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Lecture 2 - Thermodynamic Property, State, Equilibrium, Process

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45 views20 pages

Lecture 2 - Thermodynamic Property, State, Equilibrium, Process

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Abi VA
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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LECTURE 2

Thermodynamic property, state, equilibrium, process


Properties of a system
■ Examples:
– Pressure, P
– Temperature, T
– Volume, V
– Mass, m
■ Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive
■ Intensive properties
– Independent of mass, T, P, 𝜌
■ Extensive properties
– Depend on the size, or extent of the system, m, V, total momentum
■ Specific properties: extensive properties per unit mass
– Example: Specific volume, specific surface area
Density and Specific Gravity
■ Density
𝑚 𝑘𝑔
– 𝜌= 𝑉
; 𝑚3
– Sometimes it can be expressed in terms of
specific gravity
𝜌
■ 𝑆𝐺 = 𝜌
𝐻2𝑂

■ Substances that have SG < 1 will float on water


■ Specific volume
𝑉
– 𝜈 = 𝑚 = 1/𝜌

■ Density of liquids are essentially constants –


approximated as incompressible fluids during most
processes.
State and Equilibrium
■ State
– System is not undergoing change
– One can measure all the properties describing
the condition

■ Equilibrium
– State of balance, no driving force or no
unbalanced potentials within the system
– An isolated system at equilibrium undergoes no
change.
State and Equilibrium
■ A system at equilibrium should have:
■ Thermal equilibrium
– No temperature gradient i.e., no driving force for heat flow
■ Mechanical equilibrium
– No change in pressure at any point in the system with time (pressure can change
within the system with elevation)
■ Chemical equilibrium
– If the chemical composition of a system does not change with time, that is, no
chemical reactions occur.
■ Phase equilibrium
– If a system involves two phases and when the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there
The State Postulate
■ The number of properties required to fix the state
of a system is given by the state postulate
– Definition: The state of a simple
compressible system is completely specified
by two independent, intensive properties.
– Example: The state of nitrogen is fixed by
two independent, intensive properties (T and
specific volume)
■ Simple compressible system: If a system involves
no electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion and
surface tension effects.
Processes and cycle
■ Process
– Any change from one equilibrium state to
another
■ Path
– Series of states through which system passes
through

■ Quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process


– Process where system remains infinitesimally
close to an equilibrium state at all times.
– Idealized process
– Easy to analyze
– Work producing device deliver the maximum
work when operating on quasi-equilibrium.
Temperature and Zeroth Law of thermodynamics
■ The zeroth law of thermodynamics:
– If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other
■ By replacing the third body with a thermometer,
the zeroth law can be restated as two bodies are
in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in
contact.
– Example: Two bodies reaching thermal
equilibrium after being brought into contact
in an isolated enclosure
Temperature Scales
■ All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states
– Freezing and boiling points of water: the ice point and steam point
■ Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with air saturated with vapor at
1 atm (0°C or 32°F).
■ Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1
atm (100°C or 212°F)
– Celsius scale: in SI unit system (two point scale)
– Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
■ Thermodynamic temperature scale: A temperature scale that is independent of the
properties of any substance.
– Kelvin scale (SI)
– Rankine scale (E)
Temperature Scales
■ Comparison of magnitudes
of various temperature units
– Δ𝑇 𝐾 = Δ𝑇 °𝐶
– Δ𝑇 𝑅 = Δ𝑇 °𝐹

■ The reference temperature


of the original Kelvin scale
was the ice point, 273.15 K.
The reference temperature
was changed to a much
more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of
water.
– Triple point: state at
which all three phases
of water coexist in
equilibrium.
Pressure
■ Definition: Normal force per unit area – used for
gas and liquid
– Normal stress is used for solids
■ Units
𝑁
– 1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑚2
– 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 103 𝑃𝑎 = 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑁 𝑁
– 1 𝑐𝑚2 = 9.807 𝑐𝑚2 = 9.807 𝑥 104 𝑚2 =
9.807 𝑥 104 𝑃 = 0.9807 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 0.9679 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Pressure
■ Absolute pressure:
– The actual pressure at a given position. It is measured relative to absolute vacuum
(i.e., absolute zero pressure)
■ Gauge/Gage pressure:
– The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and so they indicate gauge pressure.
– 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
■ Vacuum pressures:
– Pressures below atmospheric pressure
– 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠
Pressure
■ In a room filled with a gas, the variation of pressure with height is negligible
■ Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from free surface (top)
– 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ; 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

■ For fluids with density variation with height


𝑑𝑃
– 𝑑𝑧
= −𝜌𝑔
2
– Δ𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = − ‫׬‬1 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧
Pressure Measurement Devices
■ Atmospheric pressure – measured by a
barometer
– 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
– Standard atmosphere, 1 atm = 760
mmHg, 0°C = 760 torr

■ Length and cross-section area have no effect


on the height of the fluid column of a barrier.
Manometer
■ Fluid column to measure the pressure difference
– Used to measure small and moderate pressure differences
– Contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
Manometer
■ In a stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure change
across a fluid layer of density, 𝜌 and height h, is 𝜌𝑔ℎ.
– 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3

■ Differential manometer
– 𝑃1 + 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑎 + ℎ − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑃2
– 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌2 − 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ
Example
■ A piece of experimental apparatus, as shown in the figure below, is located where g =
9.5 m/s2 and the temperature is 5C. Air flow inside the apparatus is determined by
measuring the pressure drop across an orifice with a mercury manometer (density of
mercury is 13600 kg/m3) showing a height difference of 200mm. What is the pressure
drop in kPa?
Example
For the given diagram, calculate the pressure difference, PB-PA
Example
For the given diagram, assuming that the right end is open to the
atmosphere, calculate the following:
1. Pressure at the right mercury-water interface
2. Pressure at the left mercury-water interface
3. Pressure at the mercury-oil interface
4. Pressure at point A

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