KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

INTERNSHIP TRAINING REPORT

Name: Sika Obed Kwesi

Institution: Council For Scientific And Industrial Research, Water Research Institute.

Index Number: 8216619

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to God almighty for the strength and wisdom that guided us to complete the
internship training successfully.

I would like to thank Mr. Collins Okrah, the Head of the Division for groundwater and
geoscience for allowing me to train within the organization.

I extend my gratitude to Mr. Ralph Tagoe, our supervisor during the internship, who despite
being busy with duties, took time to guide us, and improved our understanding in
groundwater exploration and management. The staff of the groundwater division Samuel
Debrah, Tofic Issahaku, and Thompson Nyamesah contributed to guiding us with their time
and experience, and I appreciate the effort made.

ii
ABSTRACT
Groundwater is water that exists in saturated zones beneath the earth’s surface. This as a
resource has favorable characteristics for domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supply.
As extensive and favorable groundwater is, it has to be assessed and managed.

The long-term objective of the Groundwater Division is to generate, process, and disseminate
information on the availability of groundwater, the quantity of water to be abstracted for
various uses, and the reliability and sustainability of its recharge.

The Division, therefore, provides technical services on groundwater development issues

relating to geophysical investigation for borehole siting, borehole drilling supervision,
pumping test, pump mechanization, pump repairs (submersible/hand-pumps), geophysical
borehole logging, installation of treatment plants on boreholes, provision of hydro-geological
information, and production of hydro-geological maps.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .........................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. iii
TABLE OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... v
CHAPTER 1 .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 CSIR-WRI........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Groundwater Division (Anon., n.d.) ................................................................................ 1
1.3 Groundwater .................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE FIELD MAPPING ................................................. 1
Main Objective................................................................................................................... 1
Specific Objectives ............................................................................................................ 2
CHAPTER 2 .............................................................................................................................. 3
2.0 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY......................................................................................... 3
2.1 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION .................................................................................. 3
2.2 CONDUCTIVITY METHOD ............................................................................................. 3
2.21 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD (EM) ..................................................................... 3
Principle ............................................................................................................................. 3
Equipment .......................................................................................................................... 3
How the survey is carried out ............................................................................................ 4
Analysis.............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 RESISTIVITY METHOD ................................................................................................... 6
2.31 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) ............................................................................... 6
Principle ............................................................................................................................. 6
Equipment .......................................................................................................................... 6
Schlumberger array ................................................................................................................ 7
Advantage .......................................................................................................................... 7
Disadvantage ...................................................................................................................... 8
Wenner Array......................................................................................................................... 8
Advantage .......................................................................................................................... 8
Disadvantage ...................................................................................................................... 8
Analysis.............................................................................................................................. 8
Complications ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY ............................................... 10
Principle ........................................................................................................................... 10
iv
 Equipment ........................................................................................................................ 11
How the survey is carried out .......................................................................................... 11
Advantage ........................................................................................................................ 12
Disadvantage .................................................................................................................... 13
Analysis............................................................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................ 14
3.0 TARGETING ..................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................ 15
4.0 PUMPING TEST (Anon., n.d.) ......................................................................................... 15
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................ 16
REFERENCE ........................................................................................................................... 17

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Equipments for the Electromagnetic Survey ............................................................... 4
Figure 2 EM survey setup .......................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3 Horizontal Dipole Orientation ..................................................................................... 5
Figure 4 Vertical Dipole Orientation ......................................................................................... 5
Figure 5 Graph of Apparent Conductivity against Station positions ......................................... 5
Figure 6 Equipment used for the VES survey ........................................................................... 6
Figure 7 Schlumberger array ..................................................................................................... 7
Figure 8 Wenner Array .............................................................................................................. 7
Figure 9 Interpretation of data using ZondIP software .............................................................. 9
Figure 10 Cross-section interpretation of data using ZondIP software ..................................... 9
Figure 11 Equipment used during the 2d tomography survey ................................................. 11
Figure 12 Abem Terrameter LS ............................................................................................... 11
Figure 13 Electrodes evenly spaced ......................................................................................... 12
Figure 14 Pseudo-section indicating variations in ground resistivity ...................................... 12
Figure 15 Pseudo-section ......................................................................................................... 13
Figure 16 2022 Internship trainees measuring the dynamic water level of the well and
discharge of the pump .............................................................................................................. 15

v
CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 CSIR-WRI
CSIR-WRI generates strategies for the rational development, utilisation and management of
the water resources of Ghana. This supports the socio-economic advancement of the country.
WRI conducts research into all aspects of water resources in order to provide scientific and
technical information and services

1.2 Groundwater Division (Anon., n.d.)

The long-term objective of the Groundwater Division is to generate, process and disseminate
information on the availability of groundwater, quantity of water to be abstracted for various
uses, and the reliability and sustainability of its recharge.

Currently, the Division conducts research into groundwater resources of Ghana, provides
scientific information on groundwater resources to governmental and non-governmental
agencies and the general public, undertakes groundwater monitoring and assessment studies as
well as groundwater database management

The Division therefore provides technical services on groundwater development issues relating
to geophysical investigation for borehole siting, borehole drilling supervision, pumping test,
pump mechanization, pump repairs (submersible/hand-pumps), geophysical borehole logging
(Geo-logger/sondes), installation of treatment plants on boreholes (reverse osmosis, filters, iron
removal etc,.), provision of hydro-geological information, and production of hydro-geological
maps. Local and foreign students are also offered training on groundwater development.

1.3 Groundwater
Groundwater as a resource has favorable characteristics for domestic, agricultural, and
industrial water supply. It responds slowly to changes in rainfall patterns and is fairly resistant
to drought. This is because it can store large volumes of water.

1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE FIELD MAPPING

Main Objective
• Gain basic knowledge and guide into groundwater resources development and
management.

1
Specific Objectives
• Familiarise with the equipment used in groundwater exploration, how to use them and
the principles behind them.
• Understand and modelling of field data.
• Locate aquifer zones.

2
CHAPTER 2

2.0 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

Before any groundwater project is planned, general information about the area must be
gathered. The primary objective of reconnaissance survey is to develop an initial framework of
how the groundwater resource occurs in the project area to guide expectations for the project.

Reconnaissance survey answers the questions:

• Accessibility of groundwater in the area?

• Is the hydrogeology fairly uniform in the area?
• How best the groundwater can be exploited?
• Concerns about groundwater quality?

2.1 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION

This is the application of principles and physics to investigate the land for points of high
groundwater potential for drilling. This stage is undertaken when all potential pollution sources
have been avoided.

2.2 CONDUCTIVITY METHOD

2.21 ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD (EM)
Principle
An EM study depends on the ground’s varying reactions to differences in electric
and magnetic forces due to the presence of conducting materials. A primary field is
created by passing an alternating current through a coil close to the ground.
The primary field spreads and changes in the ground when it meets conductors. These
changes are identified by the receiver. The received data is noted and processed later to
provide information about the conductivity of the investigated area.

Equipment
The instrument used for this survey during the internship training is the EM 34-3 from geonics.
The device’s setup comprises a transmitter coil, a receiver coil, a reference cable, a connector,
a transmitter, and a receiver.

3
 Figure 1 Equipments for the Electromagnetic Survey Figure 2 EM survey setup

How the survey is carried out

The transmitter is connected to the transmitter coil and the receiver is connected to the receiver
coil via the connector. These separate connections are linked by connecting the receiver to the
transmitter coil with a reference cable.

There are two different orientations for the coils when taking readings during this survey.

• Vertical Dipole Orientation: This is very effective in investigating the conductive

behavior of deep-seated bodies.
• Horizontal Dipole Orientation: This method is effective in investigating the conductive
behaviour of shallow materials.

4
 Figure 3 Horizontal Dipole Orientation Figure 4 Vertical Dipole Orientation

Analysis
The recorded conductivity is plotted against their respective stations. The result (graph) is
analysed and points of interest usually stations with high conductivity recorded for the vertical
dipole method is noted. Detailed investigation such as Vertical Electrical Sounding is
conducted at the points of interest.

EM Response Curve Along Traverse A

400
App. Conductivity (m mhos/m)

VES
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 40
Station (m)
20-m HD 20-m VD

Figure 5 Graph of Apparent Conductivity against Station positions

EM survey is great in mapping the lateral variations in the conductivity of the earth

5
2.3 RESISTIVITY METHOD
2.31 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
Principle
The resistivity method is an active geophysical prospection method which measure’s the
ground’s electrical properties. Current is generated and how the ground changes the signal tells
us the structure beneath us. The property measured is the resistance against the flow of current
we ejected. Resistivity varies with different materials, so the varying resistance measured in
the ground informs us of the materials present.

Sounding is the collection of data in a direction of increasing depth. This method further
investigates the points of interest. The points indicated after the EM analysis becomes our
reference point in the Vertical electrical sounding process. The principle is similar to the EM
method. Current is injected into the ground but with the help of electrodes. The potential
difference is measured. With further calculations, the apparent resistance of the observed
bodies is derived. The property taken into consideration in this survey is apparent resistivity.

Equipment
The equipment required in this survey are four electrodes, cables, and the ABEM terrameter
SAS 1000.

Figure 6 Equipment used for the VES survey

6
There are various arrays in which the electrodes are arranged for observation. Each array has
its advantages and disadvantages. These are two of the arrays we were introduced to on the
field.

a. Schlumberger array
b. Wenner array

Two of the electrodes act as the current electrodes (c) and the other two are the potential
electrodes (p) which measure the potential difference between the current electrodes.

Figure 7 Schlumberger array Figure 8 Wenner Array

Schlumberger array
Two 100m tape is spread out from the reference point in a straight line. This makes the
total distance from one end of the tape to the end of the other, 200m. This is the distance to be
observed.

The potential and current electrodes are planted 0.5m and 1.5m away from the reference
point on both sides for the first reading. The configuration of this setup is C1 P1 P2 C2 with
the midpoint between P1 and P2. The electrodes are connected to the Abem therameter (the
resistivity meter) with cables.

In other for readings to be taken, the electrodes position must follow the configuration.
Readings are taken and the current electrodes are moved to their next station in a predetermined
distance on a data sheet; 1.5, 2.1, 3.3, 4.1(m)……… The position of the potential electrodes is
maintained throughout the survey

Advantage
Need to move the two current electrodes only for most readings. This can significantly decrease
the time required to acquire a sounding.

7
Disadvantage
Because the potential electrode spacing is small compared to the current electrode spacing, for
large current electrode spacings, very sensitive voltmeters are required.

Wenner Array
The Wenner electrode array has four electrodes colinearly arranged and spaced at equal
distances from each other. The two outer electrodes are the current electrodes, and the two
inner electrodes are the potential electrodes.

With the Wenner array, the resistivity of subsurface layers is found by increasing the
distance between the electrodes and maintaining the center point of the array. This method is
called vertical electrical sounding or electrical drilling. Detection of horizontal changes of
resistivity is achieved by moving the four electrodes across the surface while maintaining a
constant separation between the electrodes. This method is called profiling or sometimes
electrical trenching.

The array spacing “a” is increased by steps, keeping the midpoint fixed, the four
electrodes with a definite array spacing “a” moved as a whole in suitable steps, four electrodes
are moving after each measurement, and the values from the instrument is recorded.

Advantage
Potential electrode spacing increases as current electrode spacing increases. Less sensitive
voltmeters are required.

Disadvantage
All four electrodes must be moved to acquire each reading.

Time consuming and labour intensive.

Analysis
The recorded data is interpreted with ZondIP or other related software, to produce an
approximate resistivity value, depth and height of the various layers observed.

8
 Figure 10 Cross-section interpretation of data using ZondIP software

Figure 9 Interpretation of data using ZondIP

software

𝑉
Resistivity meter gives a resistivity value, 𝑅 = 𝐼 then the apparent resistivity is then calculated
𝑉
as 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘𝑅 , 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑝𝑎 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐾 = 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Limitations of VES survey

• For data collected to be valid, all layers must be horizontal, homogenous a,nd isotropic
• Labour intensive and time-consuming since the electrodes have to be moved during the
survey.

Complications
• Signal-to-noise ratio: As the distance between the current electrodes increases the
signal-to-noise ratio increases. This is because the potential electrode distance is short
with respect to the current electrodes, so more noise, and unwanted current signals,
interfere with the potential difference between the P-electrodes.
In order to curb this problem, the potential electrodes is moved at a certain point
in the survey.
• Condition of cables: Breakages in cables increase resistance or prevent the flow of
electrical current.

9
 Cables should be handled with care and also observed before use for a survey. This
prevents problems which arise as a result of bad cable conditions.

• Contact Resistance: The point where the current is transferred from the electrode to
the ground encounters resistance known as ‘contact resistance’. This contributes to the
path resistance which determines the amount of current that flows through the ground.
If the amount of current injected into the ground is small. The voltage received at the
potential electrodes would be small and lost in the noise.
In other to curb this problem, firm contact between the ground and the
electrodes should be ensured. In most cases, a high amount of current is ejected, so the
amount lost due to contact resistance is minimal compared to the current injected into
the ground.
• Path of Least resistance: Current always takes the path with the least resistance. In
the case where the surface is least resistive, a very conductive layer, the majority of the
current will flow through the surface with very little current penetrating to deep layers.
This situation is dealt with the use of plate electrodes. This increases the surface
area thereby increasing the contact and amount of current that goes through the ground.

2.4 TWO-DIMENSIONAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY

Principle
This survey involves both sounding and profiling. As a result, this method is known as
‘taking an x-ray of the earth’. The principle behind this survey is the same compared to the

10
vertical electrical sounding survey. Resistivity variations of the ground are identified by
ejecting current into the ground with electrodes. The potential difference between the potential
electrodes is noted and resistivity values are outputted.

Equipment
The tools required for this survey are;

• Electrical Cable with take outs

• Electrodes
• Jumper cables
• Tape measure
• Hammer
• Abem Terrameter LS

Figure 12 Abem Terrameter LS

Figure 11 Equipment used during the 2d tomography survey

How the survey is carried out

For this survey, electrodes are placed at equal intervals all along the entire span to be
surveyed. Unlike the vertical sounding the 2D survey method involves lots of electrodes
depending on the distance to be surveyed and the electrode spacing. So the number of
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
electrodes used in a survey = + 1. A tape measure is used to mark the distance
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔

to be covered and the position of electrodes. The electric cable is spread along the path of the
tape measure and the electrodes placed at the marked intervals. Jumper cables connect the

11
takeouts to the electrodes. This setup is then connected to the Abem terrameter LS resistivity
meter.

Figure 13 Electrodes evenly spaced

The ABEM terrameter automatically selects the electrodes and uses the inversion technique to
create a 2D pseudosection.

Figure 14 Pseudo-section indicating variations in ground resistivity

Advantage
The two-dimensional resistivity survey is far more accurate and easier to interpret than a one-
dimensional resistivity survey. Also, labour is required only at the setup stage. Operating the
device requires only an individual, there is no movement of electrodes even when you switch
to a different array.

12
Disadvantage
The limitation of a 2D survey is that when the resistivity image is calculated, it makes an
assumption that the layers continue sideways (perpendicular to the survey line) in the same
way they were measured. For example, if your survey line goes north to south and an anomaly
is spotted in the cross-section, the algorithm assumes the anomaly expands infinitely to the east
and west. This, of course, is not the case, but the method does often give a good picture of the
cross-section. To get a perfect representation of the ground a 3D resistivity survey needs to be
performed.

Analysis
The acquired data is interpreted with various software to produce pseudo-sections of the
investigated areas. In our case, RES2d software which uses the inversion technique to create a
2D pseudo-section was used to interpret our data.

Figure 15 Pseudo-section

The model in figure 10 shows the difference in resistivity laterally and as depth increases. The
resistivity difference is represented with colors and the scale can be located at the bottom left
of the image.

13
CHAPTER 3

3.0 TARGETING
After processing data, analysis is made on the condition of the investigated area to point out
anomalies and locate possible aquifer zones that contain enough water to satisfy the customer’s
need. Targeting involves observation of:

a. Bedrock resistivity: Bedrocks are usually located at great depths and provide high
resistivity to the flow of current. Also, resistivity increases with depth due to
overburden stress causing an increase in density as depth increases. If otherwise is
identified in data, it is considered an anomaly. This is possible if the bedrock contains
fractures or fractures that hold water.
b. Overburden thickness: Overburden refers to overlying soil on a bedrock. Overburden
is porous therefore a thicker overburden presence indicates more pores for infiltration
and accumulation of water.
c. Geology of the area: A clear understanding of the geology of an area helps you
differentiate between the present materials and an anomaly.
d. Accessibility: Accessibility of drilling rig to the location should be considered.
e. Proximity to a contaminant.

14
CHAPTER 4

4.0 PUMPING TEST (Anon., n.d.)

A pumping test is a final field experiment where an explored groundwater resource is pumped
at a controlled rate and water-level response is measured in one or more surrounding
observation wells and the pumped well itself. Response data from pumping tests are used to
estimate the aquifer parameters (specific capacity, transmissivity, safe yield, etc.), evaluate the
resource’s performance and identify the resource’s limits. The borehole is stressed to know the
true characteristics of the aquifer.

Figure 16 2022 Internship trainees measuring the dynamic water level of the well and discharge of the pump

The test is taken after drilling is done and the borehole is mechanized.

The steps involved in performing the test are:

a. Step-drawdown – This test monitors pumping well performance by changing the

pumping rate gradually over equal intervals.
b. Constant rate pumping – This test maintains pumping of the well at a constant rate.
c. Recovery – measurement of water level over certain time intervals after pumping has
ended.

15
CONCLUSION
Water moves and is more often stored in geologic structures which are fractures, joints, and
porous areas. The investigation of groundwater involves a thorough understanding and
observation of resistivity and conductivity properties. These properties vary across the earth’s
surface since the earth is not homogenous. The presence of geologic structures stands out as
anomalies when observing resistivity and conductivity properties. This is why in the
investigation of groundwater or aquifer zones an understanding and observation of conductivity
and resistivity is required.

16
REFERENCE

Anon., n.d. AQTESOLV. [Online]

Available at: http://www.aqtesolv.com/pumping-tests/constant-rate-pump-tests.htm
Anon., n.d. CSIR groundwater division. [Online]
Available at:
https://wri.csir.org.gh/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=171&Itemid=65

17