. Welded Carbide is the hard constituent in steel. Tool steels are
sections also will have locked-in stresses due to a combination of normally spheroidized to improve machinability. This is
differential heating and cooling cycles, as well as changes in the accomplished by heating to a temperature of 1,380–1,400° F
cross-section. Such stresses can cause considerable movement in (749–760° C) for carbon steels and higher for many alloy tool
machining operations steels, holding at heat for one to four hours, and cooling
slowly in the furnace
 Solar Radiation Spectrum Heat Treatment
[continued]
Tempering
Is the process of heating quenched and hardened steels and alloys to
some temperature below the lower critical temperature to reduce the
internal stresses set up in hardening. It reduces the hardness and
strength of the steel but increases ductility and toughness. Higher Nonferrous Materials
tempering temperatures result in higher loss of strength and hardness, Heat-treatment of nonferrous metals and alloys closely
plus more increase in ductility. Lower tempering temperatures result approximates that of steel, except that the temperature ranges
in little loss of strength and hardness and little increase in used are lower, and hardening is accomplished by the
ductility. Typical tempering temperatures range from 300–1,100° F precipitation of hard metallic compounds or particles.
(149–593° C). Typical tempering times are one to two hours at Nonferrous metals and alloys that are not heat-treatable harden
temperature. (See Table 2-4 for specific treatments.) by cold work only. For the heat-treatable alloys of aluminum,
hardening is accomplished by precipitation. When an alloy is
Case Hardening water-quenched from the hardening temperature, it is very soft;
The addition of carbon or nitrogen to the surface of steel parts and this is known as the solution treatment. Hardness is
the subsequent hardening operations are important phases in heat- accomplished by aging, which follows the quenching operation.
treating. The process may involve the use of molten sodium cyanide he aging temperature for some aluminum alloys is room
mixtures, pack carburizing with activated solid material such as temperature; others may require an elevated temperature of
charcoal or coke, gas or oil carburizing, and dry cyaniding. 290–360° F (143–182° C), depending on the alloy. As a rule,
Regardless of whether a solid charcoal or coke packing material is the lower the aging temperature, the longer the time required
used, or a liquid gas, the objective is the same—to produce a hard, for the alloy to reach full hardness. Beryllium copper is a
wear-resistant surface with a tough center core. The carbon content of precipitation-hardening alloy and is usually furnished by the
the surface is raised to 0.80–1.20% and the case depth can be closely manufacturer in the very soft, solution-treated condition. It
controlled by the time, temperature, and carburizing medium used. Pack has excellent forming properties in this condition. Formed
carburizing is generally done at 1,700° F (927° C) for eight hours parts are hardened by aging at 560–620° F (293–327° C) for
to produce a case depth of .06 in. (1.5 mm). Light cases up to .005 two hours at heat. A hardness of 38–42 Rockwell C can be
in. (0.13 mm) can be obtained in liquid cyanide baths. Case depths to expected. All other brass and bronze alloys are hardenable only
.03 in. (0.8 mm) are economically practical in liquid carburizing by cold working. They may be softened to varying degrees by
baths. Usually, low-carbon steels and low-carbon alloy steels are stress relieving or annealing.
carburized. The normal carbon range is 0.10–0.30%, though higher
carbon-content steels may be carburized as well.
Where are we going?